Reviewer in Science

• Friedrich Miescher - He discovered nucleic acids upon isolation of “nuclein” from white blood
cells. (DNA)

• Nucleic acids - are biomolecules that play important roles in the storage and expression of
genetic information.

• Nucleotides - They are macromolecules composed of the monomers.

-a phosphate group -a nitrogenous base --a 5-C sugar

• Glycosidic bond attaches the base to the first C of sugar.

• Ester bond attaches the phosphate to the first C of sugar.

• Erwin Chargaff established rules about DNA composition.

• Nucleotide sequences - The DNA stores genetic information

• Base pairings - help protect and conserve its genetic information.

DNA - Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

RNA - Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine

• James Watson and Francis Crick - first proposed the double helical structure of DNA.

• Symmetric patterns - generated were interpreted as the DNA structure.

• MUTANT - in which the gene has been inactivated.

• Alleles-Different versions (sequences) of a gene.

• Mutant-Newly created allele made by mutagenesis.

• Genotype-The complete set of alleles for all genes carried by an individual.

• Wild type- Standard reference genotype. Most common allele for a certain trait.

• Phenotype-Observable trait specified by the genotype.

• Point mutation- A change in a single base pair

• Silent mutation- A point mutation in a codon that does not change the specified amino acid.

• Missense mutation- A point mutation that changes the encoded amino acid.

• Nonsense mutation- A point mutation that introduces a premature stop codon into the coding
sequence of a gene.
• Diploid organisms have two copies of each gene.

• Haploid organisms (e.g., some unicellular organisms) contain only one.

• Recessive mutant allele must be present in two copies (be homozygous) to cause a
phenotype in a diploid organism

• Dominant mutant allele needs to be present in only one copy (heterozygous) in a diploid
organism for the phenotype to be observable.

• The sister chromatids then are separated by a cell division.

• PUNNETT SQUARE - square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular
cross or breeding experiment.

• Extant species are ones that still exist and are alive in the present.

• Evolution – Transformation of species through time.

• Speciation - The emergence of new species

• Primates - are a diverse order of mammals.

• Population is the sum of all organisms of the same group or species, which live in a certain area,
and are capable of interbreeding.

• Heritable traits include natural hair color, natural skin color, and eye color.

• Non-heritable traits include changes that happen artificially, like dyed hair color or skin color
after tanning.

• Gradualism - is the concept that the changes that happen to species are small, accumulated
changes.

• Punctuated equilibrium - is the concept that species’ characteristics are relatively stable, but
when changes do appear, these changes are rapid and large.

• Anagenesis - is the evolution of a species into a new lineage.

● Cladogenesis - is the splitting into multiple lineages or gene pools

● High survival rate refers to the capacity of an organism to live for a longer period of time.

● High reproductive success rate refers to an increased chance to pass genes during
reproduction.

● Mammoths were enormous wooly mammals that lived in North America and the northern
part of Eurasia.
● survival of the fit - as an organism needs only be fit enough to be able to survive and pass on
it genes for adaptive traits to the succeeding generations.

● Genetic drift refers to the change of allele frequencies as a result of chance.

● Chance events. - The changes that take place in a population

● OOGENESIS The type of gametogenesis in female organisms and is the different type of ovum.

● Vagina - is an elastic, muscular canal that connects the external reproductive system to the
cervix.

● ESTROGEN a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the
female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

● GLYCOGEN - is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy

storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria.

● Uterus is a hollow muscular organ that lies between the urinary bladder and the rectum.

● The fallopian tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus.

● The ovary is the female gonad that contains the egg cells.

● Labia majora encloses and protects all the external reproductive organs.

● Labia minora surrounds the openings of the vagina and urethra.

● The clitoris is a small, sensitive protrusion at which the two labia minora meet.

● The mons pubis, also known as the mons, is a layer of fat that covers part of the pubic bones.

●
 The MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM is specialized for the production of sperm cells and their
deposition into the female reproductive tract.

● Testes - Their function is to produce male sex cells called sperm cells.

● The scrotum is a bag of skin that contains the testes.

● RAPHE- union between the two organ.

● Epididymis. - Mature sperm are later on stored in a tube beside the testes

● Vasectomy - is a method of birth control that deals with cutting or blocking the tube of the vas
deferens.

● The penis is the external part of the male reproductive system.

● Circumcision - This process involves the partial or complete removal of the prepuce in order to
expose the glans penis.