12

General Biology
2
Quarter 3 – Module 1:
Genetic Engineering
General Biology 2 – Senior High School
Quarter 3 – Module 1: Genetic Engineering
First Edition, 2021

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SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

General Biology 2
Quarter 3 – Module 1:
Genetic Engineering
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our
dear learners, can continue your studies and learn while at
home. Activities, questions, directions, exercises, and
discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each
lesson.
Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide
you step-by-step as you discover and understand the lesson
prepared for you.
Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on
lessons in each SLM. This will tell you if you need to proceed on
completing this module or if you need to ask your facilitator or
your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of the lesson.
At the end of each module, you need to answer the post-test to
self-check your learning. Answer keys are provided for each
activity and test. We trust that you will be honest in using these.
In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher
are also provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and
reminders on how they can best help you on your home-based
learning.
Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks
on any part of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in
answering the exercises and tests. And read the instructions
carefully before performing each task.
If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in
answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult
your teacher or facilitator.
Thank you.

ii
 Let Us Learn!

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to
help you master genetic engineering and its practical applications. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The
lessons are also arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But
the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the
textbook you are now using.

This module has two lessons (The processes involved in genetic

engineering, and the applications of recombinant DNA):

1. Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering

STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-6; and
2. Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA STEM_BIO11/12-
IIIa-b-7

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare classical breeding with modern genetic engineering
techniques;
2. Enumerate the steps in molecular cloning;
3. Describe the methods to introduce DNA into cells; and
4. Cite examples of the practical applications of recombinant DNA
 Lesson

1 Recombinant DNA

Let Us Try!

Activity #1

Directions: Read each question carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following would be considered a transgenic organism?

A. A bacterium that has received genes via conjugation

B. A human given a human insulin from transgenic bacteria
C. A rat with a rabbit hemoglobin gene
D. A human treated with blood clotting factors from bacteria

2. A scientist found out that bacteria infected by bacteriophages had

developed an ability to make an amino acid that they could not make before.
This new ability was probably a result of

A. Transformation
B. Natural selection
C. Conjugation
D. Transduction

3. The transfer of bacterial gene by a phage

A. Plasmid
B. Transduction
C. Conjugation

4. A circular DNA molecule smaller than and separate from the bacterial
chromosomes.
A. Plasmid
B. Transduction
C. Conjugation

5. It refers to the union of cells via pilus in which the DNA transfers between
the two bacterial cells.
A. Plasmid
B. Transduction
C. Conjugation
For items 6-10, use the following choices:

a. TRUE
b. FALSE

a6. Insulin extracted from the animals are chemically similar but not
identical to human insulin

a7. Yeast have plasmid that can be used as gene vectors that can take up
foreign DNA and integrate it into their genome.

b8. A vaccine is a harmful variant of pathogen that is used to inoculate an

infectious disease.

a9. Recombinant DNA of the hepatitis B infection surface antigen is created

in yeast cells to be remembered for the antibody.

b10. Golden rice is a transgenic variety with bacterial genes produces

grains that contains beta-carotene, which our body uses to make vitamin A.

Let Us Study
When we hear the term Genetic Engineering, few of the first things that pop
into our heads are it is new, complicated, and involves high technology.
Many people are unaware that humans have been practicing genetic
engineering even before the discovery of genes. An example of which is the
formation of the different dog breeds that we have today.

Image 1: Border Collie

Image 3: Pomeranian
 Dogs’ ancestors are traced back to wolves. Through unintentional
domestication of wolves by eating the extra food scraps of ancient hunter-
gatherers, eventually these “friendly” wolves evolved into dogs. The
domesticated dogs are then selectively bred by humans by mating parents
that exhibit certain traits that they want the next generation to have. Some
want dogs with herding instincts such as Border Collie. Some want hunter
dogs to sniff the trace of the hunter’s target,
such as Bloodhound. While some want small-
sized dogs that still look like puppies even when they are full grown, such as

Pomeranian (Khan 2018).

Another ancient practice of genetic engineering is the selective

breeding in agricultural crops. The
features of the crops that we have today
are not the same as what our ancestors had
in their time. An example of which is the
banana. Notice how bananas before are
tiny, Image 5: Present-day Banana
tough,
Image 4: Ancient Banana
and filled with
pit-like seeds (see image 4). The banana that we have today is a product of
at least 6,500 years of selective mutation (O’Ryan 2016).

With the advancement of technology, scientists are now able to

directly study and manipulate genes in the lab. One of which is by the use of
recombinant DNA technology. But before we discuss DNA technology, let us
know the mechanisms of gene transfer: conjugation, transformation, and
transduction.

In transformation, a bacterium takes up a piece of DNA floating in its

environment. The DNA is in a form of circular DNA, called plasmid. While in
transduction, DNA is accidentally moved from one bacterium to another by
a virus. These viruses infecting and bringing the DNA to the bacteria are
called bacteriophages. Whereas conjugation is when the DNA is transferred
between bacteria through a tube, pilus (pili if plural), between cells. Among
the three, the mechanism used in recombinant DNA technology, specifically
DNA cloning, is transformation. (Campbell, et al. 2017)

RECOMBINANT DNA

A molecular biologist studying a particular gene or group of genes

faces a challenge. Naturally occurring DNA molecules are very long, and a
single molecule usually carries hundreds or even thousands of genes.
Moreover, in many eukaryotic genomes, protein-coding genes occupy only a
small proportion of the chromosomal DNA. To work directly with specific
genes, scientists have developed methods for preparing well-defined
segments of DNA in multiple identical copies, a process called DNA cloning
(Campbell et al. 2017).

First step of DNA cloning is obtaining the plasmid from the host. As
we have learned from General Biology 1, plasmids are small, circular DNA
molecules that are replicated separately. The plasmid acts as a vector.
Vectors are molecules that are used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign
genetic material, where it can be replicated or expressed (Wikipedia 2021).
The most commonly used organism is the Escherichia coli (E. coli). Plasmids
are used as vectors since plasmid has only a small number of genes. These
genes may not be required for survival or reproduction of the bacteria under
most conditions.

Second step is the isolation of the gene of interest. To cut the gene
from the DNA molecule, scientists use enzymes. These enzymes are called
restriction enzymes, or restriction endonucleases. Hundreds of different
restriction enzymes have been identified and isolated. Each restriction
enzyme is very specific, recognizing a particular short DNA sequence, or
restriction site, and cutting both DNA strands at precise points within this
restriction site. Most useful restriction enzymes cleave the DNA backbones
in a staggered manner which can be likened to attaching two Lego blocks, as
shown in images no. 6 & 7 (Campbell, et al. 2017).

Image 6: Restriction site Image 7: Lego blocks

 Third step is the insertion of the isolated gene of interest to the
extracted plasmid. In inserting the gene, the same restriction enzyme used
in isolating the gene of interest is used. During the “cut”, the resulting
double stranded restriction fragments have at least one single-stranded end,
called a sticky end. These sticky ends are the attachment points of the
inserted gene and the plasmid and are attached using the enzyme DNA
ligase. Since the short extensions formed by the restriction enzymes can
form hydrogen-bonded base pairs with complementary sticky ends on any
other DNA molecules cut with the same enzyme (Campbell, et al. 2017). The
addition of the foreign gene to the plasmid results to a recombinant molecule
(Basco-Tiamzon, et al. 2016).

Image 8: Insertion of the gene to the plasmid

Fourth step is to insert the plasmid back to the vector’s cell. This
process produces a recombinant organism. There are different methods used
to introduce back the plasmids into the host organism. The following
methods used are Biolistics, Heat Shock Treatment, and Electroporation.

a. Biolistics – In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire DNA-coated

pellets used to transfer plasmid DNA into bacteria.

b. Heat Shock Treatment - The target cells are pre-treated to increase the
plasma membrane’s pore size, making the cells “competent” for
accepting the plasmid DNA. Afterwards, they are incubated with the
desired plasmid at about 4°C for about 30 mins. This makes the
 plasmids concentrate near the cells. Afterwards, a “Heat Shock” is
done on the plasmid-cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1
minute, then back to 4°C for 2 minutes. It is believed to increase and
decrease the pore size in the membrane, taking the plasmids near the
membrane surface.

c. Electroporation – This method is similar to Heat Shock Treatment, but

the expansion of the membrane pores is done through an electric
“shock”. This is commonly used in mammalian cells (Bascos, et al.
2016).

Not all organisms take up the recombinant plasmids back into their
cell. So how do scientists determine the recombinant bacteria?

Fifth step is the screening of recombinant cells. Aside from the gene of
interest, scientists also insert genes that are helpful in determining the
recombinant cells. One of which is the addition of an antibiotic resistance
gene (e.g. Ampicillin resistance gene). Antibiotics are compounds that kill
bacteria. Thus, an antibiotic resistance gene allows the bacteria to resist or
survive in the presence of an antimicrobial. So how does the addition of the
antimicrobial resistance gene help in determining the recombinant bacteria?

The solution of bacteria after Step 4 of DNA cloning is inoculated to a

petri dish with a medium containing an antibiotic (e.g. Ampicillin). In normal
conditions, when a solution with microbes is inoculated in a culture
medium they form colonies in the area in which they were inoculated
(shown in illustration no. 1). However in the inoculation of the solution in
step 4, only the recombinant bacteria will form colonies since the culture
medium contains an antibiotic agent, Ampicillin (shown in image 9).
Image 9: Screening using Ampicillin
 Another screening method is by selection of transformed cells with the
desired gene. Certain inserted genes within the plasmids provide visible
proof of their presence. These include genes that produce colored (e.g.
chromogenic proteins) or fluorescent products (e.g. GFP) that label the
colonies/cells with the inserted gene. In some cases, the location of the
cloning site within the plasmid is in the middle of a gene (i.e. β-
galactosidase, lacZ) that generates a (blue) colored product in the presence
of a substrate (i.e. isopropyl β-D-1 thiogalactopyranoside, or IPTG). Cells
transformed with these “empty” plasmids will turn blue in the presence of
IPTG. Insertion of a gene in the cloning site disrupts the sequence of the β-
galactosidase gene and prevents the generation of the colored product in the
presence of the substrate. Cells transformed with the disrupted β-
galactosidase gene will remain “white” in the presence of IPTG. This “blue-
white screening” protocol is thus able to screen for cells that were
transformed with the desired gene in the cloning site (shown in image no. 9).

Blue (darker colored) spots are the

colonies without the recombinant
plasmid. While the white spots are the
colonies with the recombinant plasmid.

Image 10: “Blue-white screening” using IPTG

PCR detection of plasmid DNA is another method of recombinant

plasmid determination. Alternatively, the presence of the desired gene in the
inserted plasmids may be confirmed using PCR amplification. PCR reactions
specific for the desired gene may be done using DNA from cells.
Amplification of the expected product would confirm the presence of the
gene within the samples. PCR reactions specific for plasmid sequences will
also confirm/identify the type of plasmid used for the transformation.
(Campbell, et al. 2017)

Sixth step is the reproduction of isolated recombinant organism. In step

5, we determined which bacteria “absorbed” the recombinant plasmid into
their cell. From this, the recombinant bacteria can now be transferred to a
bigger medium in which they can proliferate. The gene inserted clones or
multiplies together with the organism’s reproduction. If the gene inserted is
a protein-coding gene, production of a certain protein is amplified as well.

Lesson
Applications of
2 Recombinant DNA
There are two main reasons of gene cloning via recombinant DNA
technology: to amplify or create many copies of a gene, and to mass produce
a certain protein. Amplifying genes can be useful in the advancement in
research and studies in biology. Whereas protein production is to cope with
the demand of a certain protein. In which in its natural source, the protein
requires a long time to produce or the organism produces too little of the
certain protein.

Field of Medicine
Gene therapy is the introduction of genes into an individual for
therapeutic purposes. It aims to insert a normal allele of the defective gene
into the somatic cells of the tissue affected by the disorder. For it to be
permanent, the somatic cells to be inserted must multiply throughout the
patient’s life. Bone marrow cells, which include stem cells, are the prime
candidates. An example is the use of the CRISP-Cas9 system. In this
approach, the existing defective gene is edited to correct the mutation. Image
no. 11 shows the steps involved in the gene editing using CRISP-Cas9
system.

Pharmaceutical Products
The pharmaceutical industry benefits from the advances in the DNA
technology and genetic research to develop useful drugs. Human insulin
and human growth hormone (HGH) is mass manufactured using the
recombinant DNA technology, utilizing E. coli as the host organism. This
advancement saved millions of diabetic patients and helped patients with a
form of dwarfism caused by HGH deficiency.

Aside from using cell systems, scientists can use whole animals as
host (called “Pharm” Animals). Instead of introducing a foreign gene from one
organism to a bacterial plasmid, the gene or other DNA is introduced into
the genome of another organism (often of another species). The organism
with the introduced gene is called a transgenic. To create a transgenic,
scientists first remove an egg cell of the recipient species and fertilize it in
vitro. Then, the cloned desired gene is inserted to the nucleus of the embryo.
Some cells will integrate the foreign gene into their DNA, the transgene,
which is able to express the foreign gene. Afterwards, the transgene is
implanted into a surrogate mother to develop. If the embryo successfully
develops, the result is a transgenic animal that expresses the new, foreign
gene. An example of this is a transgenic goat inserted with a gene to produce
antithrombin, a protein that prevents blood clot, through its milk. Purifying
the antithrombin extracted from goat’s milk is easier compared to purifying
protein extracted from cell culture.

Environmental Cleanup
Certain microorganisms have abilities to transform chemicals.
However, some are unsuitable for direct use. Scientists now transfer the
genes that contain the valuable metabolic capabilities to another
microorganisms, which can be used to treat environmental problems. For
example, many bacteria can extract heavy metals, such as copper, lead, and
nickel, from their environment and incorporate the metals into compounds
that are readily recoverable such as copper sulfate or lead sulfate.
Biotechnologists are also trying to engineer microorganisms that can
degrade chlorinated hydrocarbons and other harmful compounds. These
microorganisms could be used to treat wastewater before it is released into
the environment. (Campbell, et al. 2017)

Agricultural Applications
Have you ever heard the term GMO? GMO or Genetically Modified
Organisms is an example of recombinant DNA agricultural application.

The Flavr-Savr (“Flavor Savor”) tomato was the first genetically

modified organism that was licensed for human consumption. The trait
modified in this tomato is its ripening process. A gene for an enzyme that
causes the degradation of pectin in the cell walls (i.e. polygalacturonase)
normally softens the fruit as it ripens. In Flavr Savr tomatoes, an inhibitor
(i.e. antisense RNA) disrupts the expression of this gene, thereby delaying
the softening of the fruit and extending the time it may be kept in storage
and transported to markets.

Bt-Corn was developed to incorporate the production of a toxin (i.e.

Bt-endotoxin) from Bacillus thuringensis in corn plants. This toxin results in
the death of pests that feed on these plants like the corn borer larvae. The
toxin has been shown to be selective for Lepidoptera larvae and is non-toxic
to humans, mammals, fish and birds. The selective toxicity of the toxin
allows its use in food crops. The introduction of the toxin is believed to
increase crop production due to decreased losses from pest infestation. The
same technology has been applied
in the Philippines for the
development of Bt-Eggplant
(Bascos, et al. 2016).

Despite the proposed

benefits of GMOs, some people
have raised their concerns Image 11: Gene editing using CRISP-Cas9 System
regarding the consumption of
these modified foods. While most of the products are tested for safety,
concerns are raised for the possibility of not being able to detect hazards
that are present, but are currently undetectable by today’s current
technology.

Because of these issues, manufacturers are urged to provide labels

that notify consumers of GMO presence in their products. While GMOs are
believed to be safe when licensed by the food regulatory agencies, it is
believed that the consumers must be provided with enough information to
make their own choices regarding their use (Basco-Tiamzon, et al. 2016).

Let Us Practice
You did great on your first day! Now, let’s try what you have learned.
Are you ready?

Activity #2
Directions: Create a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast the classical
breeding with modern genetic engineering techniques. Write your Venn
diagram on a separate sheet of paper.

Classical Breeding Modern Genetic

Engineering

Activity #3
Label the illustration of the summary of the processes involved in
recombinant DNA technology by filling in the boxes.
 1

2
3

5 6

Campbell, et al., Figure 19.4 Gene cloning and some uses of cloned genes,
in Biology: A Global Approach, 11th edition (New York: Pearson Education,
Inc., 2017), 450.

Let Us Practice More

Very good! You made it this far. Let us continue rolling!

Activity #4
Directions: Complete the table below by giving the definition of each
mechanisms of introducing DNA into cells. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.
 MECHANISM DEFINITION
1. Conjugation
2. Transformation
3. Transduction

Let Us Remember
Awesome! Now, let us gather what we have learned.

 Genetic engineering has been practiced by humans thousands of

years ago.
 Modern genetic engineering can directly manipulate the genes to
produce an offspring with the desired traits.
 DNA cloning is a method used to amplify a gene which uses
recombinant DNA technology.
 DNA cloning can be divided into six steps.
 Step 1 is the extraction of plasmid from the host organism.
 Step 2 is the isolation of the gene of interest from the DNA molecule of
another organism using restriction enzymes.
 Step 3 is the insertion of the gene to the vector plasmid using DNA
ligase.
 Step 4 is the reintroduction of the recombinant plasmid to the host
organism either by biolistics, heat shock treatment, or electroporation.
 Step 5 is the screening of recombinant cells by inserting an antibiotic
resistance gene, a visible proof of evidence (e.g. chromogenic proteins),
or PCR detection of plasmid.
 Step 6 is the reproduction of the isolated recombinant organism.
 Whole animals can also be used instead of cell systems. Animals with
foreign gene inserted in their nucleus when they were an embryo are
called transgenic.
 Recombinant DNA technology has a lot of practical applications
including in the field of medicine, agriculture, environmental, and
pharmaceutics.

Let Us Assess
It is amazing how you were able to study and answer the activities!
Now it is time to try the fruit of your journey by answering the assessment
below.

Activity #5
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which is a transgenic organism?

A. A bacterium that has received genes via conjugation.

B. A human given corrected blood clotting factors.
C. A fern grown in cell culture from a single fern root cell
D. A rat with rabbit hemoglobin genes.

2. Which is not an application of recombinant DNA technology in medicine?

A. Growth Hormone
B. Insulin
C. golden rice
D. Blood clotting factor VIII

3. It is a microbial organism that has a gene that makes plants resistant to

pests.

A. Bacillus thuringiensis
B. E. coli
C. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

4. It is a bacterium that contains plasmid used to produce desirable proteins

for human consumptions

A. Bacillus thuringiensis
B. E. coli
C. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

5. It is a eukaryotic cell that also contains plasmids and is used to produce

desirable proteins.

A. Bacillus thuringiensis
B. E. coli
C. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Activity #6
Directions: Read each statement carefully and determine if the statement is
True or False. Write True if the statement is true, and False if the statement
is false. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
_____1. Plasmid is a circular DNA molecule smaller than and separate from
the bacterial chromosomes.

_____2. Transduction is the transfer of bacterial gene by a phage

_____3. Conjugation is the union of cells and the DNA transfers between the
two bacterial cells.

_____4. A bacterium that has received genes via conjugation is an example of

a transgenic organism.

_____5. Breeding is the process that involves cutting DNA sequences and
pasting them on a new sequence to create an organism with a specific set of
handpicked traits.

_____6. Genetic engineering is a novel practice of the 21st century.

_____7. The most common bacterial host is Enterobacter coli.

_____8. All cells “take up” the recombinant plasmids.

_____9. In the method involving the addition of antibiotic resistance gene,

the colonies that will grow in a culture media with antibiotic are those that
did not take up the plasmids.

_____10. In blue-white screening method, the blue colonies are those with
the recombinant plasmids since the insertion of the gene disrupts the β-
galactosidase gene. Which in normal circumstances, turns blue in the
presence of IPTG.

Let Us Enhance

Activity #7. From today’s lesson, we have learned that

recombinant DNA technology has a lot of applications in the medical,
pharmaceutical, agricultural, and environmental field. Now, let us search for
3 recent applications of recombinant DNA, in any field, within the last ten
(10) years. Do not forget to cite the source of your researched application.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Let Us Reflect

Activity #8. The ability to make modifications in the genome

provides unlimited possibilities. With this, some groups raise public
concerns about the possible negative effects of the widespread use and
manufacture of GM products. This makes genetic engineering a very
controversial topic regarding its ethics. Write a 10 sentences reflection on
the pros and cons of genetic engineering, on a separate sheet of paper.

Let us Try
Activity #1
1. C
2. D
3. B
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. B
9. A
10.B
Let us Practice
Activity #2
Answers may vary

Answer key to Activities

Let us Practice More

Activity #4
Answers may vary
Let us Assess Let us Practice
Activity #5
Activity #3
1. D
2. C
3. A
 References

Textbooks
Campbell, Niel, et al. 2017. Biology: A Global Approach, 11th
edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Basco-Tiamzon, Maria, et al. 2016. General Biology 2. Quezon
City: Vibal Group, Inc.
Bascos, Niel, et al. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School:
General Biology 2. Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education.

Online Sources
Khan, Salman. 2018. “Introduction to genetic engineering |
Molecular genetics | High school biology | Khan Academy.”
Youtube, May 5, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=JNgONZ8Dq9I
O’Ryan, Bridget. 2016. “10 Foods That Exist Because Of Ancient
Genetic Engineering.” Last modified August 22, 2016.
https://listverse.com/2016/08/22/10-foods-that-exist-
because-of-ancient-genetic-engineering/
Wikipedia, s.v. 2021. “Vector: Molecular Biology.” Last modified
January 17, 2021.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)#:~:t
ext=In%20molecular%20cloning%2C%20a%20vector,DNA
%20is%20termed%20recombinant%20DNA.

Images
[1] Tong, Anna. “Herding of sheep turns into test for dogs.” Digital
Image. The Oklahoman. February 25, 2010. Accessed
February 10, 2021.
https://oklahoman.com/article/3441915/herding-of-
sheep-turns-into-test-for-dogs
[2] Berrigan, Penny. “Bloodhound Dog Breed Centre – Getting To
Know Their Pros and Cons.” Digital Image. The Happy
Puppy Site. March 19, 2019. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://thehappypuppysite.com/bloodhound/
[3] Tiny cute teacup pomeranian puppy. Digital Image. Flickr.
July 31, 2012. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/bowpup/8141091575
[4] O’Ryan, Bridget. “10 Foods That Exist Because Of Ancient
Genetic Engineering.” Digital Image. Listverse. August 22,
2016. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://listverse.com/2016/08/22/10-foods-that-exist-
because-of-ancient-genetic-engineering/
[5] Narodenko, Maks. “Bananas: Health Benefits, Risks &
Nutrition Facts.” Digital Image. Live Science. October 26,
2017. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://www.livescience.com/45005-banana-nutrition-
facts.html
[7] Lego blocks. Digital Image. Huron Public Library. Accessed
February 10, 2021. https://www.huronlibrary.org/using-
library/childrens-services/lego-builders-club
[8] Recombinant DNA. Digital Image. Grand Valley State
University. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://www2.gvsu.edu/chm463/diabetes/Recombinant
%20DNA%20and%20Insulin%20production.html
[9] Deans, Tara. Plate cells onto agar containing ampicillin. 2014.
In ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing
Systems vol. 11: Parallel Networks. Accessed February 10,
2021.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273188183_P
arallel_Networks/citation/download
[10] Blue-white color selection of recombinant bacteria using X-
gal. Digital Image. Merck. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/arti
cles/biology/blue-white-screening.html
[11] Campbell, et al., Figure 19.14 Gene editing using the CRISPR-
Cas9 system. In Biology: A Global Approach, 11th edition.
New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2017, 450.

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