Chapter 1 .

Introduction

1. 2 Circuits , Currents ,
and Voltages
I Electrical circuits
switch

headlamps
-µ
ex .
I ,

battery
f-a- a- fav
=

I Electrical current

① electrical current is the time rate of flow of

electrical
charge through a conductor or circuit element

d qui → charge
ith = [ Ampere or A)
de
a
current

If a current is given ,
charge can be found by

quit =
fi! ictidt -1 Gto

② besides the time rate of flow , the direction of the charge

flow is also necessary to know in circuit analysis .

However

we not initially know the actual direction of the flow in

may

particular current element

"
"
reference direction defined arbitrating
a is
usually
 i.
-
circuit .

e.le.me?-b
i
reference
,

a. , ; > • b
,
direction .

'
-
-
- -
!
- - -

☒ -
-
-
-
- -

→ -1 iab

c-
- - -
-
-
-

④ -
Iab

in traditionally current flow is defined as

our sign convention ( ,

the direction of "

positive
"

charge flow ), a current is said

to be positive if a positive charge moves

along the reference

direction . However , it is negative if the positive charge moves

opposite to the reference direction .

ex
d
F- ☒ -
-

p ☒
-

if
El
iba=V
11¥ .
Tian v17
!
.
-

T
e

a u e
 ③ Direct current : the value of current is constant with time
( DC )

ith n

2A

%
Alternating current : the value of current varies with time /

( Al )
reversing direction periodically .

ith ie yn
-

N 117-11
,
É te
II. Voltage

the
④ the voltage associated with a circuit element is

energy transfer per unit of charge that flows through

the element .

V =
ddW_q ( Volt or v1

When a amount of charge dg moves

point A to point B

and element of dissipated due this

energy dw
an is to

moving , we
say
there is a voltage .
② assigned polarities that indicate the direction of
voltage is

energy flow
tower potential
higher potentialcircuit element
to -
-5
b
a

④ ,
- - -
- -
- -
-

absorbed by element
energy

c- - - -
- - - -
-

energy supplied by elements

"

usually defined
"
The polarities are
arbitrary .

In coven lion I traditionally higher voltage / potential is

-

our
sign , a

defined as the starting part

of positive charge flow ) , an
energy

is said to be
positive lie ,
absorbed by the element ) it a

from
" "

charge
"

negative
"

positive moves -1 to -
.
However . it is

1 supplied by the element ] if the positive charge moves in

the opposite direction

 Direct voltage : the value of voltage is constant with time .

Alternating Voltage :
the value of voltage varies with time ,

alternating polarity periodically

ex ,

ground V
-

. - °

1. 3 Power and
Energy
⑤ the of dissipated element
Power is defined as time rate energy
in the

p =
d¥u ( Watt or W or Volt .

Ampere )
Uab
=¥• air
+
-

b
a
→
element - •

=
Vab -
Iab
1
iab
p
"
a

positive reference configuration

① if p > o , element absorbs power from the circuit

ex . resistor 1*8141 )
V12 -

-1

www.7
ik

Ohm 's law is defined in this configuration sie , Vk =

iii. 12
 ② if pco , element delivers power to circuit

ex .

power supply or
battery when it
discharge .

Hit
-

VB

I
I. energy calculated as follows if power is given

W =
1¥ ,
Ptsd-0

TH .
prefixes
°

Gl Giga ) → 109 .
Ml Mega 1 7 10

'
ml Milli ) -1 10-1
KC kilo ) → 10

-9
b
( nano ) co
-

n →
ml micro ) → 10

"
f- ( femur )
-
-

→
p
( pico ) ( o → co
I. 4 .

Kirchhoff's current Law ( KU )

* node ( ¥"p¥i ) : a point in circuit at which two or more current

elements are connected together

1- n÷}iT{Ñ{ Ñ%Y"]r
f- EH
" = " .

/
us

I § 125

I ,
three equivalent definitions .

① net current node

entering a =o

@ net current leaving a node to

③ sum of current
entering a node

=
sum of current leaving a node

'

ex '

fin
iatibtic = 0
Jia
,ib
C- ia ) -11 ibltl
-
-

ill → '

ib ja
'
+ ib 't ie
'
=o

iatih = -

ii. = id

tia
✗ ii
This results from the law of charge conservation
 I. KCL at surface

is-iitiz-ia-iss.it
surface 14¥17 _X¥{ ¥1

;É¥i#
B
ex

¥4,7 ☒ tix
'

i
't ☒
4-☒t.rs ☒ tio
1 1¥
¥t;-
"

④ it tip →
ig = -2A

⑧ iii. iztiqtib iatio = -2

② iz = is -1 is is =
-4A

⑧ is + is = is iy= -2A

Check
⑤ igtistittib = o ? .

II. series circuit .

o -

☒'"_pa apply KCV

① at node ii=iv
fire a.
i, in is
I
-
-
- -

o -

☒ →
b node iris
@ at b.
to
÷
same magnitude
and direction
 Kirchhoff's LKVL )
1- 5
Voltage Law

loop closed path the circuits node and

:
a in
starting at a

proceeding through circuits elements , and

eventually
the stare node
retuning to

"

÷!
✓

I. 2 equivalent definition
"
① voltage drop
"
net around a loop = 0

µ
" "
@ net
voltage increase around a
loop so

Ej
+ -
-

LE
, ,, , .µ , ,, . .

✓ Vs I
C- V11 the + I
-
The reason behind KVL is the of the law
consequence

of
energy conservation

in

{
" =

Pz = il V4-
Pit Putts to V1 -1L -

Vul 1- Vs = o

p} = i V3

I. parallel circuit .

* * ¥t¥t¥A¥:*
t

{
A -
B are in parallel .

D. E. f- are in parallel .

cisniz parallel with

any others .

apply KVL to

loop ① C- Up / + VE to
Vp =
VE

loop ② 1- VE ) -11-4=1 = o .

VE = -
VF

and polarity
same
magnitude
 V1 W
Ex ,
y
-_
-

1-
¥1
=*¥i=¥
"
:
" " -

-
:

apply KVL to ( net Vdwp )

loop ① .

C- V7 ) -1 V1 truth is V3 = -
SV

② I - V4 -1 V4 -1L V81
-
To
V4 :-b ✓

⑧ ( V41
-
-1 V8 -1 V5 to
V8 =
-14 v

1-V51 -1L V41 V6 V

④ 1- to Vb = o
-

to check solutions .
we can define one loop to
Verity

C- Vs ) -11 V4 -1 V4 -1 V5
-

no

8-8-6-16=0 satisfies Kvv

.

the equations are put down based on

KVL have To communicate / connect

another

atleast
: !
to one

KVV .

④ C-V4 V4 -11 V8 )=o

① V91 -1 V1 Yvon -1
-

1-

{ ①

⑧
( th) -1 V4
L V ) )-1 V8 1- b-
-
-1 V5 V ) - = ④ C-V5 ) -1 1-V41 -1 V6 to
1. 6 Introduction to Circuit Elements

I. Conducts .

Vab = o v
t -

. •

a b

☒ unbroken lines between the ends of other circuit

element represent ideal conductor in our

analysis

* the
voltage between the ends of an ideal conductor is zero regardless

the current flowing through the conductor .

* when two points in the circuit are connected together by an ideal

conductor , the points are shorted =) ideal conductor is also termed as

short circuit

* if No conduits or other elements are connected between 2

points / Paris ,

open circuit exists between them no current flow through an

open ciruie

II. independent voltage source

I DC : KU

⑦
{ AV : 5 cos 12-11-4

t
The voltage across an ideal independent voltage source is maintained at

connected
independent of other elements that are
a specific value and is

to it and of the union flowing through it

 III. Dependent Voltage source

1-It , 1-17--1-1
+
"
f- ☐
zvx
☐ vx

I 1- 1-
current
-
controlled
voltage -
controlled
voltage source -

voltage Sonne
no univ }

a voltage source having a

voltage equal to a
constant times the voltage

equal to a constant times the voltage across a t terminals elsewhere in

the network
✓

gain HE %-) parameter

5
a
voltage source
having a
voltage equal to a
ae times the current

unit =
¥
through some other element in the circuit .

IV. Independent Current Source

I {
% :< A

④ AU :3 Sin two -11-4

1
The current through an ideal independent current source is kept ae

a specific value and is independent of the elements connected to it

and of the voltage across it .

 I. Dependent Current Source

☐
1- ☐ -1 1- -1-1
+
3h ☐ vx
24 ☐ ☐ Tis .

,
I y y I 1-1-
-

current
-

controlled
voltage -
controlled
current source
current source

3 6
similar definition as in
dependent voltage source

IV. Resister
b
a
nu - o
o -

Vab
-

I
iab

Vab
¥÷
y✓
= R 1ohm 's law)

I
>
iab

( ÷÷=±=¥
✓
a!f÷ 1¥ ) .
0hm Irs

'
sectional conductance
gross
A
area
Lt Seine 1)
-

0¥
-0
*

¥
R =p ¥ 1 while R > > A)

I
resistivity
 conductors 1.9×10-8

{
:
copper ,
p = ( rm )

glass
"
insult on i.
, p
=
10 (r . m )

semiconductors silwn to
-

in 1 ( Nim )
p=
. -

* for ideal conductors . 12=0 V=IR=o

for open circuit ,

R=N .
=) i=o so that V is finite

117 Introduction to circuits .

" ' node

① apply

É{€µir
KVL

fish Vk=o V12 lo v

⑦ V5 __
- + .

vi. =
R=5r
they parallel
( )
'

: are in

Vs =uoV
-

i. :
Vp

0hm 's law ④ apply

② apply KU

¥ is -1 ik =u is =
-

ip =
-

LA .

Ir VA
.
= .

④
 0h2 .
Resistive circuits ( cha -41

Resistances in series and parallel

1 Voltage -
divider and current -
divider circuits

I. series resistances

II [2 I}
, ,
own -vm_nM_>o = o rm o

✗ Ri Ra 123 y Req
✗
y
v
t v
-
t -

i i
, ,

① from KCL it = is = is = i

② from KVL V1 -1 V2 TVs =

V

Ohm's law t
it 1211-221221-25125

¥ = I 121-1122-1 Ks ) =
Req

③ the voltage drop across each resistor

121
V1 =
Il Ri =
¥qV =

[ Rn
v
Voltage division principle
R2
V ,
=
Iz Rz =
¥qV =

[ Rn
V

R }

V, =
is Rs =
¥÷V =

[ Rn
V
I. Parallel resistances

✗
✗
4 0 +

]I]iI]iI
°

v i =
v ] Req
-
-
-

o
]
go
-
-

① from KCL i =
it + iz + is =
¥ -1¥ -1¥
, , ,

② from KVL V = Vit Vrt Vs

' "

⑤ Req =
E- =/ É -1¥ ¥5 + =
(El En ) )

④ special case :
2 resistors in parallel
" 121122
Req =
( ¥ +
¥ ) =
Rit Rv

* V1 =
V2 =
V = I Req

Ri
it =
¥ ,
=
¥Y- i =

Ri -1122
I
Current division principle
121
iz =
¥ =
R¥- i =

121-1122
i
( only valid for 2 resistors in parallel )
 Z}

EX

: i
. •

Zi →
-

O
MY :-O
{ 14

O
← zu

Zi =
Ri Il Ra 11 I Rs -1124 )

72 =
[1121111221+14] 11 124

2- 3 =
[(1211/122)-1124] 11 Rb

EX

;j¥É{
In
÷
,

sr
tzpr 5h

12h ,
0 •

111

o ie *

ME}
-

on{€ "

111
In

o-iin-MT.sn
{ u

I
 and parallel equivalents
Network analysis by using series

steps :

① begin by locating a combination of resistance in series or parallel

② redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance for the combination

found in step ①

③ repeat steps ① and ② until the circuit is reduced as far as possible

( often we end up with a
single source and a
single resistance
)
④ Solve for the currents and voltages in the final equivalent circuit

next transfer results back one

step and solve for additional

unknown currents and voltages

again transfer the results back one
step and solve .

until all the currents and known

repeat voltages are in

the original circuit

EX . equivalent circuit # 1
121=1 ON 121=1 ON

Aa
Ap
nm nm

/ ^
Rear
}
R2=
-_

vs=90V 3A 30N } { 123=601 vs=90V

20h

BO BO

equivalent circuit # 2
i voltage source and
equivalent resistor

Aq are in parallel
{
'
vs=9oV Req = > or
'
i. Veq =
Us =
90 (v )
B 0

YET
'

ieq but
-

-
=
,

EX , 5h 20h Ion

1- muy muy muy

- -

20 "
8A ④ 25r{ { or

¥
↳ can be solved by finding an
equivalent circuit
101 and ion are in series

V=Veq= ieq Req - =

8 .

Req
5h 20h B
① A

1-
④
mn-FFÑm
r{ iir {
"
{ zone
\
20h
201

② 5h A 20h B four 201 are in series

1- mn-q-mn-q
④ 25r{tfA4Af{ 5h <

I 1 I
④ 5h B
A
mm o

1- -4 I
④ 25r{t4A { z5rÑA
I 1 I

251 and 25h are in series

④
5h

1- mmyu8A
④ { 12.5N
<

I 1

⑤
I Tf 8A
④ { 19.5N V=Veq= 8×17.5 = 140N

I 1
Method of Analysis

application of
Nodal Analysis KOL

basic idea each node of

: ①
apply KCL to circuit .

② put down equations that relate different current

and voltage variable

③ solve the equations simultaneity to obtain final results

steps :
① choose a reference node

i. the node to which most branches are connected

ii. the node at the bottom of circuit diagram

iii. the negative side of a known / unknown

voltage

iv. one end of a

voltage source

② label the rest of nodes and assign

node
voltages

③ flow for each element that isn't

assign current a resistor

nor a current source

④ write down a KCL equation for each node except the reference node.

⑤ apply 0hm 's law to each resistor

⑥ write down an
equation for each
voltage source

⑨ solve all equations simultaneity for node

voltage
 nÉqÉy#[M
Ex . " Pemode : iris-11=2; > is

,€, "
>

2A ④ if } Zr it
f} ion ④ 1A

liÉ
4. reference node
¥ V4 __ o

select node 4 as reference node and ground iv. i. e. V4 __

0

"
¥4
V2 "
%
"
i , =
=
,
is =
=
¥ ,
i> =

j
V2 V '
-

j g- = V2 -

V3 = 20
20

apply KCL to node

① 22+13=2 ¥ 1- ¥1k =z

substitute
V1 V2-

② it + Iat is = is % + 54 -1 I =
g-

241-25+1 24 + It I 0
③
=
= 0
.

✓ 1=4171 V V2 = b. 47 V V3 =
-13.53 V

It =
3,235 A 22=2.355 A I} = -

1.96A [4=-2 Is =
I
Ex i' 4s
>
,

mm

25h 8D

v1 . mm !Vnm→ "

{
>
" "
A an six

isy
1- vao

Apply KCL to node

"

① 3=4-1 'M
substitute
3=1%-1 U=48V

@ n' ✗ =
iris u¥="¥ -1¥ { viii. yv

-1.0N
4¥ -1%-4=2 "¥
V1 =

④ it -1in rix
.

__

Ex .

1-
in
-
super node :
1872%-51%11478 node
mm
" ④
① -0 ⑨ -

six

uimn-ii→u
zov

6h

2h
} {
way ,
{ 4s tr

l l
±

apply Kcltr super node

V1 =2bib9V
"¥=
¥-1 "Y4_
{
① -

@
-
lot .

vi. = b. 0090

③ -

④ V¥h -1 +
¥4 ¥0 -
vi. = 173.1W

V4 =
-46.69W
V1 Vv -70
-

,Vy-VY=bV✗= BLU V41 -

Chul Mesh Analysis
Ch 3.5 Mesh Analysis with current sources

Planar network
{ non planar network :

#-)
We only consider planar network here

Explanation of the method .

T÷±T•-÷FÑ Find s

va⑦H
V"

branch current

actual current flowing through

each element .

Apply KVL loop

iy
to
six →

① -

VA -11114 1- Rs -0
-
VA 1- ④ 14-1 lil ④ 14=0 -

② -

F) tiykv -
UB to
-

Hi n' v1 14 trish Up
-
- as

is ix -

iy
{
-

Apply KW to the top node

n' Fix

is it in n' v=
it ñvtris
rig
= = -

nixing mesh current

mesh is the elementary loop artificial current only
( for calculation purpose )
in the civ win
Basic concept :

① apply KVL around each mesh of circuit

② obtain KVL
equations that relate different voltages and currents

③ solve the
equations simultaneously to obtain final results

steps :

① define mesh need there

current as
many mesh currents as are

meshes in the circuits .

② define voltage for each element that isn't a resistor nor a

voltage source

④ Write down a KVL equation for each mesh

] can be combined

④ apply Ohn 's law to each resistor in one step .

V= i ✗ K
↳ algebraic sum of all currents

⑤ write down an equation for each current sound

⑥ solve all for mesh

equations simultaneously currents .
 EX ,
5N
1-+1
-11 TY==,m7t
%r§É2iaf{ coif V4 20N
v1
2A I ④ 1AM

Why -

V14 V2 =
0 V2 = ( il iz ) -2 -

V1 -121N , n' 2) to

|
- -

Vztvstvy =o V3 = 5Ñ2 -2141 -

in ) + fire -1101 n' 2- is )=u

yy
| -

V4

20 -
+

V5
V5 1- V6 =

= o
0
V4

V5
=

=
lol n' 2- is )

201%7 _Ñ4 )
-

colitis )

20-201
-120

i } -54120
Initial -1lb -

i'
{ jg=y i2= -

¥ i4= ? ia-iv-is-o.io 47cal

j--nn-pÉmy
5N 6N
Ex .

-15+54-110 / n' iy ) -110=0

i5v⑤f"{⑦°^
✗ -

{
{

%
ur to + wing ixitioiy -
-

15^1×-10^4=5
{ -

wixtwiy -_ 10

2054=20 . n' ✗ =L .
Igel

il n' n' 1=0

n' ✗ 2=27--1
'

=L
-
.
-
 Super mesh
ÑI -121 'm -

isl -1 Vx = o
# PFAVX -47#XD
3N -
.

mm
>
-

tñpÉf
-

tix -141in is ) -110=0

Liturgist.EE
-

0
=

/i1,
7 -1

④
z( is in -141in is , -13 is -
-
-

in { ✗
④ 2+-0 low

to
mesh
super

EX , IT

t÷7iñ_ +a
or {
We
iF{iTf①nv
first ZÑIT Yi } -181
b- = iz il
% n'
4)
-

is

{
-

to

320 =
iz -
is

loopy 8154 -

i> 11-2^4-110=0 Io iy
. -

n' 1=-17.5 A iii. = -2.5A is =

5.9 > A n' 4=2.1417
 ⑤ Nodal approach
V1 Is V2

←
¥
V0 = V2 -
o = Ur

apply Kcb

V¥
{
-12-1 iz to

Iz
'
where i -_

¥0
,
-
iz -

si , + ,

v2 V1 =2 V1 -_ b ✓

{
-

V2=8V
i. Upc
VL=p V

⑧ Mesh approach

☒¥

.at#2ixtVt-- "* →

{
it iy =3 'm

{
-

it -11-21-1 Vx -→
n' ✗ -
i
>
=~
Ny = -5

rite 4
-

VX -12 Ñt=o it -
n' ✗

i. V0
= Liz =p
0h4 .
Circuit Theorems
For example :
a light bulb .

÷÷i
-

" "

÷:
=
complicated

Find the equivalent circuit to replace some part of a network so that

the originally complicated circuit

system could be simplified easily,

modeled and
analyzed ! This equivalent circuits must be have the

same as the original part of the network it replaces !

There are two methods to form equivalent circuits :

linear circuit seen from two terminals always be replaced by

any can

cis one voltage source with one resistor in series

12th
M -1
1-
-
o

Thevenin equivalent Wmv

Vth
⑦ V00
6

n
1- -
open circuit

{
dis one
voltage source with one resistor in parallel

ti " → shore amie

IN
! Norton equivalent cihmu

!
 H
origocircuit

How to find Vth . Rih in RN ?

,

① Vth

Vth = V00

② in

in = Nsu

③ in Reh dit 12N

Tais
'
t.IE#Yiisu
Vth .

÷
Reh =
1¥ rn =
I÷

iiiii 12th and RN can also be found through the following methods .

④ only independent source in the circuits

a. set the values of all independent sources equal to ten

That is , for voltage sources

V= of no
voltage drop
a short circuit
?⃝
 for current sources

I roof no current flow

I open ciruitr
.

b. calculate the equivalent - .

* 12th

MEL .

no
um -0

vth

- .
↳ rear

Reg =
12th = RN

IN
1-
④
C
RN { EE TF7
in -
RN

o
Rear

④ with independent and dependent sources

a. set all independent source = o

b . Connect a test source ( either a voltage or circuit source,

to the
remaining network .
The voltage and current of the

dependent sources will be related to the equivalent

resistance by 0hm 's Law
 win
Exi

A 10N 5N
a

#-_o
2W

¥
{ Wu
{ 15N

o
b

① Find Vth=Vou= ?

r5r

A
Fiber low

"
¥¥ÉÉi÷a ¥
o
b

apply mesh analysis .

loop ? 4- is -1 51N is ) + colic in ) →

-
-

loop 1 -1 101in n' c) 1- zolñz is / to

-
-

w -

This n' c) 15Mt 201 is n'

loop 2 + 4--0
-
-

" 1=1.559

{ Vab 15 n' v42.6)

= ✗

n' 2=0.842 11

rise 0.495 Vth

 ② Find IN = iab = ?

vir
] river

10N ¥2

T.FI?a25v
{ } /
¥
we
f Isn

o
trials
b
.

input n' 5N =Ñi5r -1 iab

*
1b¥
{
n' ab = liar -1 isnt =
irsrtisn

n' 15h =
1b¥ linin -1 isn ) →

inn =
¥-1 =\ A '

'

.
'

5h1mn i. ⇐ £51+ = 4N

apply voltage -

division principle

0¥14 25=30 ✗

isn ¥ Y =
=

i. n' ab = inert ish =

2.429 A
?⃝
 ③
d) 12th = RN -
¥4T =
5.2s

Iii ) set all independent sources = 0

25N

F¥f
25N 10N

A
.

5N
Lm -

LON Wr
Ino a
=

{ { pm
-

now 15N ← Reg ← Rear

I o
b -ob
÷

Req __
[4011201-15]/1411 it =
5.2N

Ex
Ñm- Ñn
'

qz
.

oat Find Norton and Theremin circuit seen

¥ f- from terminals a and b

IN I ,
vou

t
Ñm-_Ñn
iµKi
oa
o b -

e ¥
① vth=Vou IN I "

Voc __iy×2
e

"
"

short 'b
"

between
'

rig ixtzix six ② in = isu : circuit a and

- -

- -

i. no current through 2- or resistor

apply KVV To the loop i. rise -_

ixtzix

-12-13
ixtiytviy =0
-
ivthix -13in =
0

n'✗ =L
n' ✗ =v

Vov = 6 V
=) isu=
to
 ③ ii. 12Th -

- RN =
¥9T =L .

iii. set independent sources equal to zero

Req Rn 12th =
÷

¥m¥"y
1- Ñn←afñi
inn
=
'
=
,

074m
-

IV :#YEI # Task
= { Rear

1 I
<
" " "

Connect a l -
V test source to the terminals A and b-

for the remaining circuit

apply KCV to the node , ixtzix -

iz + it = 0 it = iz six
-

in = IL =
0.5A .

apply KVL to the loop .

six -1 1. lixtinx ) -11=0 .
n'✗ =
-

to

i. n' 1 = 0.5-5×1
-

to ) =L i. 12th = IT =/

Theremin circuits Norton circuit

pun
-
o o
a
'
{
~

bv In
a-

b
I
o o b
?⃝
?⃝
Source Transformation
12th
0
mm

{
o

vth I
=
My rn

o
I o

i either Theremin replace

'

or Norton circuits can a network to

obtain The behavior

same
system

i.
they can also replace each other with the same behavior

2h 3h
EX - - -
-
-

;
.

,
,
mm mm

/ '
;
4N !
}
+
sa fi gr
{ ro
± IN

1 Ii
'

1-
"

\ -
- '
.
,

- - -
- -

qju
- - ,
-

- - - -
-
-
21 !
I ,

;
-

i. IT
-

IN

If
i.
'
.I

= .
'
.

'
:

-
si

I
:{
11
1
t.ro/3NT4A
- - -
- -

- - ,
-
-

i i
ii I
2A ' t { th
si
!
,
{
+
v. { sort 4A

11 1 11 l
-

-
- - -
- -
- -
-
 - - -
- -

- - ,
-
-

i :
f I
{
I l

l
:
2A ' th +
I {N
si
{ T 4A
, v.

11 1 11 l
-

'

! - - - -
-
l
- -

n' for

yr +
I
{
{ t
" 2A
8s vo

1- I
apply current division principle

riff =
¥ ✗ 2 =
0.4

V0 =
8×0.4 = 5. L

¥¥_ 1¥ E¥
Superposition ✗ ☐

If there are several independent sources in the circuits , the response

I either
voltage or current ) of an element in the network to all the

independent source is equal to the summation of the response of

the element to each individual independent source .

Therefore , to solve a

circuit problem involving several independent sources , we can solve it as if

there is
only one independent source at a time and sum
up values

obtained each Time .

To do this , we need to zero other independent source of non
-
interest

at the time .

it circuit

{
current source → open
-

voltage source → closed circuit .

Ex
&
.

'
14 { kv{ +
V7
④
find V1 = ?
④
1- /
is,
'
this
V11 ④ fix
/
① apply KCL To top node

¥ ,
-1
HEY + Kix -
isv = o

VT =
µI÷* ,
Vsi -1
R¥µ ,
in

② ( is set isz -

-0

"
ii¥E¥ i.

V11
/ fix
/
tkix
i

apply Kul to
top node .

Vt¥÷ -14¥ + Kix =o

V71 =
µ¥¥µz ,
V4
 cii ) set V51 = 0

14
{kv}+vyz& ④ is
/ Fix /
thx
/
apply KCL to the top node

4¥ Y + + Kix -

isa -

vtr-p.IE#isi.VT--VTiTVTv
* Superposition principle only applies to circuits that have elements

only described by linear equations such as

d) resistor

V= n' R is linear

lii ) dependent sources like the one in the above example lidep = Kix )

Examples of nonlinear equations

V =
10 it

{ idep

i =
=

et
kcosix
Maximum Power Transfer
12th

vaÉm 7k
-

black box
F) RL =

I ☐
1-

if a load 1 a resistor ) is connected to the two -

terminal circuit

system ,
find 12L for maximum possible power delivered to the load .

in ¥n+¥ ,k=ii .
he =
Y¥¥÷
Vth ( Rth -1kt -2Wh 'Re 113th RL )
dd¥
+

for maximum PL we need =

,
( 12th -11244

Rth=Ru
 Chb .
Capacitors and Inductors

resistor :
convert electrical energy to heat

inductor :
store energy in
magnetic fields and later return it to circuit

1 capacitor
: " electric "

capacitors

capacitors sheets of conductors by thin

lay or
by separating
a
are constructed 2

of insulating materials .

Y
ex .

f current flow

T conducting
plates
1-1-1 ,

1¥44 1
, it
I
' '

dielectric ,
such as air ,
Mira , polyester
0

for an ideal capacitor .

G =
CV

T
d% f capacitance ( Farad ,
F)

doo ( Cr )
=
Fu

i = c¥v

① if U =
constant , charge is constant and current is zero

a capacitor appears to be an open circuit for a

steady DC
voltage
 ② as V increase with time , current flows through the capacitor

accumulate
and charges on each plate
n' ( T )

cdd¥
11
'

+ : i =

V1 -4 0 i. V1 -11 =
I /¥ iltldt -1 Vitro )

-
g- o

Power delivered to the capacitor

pit ) =
V1 -11 it ) =
CV dd¥ ,

t
instantaneous power

Nlt ) =
1¥ paid u
-

=)
""
CVDV = tzcv '
=
Equine , =
[
µ,,

I
assume at to ,
V1 -101=0

Capacitors in series and parallel

① Capacitance in parallel
→ i → i
0 , ☐

tf tf tf I ✓
Ceq
Ja ii. ¥
" =
,
o
-

apply KCL To the top node

n' = it + iztiy = ( Cit Cat (s ) ¥u Ceq =

Citcztcy
" " "

a¥uCz¥G¥v
 ② Capacitance in series

of ii
+ -

i
→
+ + ☐

v2 I ✓
- = Ceq
-

0
-
)/ +
-

vs

apply KVL
VITO )

✓ =
V1 + V2 -1 Vy =
( ¥ -1¥ +
E) 1¥ in dirt [ Vlltoltvzcto ) tvsctol ]
" b
1-
¥ # iitldt -141-101 leg

i. ÷ = left ⇐ + Is )

f
w > Er

<
air 1
1
d f- 1-1-1-1 l
t.H.ly y
"
"
11 diamond 5.5
\
it , ,
quartz 4.3
L ¥
water 98.5

( =
Edt where A = WL , { : dielectric constant

for VALUMM { =
Eo = 8.85×10-12 Em

for others { =
Er -

Eo
Inductors

VK.IE
Inductors are constructed by coiling a wire around some type of form

current flows through the coil

a magnetic field or flux linking the coil is created

if current changes in value ,

magnetic flux changes

voltage across wit is induced

according Faraday 's law

Vitt =
L d Y
t
inductance ( Henry / H )

fjivltld-v-L-Y.dk#d-V its = I 1¥ vitiate + iced

The power delivered to the inductor

Pitt =
rich VH1 = L .

n' its d¥
""

Witt =
1¥ Palate =
1¥ Lin , .
do =
/ ay , ,
Lil -11 die-4 =
£ Li 't )

I
assume at to ,
ilto ) =D
① if i =
constant ,
magnetic flux is constant and voltage drop is zero

an inductor appears to be a short circuit for a DC circuit

② as it increases in time is delivered to the inductor which is

,
energy

stored in the magnetic field

series and Parallel Inductance

① Inductance in parallel

i
+ o→
+ I + I + I
v v
E Li
vq Lu
vq L3

- - -

apply KCL
it To )

n' = it + iz -1 i} =
( E, + ¥ +
Is ) 5¥ Vltldtr -1 [ into It into it is ceo , ]
It

to II. Vltsdtrtiicio )

i. Leta =
I ,
+
¥ +
I
,
② Inductance in series

→ i Ll
o -
wer
t v1
-

I +

Lv & V2

↳ -

o -

wow
- ,
vs

apply KVL

V =
V1 -1 V2 -1 V3 =
( Ll -112+4 ) %¥
It

41¥

i. Leq = Lit Lu -1lb

" 5h
EX
→
under DU condition ( a steady state )
muy
run

fit
.

in

{ an

RV I
{ 21-1 Recall
V1 =L
di ,

{
+
de
Vo
IF
cdd¥
-

ii. =

replace the original circuit by following one

i 5h
→
" '
my n' ¥5
nm

IN fi , =
ii. = =
2A

{ ""

IZV I
t
{ 21-1 Vc = 2.5=10 V

vii. ② Wu =
Iwi =
50J

IL 'm
'
We = -_
4J
 0h9 . First -
Order circuits

7.2 The source

-
free KC circuits

Ex .

discharge of a capacitor through a resistor

iot
" wir -1=0 1-
C
+
Vat ) volt , { R

-1
-

Prior to I = o ,
the capacitor is charged to an initial voltage V0

At two , the switch closes and current flows through the resistor ,
discharging
the capacitor

Apply KCL to node after the switch is closed

top
" "
c. did '
+ E = o

÷ U
f duvet
d-b
+ ¥ VCLT ) = °

f dvcltl = -

¥0 volt )
die
integration
on
both

sides ln Volt) -

en Vico ) =
-

¥
s
-
-

i. en ¥9 ,
=
-

¥ vow , =
uuo , ,

the solution of Vitt) must be a function that has the same form as it

1st derivative

Vcltl =
Kes-0
 to find K and S , substitute the solution form in the differential eqn .

Kyes-4 ¥1440
dull -4
d-U
+ ¥ um , = o > = o i. s = -

¥
-0
' Kes
k ( est )

¥0 K
Volt ) ke when Volo )
'

-1=0
'

=
=
.

Just before the switch is closed i. e. at F- o

-

,
Volo I
-

= Vi

duct ) Veal
him
•

Recall :
ict ) =
C
dy
=
c
OV
otro

'

i since ides is finite

i. Volt ) needs to be continuous

to
Vc (0-1) Volo I
-

%
i. Vcltl =
vi e-

vote
-

> to
 j÷# wir
%
"

-1
out , uhh } R

ji I
-

node
apply KCL To top
=
VRIT ) =
ikr , R
= C dvd
ÑR ltlt n' ult )= 0

dirt )
dtr
+
¥ irlti = 0

dirty
de
= -

RI de

integration on both sides lnikltl -

lmao ) =
-

¥0

¥0 't
ikltl = n' Rio ) e- → int , =
ke

ch 9.5. 1441

step response of
-

an RC circuit

'

o±☒ #
'

- -1
=
f- +

us V4 -4 Vs 't ) ± C Vol -4

g. -i -

find Volts where vs 't ) trio

{
assume Velo -1=0 0
=
.
.

V5 ,
I> 0

apply KCL to the node

Cd Vita KID Vs
-

+ = 0
de R

d Viti
de
+ ¥1 Vcltl -

Vs ) = o

constant

d Lvctl Vs )
Fo
-

=
-

( Vcu ) Vs )
-

dt
 d l Kitt -

vs )

Vclt ) -

vs
= -

¥ dt

integration on both sides In -1 Volt ) -

vs ] -

In [ Veit -0 )- -

us ]
= -

the
% e¥④s
i. Vcltl Us =
[ Volt-_o ) vs ] e- Vcu ) =
us -1 [ Volta ) vs ]
- -
-

ki K2

for 1- St order circuit with Dc source yet )

=
kit kz est

d ""'
substitute the solution form yltl into the equation de
+ ¥1 Volts -

Vs ) = o

( It RCS ) kz est -1 Ki =
Vs

for equality to hold , we need

HRCS = 0 s = -

Éc
)
{ 1¥ ☒ ¥ e f. ☒ : ITA 1-11250=0
ki vs
-

¥0
Vct ) =
Ust kz e-

Vct -0-1
-
=
Volt -_
0+1 =
Us -1 kz =) Kz = -

Vs

¥20
i. Vct ) =
Vs -

Use

to • transient response

steady-state response
or

forced response
mm

viii. = a) =k ,
f- ) o
fully charged
f's É
0
g- 3
The source -
free RL circuit

L
F
§ i
Vhlt )
-1=0

Eg R

.
VRH)

+ tin
apply KVL around loop
11
vr=o
11
VL
by VL =L ¥j
Ld_a¥ ii. R -
I

DAY -1¥ ii. =

0
let int )= ke
't

substitute int ) into the equation Ks + ¥ k#=o.

%
'
Keith
¥ ¥
-

i. s = -

ii. Lt ) =
ke = where 7 =

to find K ,
we need to know in -1=0-1)=k = ill -1=0-1

'Ll -4
recall VLITI Ld dt
" ' " '
Lim
On
N if ii. ☒ -1+0

{
= = L = .
• 0 as
ow
ow ,

it is continuous finite .
if oil -10 as t → o

%
i. ii. It ) =
ilio ) e- where e =
YR
Ch 7. to
.

step response - of an RL Circuit

-1=0 .

In i40 -1=0

vs I
[ int )
{ L find n' Litt , V11 -4

i.
apply KVL around the loop
-

Vs + ii. R -1L = 0

dd + Eir Ivs - = 0 let izct ) = Kit ka est

substitute in -11 into the equation

Rkit ( Rkztshkz ) est =

Us

Rkz -1511<2--0 s=
-

E
{ {
i.

Rki =
Vs ki =
¥

i. in -1K¥ + Kzé% where z =

¥

to find K2 ill -1=0-1 =

n' hit __ ot ) =
¥ tkz-oi.kz = -

¥
%
i. ii. a) = ¥ -

¥ e- where t= ¥

Ñn IiL=iR=¥
ii. It =
a) =
K,
Lddi; =p,
11
us ± Llshort) v<
¥
=p
 1¥ ¥ e- %)
da d -

ii. VL IT ) =
L = L .

de

%
¥ E
-

=L e
.
-

= us e-%

i* "
EY
¥ - - -
"

i
i

: :
> >
z=¥ zz I I

* 5¥ 7- -

¥ # 5¥

six steps for solving first -

order circuits with Dc sources
b
inductor
contains
only a capacitor or an

For the
step 1 .

any current or voltage ,

y 1-4 ,
in circuit

kith
Y "'
=

we can state yet , = K, + kze

-

the
, { yloo ) = K2

where Zc is the time constant

depending on circuit

ki ikr are constants to be determined

step 2 Analyze the circuit at which is just before the switch is closed
-

.
-1=0

or open in the circuit

i. need to know ① if the circuit contains a capacitor find Veli )

{ ② if the circuit contains a inductor find iclo)

ii. how to analyze

assume the circuit is in

steady -1--0 then
-

state at ,

capacitor by open circuit

replace
short circuit
inductor
by
find Volo -1 or n'clot based on the above replacement and modified circuit

step } .
Analyze the circuit at -1=0-1
step 5 . Find Ze

① for circuit with a capacitor , Zc =

RTC

where RT is the theremin resistance seen from the capacitor .

C is the capacitance

L
② for circuit with a inductor , Zc =
Ry

where RT is the theremin resistance seen from the capacitor .

C is the capacitance

why ?

RT

① I +
ma +

complicated -0 ""

now
to
= VT
circuit → -

Vu
apply along the loop =) VT -1
Ugg + 0
=
KVL -

IRT f- n'c) ✗ RT
-

.
'

ic =
cdd¥ i. dd¥ +
How =
¥0 VT

to find the
complementary solution ,
we have

¥0 %
day ¥ k e- where
-

+ Vu =
o Very =
ke =
a =
Rt C
.

②
complicated → I + ii-n-ii.fi;
V14

& , =
v, ±
GL u

circuit -0
a) -

apply KVL
along the loop =) -

VTTVKTTVL =
0

I b-
in RT Ldd^¥
i. dd¥ +
¥ ii. =
Ever

to find the
complementary solution ,
we have

¥" %
dj¥ ¥ i ke ¥
-

where
-

+ , = o
=) ii. its =
ke =
zc= ,
 E- 0
EX , V12
+ -

1 100kW +
Find VRIT ) for tso
± low o.nu/---vu-y
V5
-

%
① Vkltl = kit kz e- '

② at -1=0 replace the capacitor by open circuit

-

,
an

V12
+

nnj
-
, looks
0 -1
± 10W Volo , Velo -1=0
Us
o -

-
③ at trot ,
Velo -1 =VcwY=0 , based on the circuit ,
VR 107 =
Us =
loov
V12
+ -

mm

I 1001W +

I IOOV 0.01nF Volt )

Vs -

④ at -1=0 based on the circuit VRH ) =

o

"
+
in -

I 1001<7 °
+

I IOOV Volt )
Vg

w .

⑤ Zc =
RTC

found from the with the

voltage replaced short
RT is circuit source
by circuit

"
100×103×0.01×10
b
RT
-
-

=) =
100 KR i , 21 = = 10 ( s)

⑥ VKIO -1 ) = kit Kr =
100
10000
1<1--0 Kr URL-4=100 e-
'

.
=
100 .
.

V12 ( N ) = K, = o
 too
EX ,

¥
1 MY
200N
filth Find it ) fort > o
us
± low 11-1
§
%
kitkze
-

① it-4 =

②
-

at -1=0 , ii. 10-1=0

/
1 IF.HN )
± low
vs

-
⑤ AT 1=0-1 ,
ill 0-1 =
into -11--0

mn

1 2007 fill -1 )

vs
I 10W 11-1
§
-
④ at -1=0 , n' (d) =
1¥ = 0.5A

1 IF
I 10W
vg
ñ
-
⑤ Zc =
¥ ,
=
¥0
200N

I ÑF fives
mm

I
Vg
I 10W
114¥ RT =
⇐

I
12-1=20 or

⑥ n' 10+1--14+1<2--0
" °"
1<1--0.5 , ka =
-0.5 i. it-4=0.5-0.5 e-
n' (a) = ki =
0.5
EX .

I +1
1mA T
1
A V14 { iokr time Find V14 __
?

It -1
"

the
let kitkze
-

① V11 ) =

② Volo 1=0
-

-1=0
-

at ,

I +1 t -1
1mA T v14
} oka
/
V40 ]

-1 g-
③ V=o+
'
at V10 )=UlOY= V10)=o

t
+1

oVl0YZl0krt1uFVclo-y-vuio-jlt@a-b_b-Ni.V
I
1mA

IN )= 1×10 -3×10×103=10

Yµ
I lo d
}
t

ima

if I

⑤ Zc RT C RT lokr 10-2
'

= -

. .
-_ Ze =

1mA pl I
°

v14
+1
{ iokr ;
I 0
I 1
°
+1
v14
}iokr
t

i i
°

-1 I t t

⑥ V10-11--14-11<2--0
-100 "
1<1--10 , K2 = -
to i. Vt ) =
to -

we

Vlxo ) =
1<1--10
 -1=0
if
Ex .

mum
1 mum

95s 25N
Find it ) fort > o
low I
l { 24 Before -1=0 ,
system reach steady state

the
① let it )= kitkz e-

② at t-o-ii.co )=gf¥s =/ A

mum Mmm

95A 25N

10W I fido )

③ At T=O+ it lot )= 1A
Mmm
25N
/
IOOV I
{ fillet )=iLlO-1=1 A

④ at -6=0 ,
icon > =
2¥ =
4A
Mmm

,
25N
/
/
i10 )
IOOV I

I
⑤ zc =
¥, i. RT = 25h
2--22-5=0.08
251
Mmm

/
25N MM

§
0
10W I
0

⑥ n' (0-1) =
kltkz =
I
¥-0
ice)= 4- ze
-

1<1--4 ,
kz =-3 i.

i CN ) =
Ki =
4
 10h
EX .

ru n

"

{
at
{ ion in
→

1
the
① let it )= kitkz e-

ivo 1=0
-

② at 5-0
-

105h
ru n

?
i40
-

I
2A T { ion

I
③ at t=o+ , in-7=0
105h
ru n

{ 1+14^210+1
into -1
°
__

2A T o { ion

l l
④ at -1=00 , n' (a) =L A
105h
ru n

1.
2A T { ion ?Ñ
I 1
⑤ Zc= ¥, i. RT -_ 20N Zc= £0
10N 10N

mm mm

I
!
{
•

{
{
{
14
2A T o ion 11-1 o
ion

1 I
⑥ n' lot / = Ki -11<2--0
200
=) 14=1 ,
K2 =
-1 i. n' (f) =
1- e-

n' (a) = Ki =
I
EX ① lev kitkze Ya
-

, volt / =

4kt } §4kr Ion)

/
LIFT-1 o
-1 -50mF

if
I
RV I

② at f=o Volo-1=6
-

} §4kr /
-

4kt volts
gkr
Lm -1 o
,
o -1

!
/
Velo ) = -

Volo -1=-6
in

f-
⑤ at -1=0-1 , Velo -4=6

} §4kr /
-

4kt volts
gkr
1-M t 50mF Velo-4 =
Velo j
-

=
-

Vito -4=-6
Ot
-

/
-

Rv !
0 0

④ at T = a ,
Volo ) = o

} §4kr /
-

4kt volts
LIE ot 0

RV ¥
0 0
| 0

I
⑤ Zc= RTC .
'

.
RT =4kr .
2=3×103×50×10-6--0.15

4kt } gkr
{ 4th Intl
/
Lmt 0-1 o
, to
{ bks
f
I ⇐

l
0 0
g l

⑥
'
Volt ) =
Ki -11<2--6 -

¥5
1<1--0 ,
1<2--6 i. Volts =
be
V0 (a) = KI =
o
EX .
1h 2N In
mm mm mm -0 -1
, '
'
too
①
l2V I - ZF
{ or
{ IN volt )

① let Volte)=kitkze-%o

by nodal analysis V40)=l0V

-

② at -1=0 ,
'

: rm rm rm o -1
:
-

.
1h
f 2h 15h

! -1 at
lzv V40 )
{ zr
{ 1h Volo ]
:

ii..._.f.._._:÷ÉÑ÷_o
a-

i.
\ -

" "
" "
-
- -
-
- - -
- - -
- -
- - - - - - - - - -
-

③ AT F- 0-1 ,
Volo-4--2+171=25 V

mm mm mm -0 -1
In -1 2N to In

{
°
ZF 15h
{
-1
12N I vow )
" -
Volo )

|
or
-

-
WV
-

④ AT I=N , VOID ) =
12×1-2%+1=2 .tv
mm mm mm -0 -1

In zr
d in

{
0 0
IN
IZV I
{ or
Vold )

li÷o .

⑤ Zc= RTC i. RT -_
¥ Zc=§x2=§ 2h In
IN
mm mm mm -0 mm mm mm -0

' "
too l l
{ 0 0
ZF In
{
{
I in
kV -
2d
o 0

I 8V
I 1 1 .

⑥ Volo-4--14+1<2--2.5 5
£"
Ki =
2.4 , 1<2--0.1 .
'

.
Vol-4=2.4-10 .
/ e-
V0 (d) =
1<1--2.4
Second order circuits
-

EX .
RLC in series
-5-0 R
"
'
L R L
'

v mm mm mm mm
"

=/
° '
°

Usui
V5 ± it ) -
c
= usu, , Us 1 Tho

with the switch closed

apply KVL along the loop =) -

Vs + Vkltltlhltlt Volt )
to to
= 0

Ritu L%¥
'

i its = cdd¥ i.
DZV "-4
dti
+
E %¥ -1 ¥ Vat ) =
← second order
-

d%¥
"
+ zxd two
'
volts =
fit,

where ✗ ¥ damping coefficient for with L and C

{
=
a circuit in series

Wo =
¥0 undamped resonant frequency
fits =
¥ driving force

① If no DU source
devout
+ zxdvdo
""
two
'
Volt ) =
o g
,
do

"
let Volts =
ke and substitute it into the equation

5 kesttzas Kes-4
't '

Kes-45+2as
'
Wo ke =
o two ) =
0

For all
equation should be valid
ti the above and we need

5+2×5 two
-
=o =) characteristic equation 1445¥91 ¥¥¥ )

2- Wo ' Si 2- Wo '

{
s ✗ I ✗ i. = ✗ t ✗
-

=
-

52 = -

a -

✗
2- Wo '

't
kzes't established
Val-4 = Kies or Vczt , =
 Val-4 = Valet 1- Visit a solution as well

substitute into the differential equation

[ d%ff-4-izxdY.it "
two
'
voice ) ) -11 %fftl-zxdY.it
"
two
'
vczlt )
) = 0

""
i. Volt ) =
K , es
't
+ kze is a solution for the differential equation

② If DU source exists ,
Volts = ko t k , es
't
+ kzesit

Recall Si 2- Wo '

{
= -
✗ t ✗

52 = -

a -

✗
2- Wo '

i. if
'
2-
✗ Wo > o , Si and sz are both real numbers

't ""
Volt ) = ko t ki es -1 kze → over damped oscillation / behavior

if both real numbers

'
ii. 2- 51=52 ✗ are
✗ Wo =p
= -

ko
"
't Kate " "
Volt ) =
t ki e → critically damped oscillation / behavior

iii. if ✗
2-
Wo 's o 51 ✗ + j Wi ✗
'

j B where ' '

p
=
✗ +

{
Wo
=
-

✗
- -

, = -

sz j wit j B damped natural

frequency
-
= -
x -
-
x = -
a -

* *

volts = ko t ki e- cos pttkz e- sin Be → underdamped oscillation / behavior

Take over damped oscillation as an example :

Volt -_ 0 ) =
ko t ki + K2
need one more equation to solve Ko , Ki , K2
Vct -

- NI =
Ko

dvcty
die / q=ot =
Si Kie
""
/ trot
+ 521<2 e "%=o+ =
Si Ki + szkz
Ex . RLC in parallel
'

"

j
e- o
l l ist )= 0 to

{
i

is T R { LG c- = isn't R { LG c-
is , -120

apply KCL to top node with the switch closed is + n' R tic tic o
- =

v¥ cda¥
'

i V1-4 =L daily i. %É+¥o%÷ to + ii. =

Eo is

die + ✗ doff + wow =

feel

Wh "" ✗ ¥ damping coefficient for with L and C parallel

{
=
a circuit in

Wo =
¥ , undamped resonant frequency
fit, =
¥ driving force
six steps for solving second -
order circuits with Dc sources
b
contains and inductors different types of energy storage element
capacitors or
any two -

step 1 Find the characteristic equation of the circuit For the circuit
any yt) in
.
.

d
%¥
'

we will find ya , + A T BY It ) =
C where A. B. 0 are constants
d ya

" 't
let yet ) =
ke and substitute back Is 't Ast B) ke = C

let 57 AS -113=0 → characteristic equation

step
Analyze
-

2 . the circuit at 5- 0

cis need to know both Velo -1 and ii. 107

how
ciii to
analyze
the circuit is in
steady state at
-

assume -1=0 ,

capacitor by open circuit

replace
short circuit
inductor
by

based on the above replacement and modified circuit ,

we solve for Velo -1 and into -1

 5-0-1
step } .
Analyze the circuit at

dylt )
d) need to know
yl 0+1 and de / -1=0-1
how
ciii to
analyze
the voltage drop across the capacitor cannot
change instaneously
rules
flow through inductor
change instaneously
the current the cannot

based on these known numbers , we solve for

yiot ) and dud 1-1=0-1

step 4 Analyze the at t= so

. circuit

d) need to know
yeol

how
ciii to
analyze

the circuit reaches

assume a
steady state at t=x ,

capacitor by open circuit

replace
short circuit
inductor
by

based on the replacement and modified circuit we solve for

,
yin
step 5 .

Distinguish from three different cases From step 1 ,

have the characteristic for the under 54 AS -113=0

we equation circuit
study

usually expressed following standard form 5+2×5

'
in two = 0

where ¥ damping coefficient

{
✗ =

Wo =
¥0 undamped resonant frequency

I = Fo :
damping ratio

if I 2-
( real numbers )
"
'
✗ two
d) > 1 or ✗ Wo > 0 51,52 = -

✗ I

"" ""
yet ) =
Kot Kie + Kae over
damping

lii ) if I =/ or ✗
'
-

Wo
'
= o 51=52 = -
✗ are both real and identical

"" ""
critical
ylt )
=
Ko + Kie + Kate
damping
ciii ) if 1<1 or ✗
2-
Wo
'
< 0 51,52 = -

✗ Ij wo
'
-
✗
✓
= -
✗ ±
j p

✗"
Kot ke Hoos pet Kae under
damping
-

yet ) sinpt
-

Therefore the charaterist.io equation different form of solution for

, depending on , we have
yet,

step b. summarize the results

 -1=0
EX . "
H
2m bor
j room mm

vs
5nF Find Vclt ) for t > o
I
= 50 V i
KVL around the loop with the switch closed Vs Vlltltvkltltvclt )=o
apply
+
①
-

to to
Ldd^¥ R.int)=( ice, =
cd%¥- )
DIY -4
+ I dVd¥
'
+ to veto) =
Ecus % '
+3×104 dvd + lose vets = 5×109

let Voce) test and substitute the =) (5+3×10%+108) ke

't
5×109
into
equation
= =

i. Charateristic
equation
: 5+3×1045-1 108=0

the reaches
② -1=0
steady
-

at , circuit a state

rm

bar
based the circuit know Vico -1=0

{
at on we
I u , , ,,
o -
it 10-1=0

-
③ at -1=0-1
iodine
V40-1 ) Velo )
-

{ ii.
= = o
5nF
I
( Ot) =
ill 0-1=0

'

i icc-y-c.dkde ) it
.
'

. dd¥t=ot =
¥04 = o

④ the reaches
at -1=0 , circuit a
steady state

mm

60N
a
-1

I Vein based on the circuit Vein =

5W

go
-
⑤ from step ① , we have 5+3×1045+108=0
I
5+2×5 t Wo
'
= o

1.5×104
{
✗ =

I = = 1- 5 > I 1 over
damping )
Wo =
104

"
" 8×10

{
-

"
Vct ) = Kot Kies 't + kzes where s , , gz = -
✗ z ✗ 2- wot
=

-
2,618×104

⑥ Velo ) =
Ko -1kt -11<2--0

dV¥l|e=o+ =
Kis , -11<252--0

V10 ) = Ko =
50

ko =
50

Ki = -58.542

1<2--8.542

51=-3.8×103
est
✓
sqzesztr With
{
-

i. Vcltl = 50-58.542 + g.
gz= -2,618×104

If R =
40s ,
then 9--1 critical
damping
51 =
52 = -

✗ = -104 .
'

.
Volt ) =
ko t ki est t kzte
""
=
50 -

50 e
"
-0-5×105 t.es
"

If R = zur ,
then 1--0.5 underdamping

*
51,52 = -1-2×104-1 j Ez 104 ✗ .
'

. Volt) =
Kot Ki e- cos Ptt kze-ttsinp.to

¥
* *
= 50 -

50 e- cusp u
-
-
e- singe
Vctln
,

1=0.5 f reduces and

as ,
overshoot
ringing increase

=n
ko g= ,

system takes a
longer time to reach
steady
I
EX -1

#
.

looopfvt
"
1A
{ { "
50h bout Find V Its for t > o

F- 0
-

cdvltl
de

① apply KCL to top node ik + ii. + io =\

V¥ I /tovctldttiilol
take derivative with respect to time , ¥ + Event cdY¥=o

dY¥+¥dd¥+¥vw=o

let Vltl = Ke
't
, we have 15-1 ITS + Eui ke
't
__
o

characteristic equation 5+2×10 's -1104=0

②
-

at -1=0

TT
V40 -1=0
'A
{ son
; { ii. (5) = 0

① at -1=0-1

1A |
{ { 50h 60Mt
Vdot )

( ii. cot)=o
=
o

apply KCL ircotltiiitiucot ) =L =) ¥-10T n'clot) =/

dVd¥ / got =
ICY " =
1¥10 -12 = 109
④ at ten

iRlN--
/ '

i
{ ii.
o

I
(a) =L
1A I
im

i. V10 ) =
0

⑤ 52+2×10 's -11014--0 52+2×5

'
( 7 two

5=8-0--1 critical
"
damping
'
✗ =
lo Wo -_
10

""
Kot Kie 't kzte
"
i. Vlt / =
where 51--52=-109

⑥ v10 ) -1<0+4--0
-

dvltl
de / -1=0
=
kibitka = 109 =)
{ 1<1--0

µ
V10 ) = Ko =o

"
10 -0
i. Vcl-4=109-1 e-
EX . 41 14
mm ooooh
where 0 it
)={
+ "
ult

it
}
1 > 0
Vs -

-
12h14 I 4s If volt,
Find Volts for Tso
-

① apply node analysis

R' model VEY -1¥ + n' L=o

v02
:
V '

mm
0 am

nodes nitric iL=cdd¥

{
: -_ o
I
-

vs pr

4¥ +
¥! + cdvz
do
= 0
'

i V1 vi.
-
= LddÉ i. vi-vz-lcdd.lk
T I
substitute

d2V2 dV2
-12 1- V2 =
6
dqz do

't
let Volt / = V2 = Rest ,
15+25+11 Ke __ to i. characteristic eq , 52+25+1=0

②
-

at -1=0

mm .

t ÑLIU -1=0
a

o
{ { Volo -1=0
y

③ ate t= Ot
> i40-4=0
mm room

iclotl
%¥/g=µ
+
= =
0
I
§ Vico -4=0 a

-
④ at t=o

mm

to Vola ) =
12×-4<=6
±
}
t

⑤ 5+25+1=0 542×5
'
( ) two

✗ =L ,
Wo =L 1=8-0--1 critical damping
Kie 't kzte
" " '
i. Volt )= Ko + where 51=52 = -
✗ = -
I

⑥ V10 ' ) =
Ko -11<1--0
1<0 b

{
=

duty
dt |t=ot =
sik , -11<2--0 ki = -6

K2 = -

V10 ) = 6 = Ko

i. V1 -4=6 -

bet -

beet
 EX
oink
.

Vslt ) 12 too
{
t =
,

0 I 70

{
,
Volt)
vsltl I o.sn if
Find Volt ) fort > o
-

① skid
in "

{ o.ir

apply KCL on top node ii. + irtic = o If } vdtldtrtihlo ) -1M¥ + cdVd¥ '

take derivative with respect to time Intl ) -1¥ dYY-h-icdYY.tl = o

b
Vol -11 Vsl-4
-

dY¥"+¥od%¥ + to volts =
to Vsctl

let volt / =
Kett ,
(5+12%+1-0) ke " =
to Vsltl i. characteristic eq . 5+25-12=0

② f-

of
at

Vd 0-1 12
{ into -1=24
=

vsltl I
{ o.sn

I
③ at -1=0-1

n÷;
n'Leo -1) -24
-
+
dVd°¥k=o+=idM G
=
0

{ 0.5A V40-4=12

-
④ at ten

I Vo (D) =
0

{ o.ir
I
1-

⑤ 5+2×5
'
52+251-2=0 I 7 two

✗ =L , wo=rz f =
¥ < I under
damping
i. Volt ) =
kotkie-ttcosp-btkze-ttsinf.to with ✗ =L if =L

⑥ Volo / =
Ko -114=12
1<0--0
dvolt )
dt
1-1=0-1 = -

K , -11<2--0 { 1<1--12
1<2--12

VIN ) =
ko = 0

i. Volt ) = 12e-tws-l-lze-tsl.nu
EX .
mm mm

4h 1H
s -1
kV ± ict ) 2h
} IF V1-4 Find V10 and it ) for t > o

F '
.
-

-1=0

①
mm

4h
mm

1H
€1
apply KVL to mesh 12 -

4i+LddÉ -10=0
RV ±
Man } u
IF
apply KCL to node n' =
¥ +
cdd¥

DZV dv
+ g- 1- bV= 12
dye do

let V= Kett (5+55+6) ke

't
__ 12 i. characteristic eq .
52+55-16=0
,

②
-

at -0=0

mm

4s
/ Velo )
{
'

= 12

}
a
± zr
ill V1 = 0

:
i
③ ate t=ot

mm mm
1-
4s

n'40-4=0
,
IH
dvgf.tl/-=o-i=icY-4 =
¥ = -12

± 2h
} If V40-4=12

-
④ at ten
run

4h
1. VIN ) =
12.x I =
4
± an
}
I
⑤ 52+551-6=0 52+2×5-1
'
( ) Wo = 0

I
✗ =
Iz ,
Wo =
of f =
Fo =
are
> I over
damping
""
kze
't
i. Vct )= Kot Kies -1 with 51=-2 , 52=-3

⑥ Volo ) =
Ko -1kt -11<2--12

dVd¥ / no
=
Kisi -11<252 = -12

{ ?? ? ?
1<1--12

,
✓ (N ) =
Ko =
4

so
i. Vt ) =
4+12 e- 2-0-4 e-
2
¥ £¥u
" H
find
-

To be
-

i , n' = + =
2- + 4E

or substitute 12 -

4i+LddF -10--0 v=4i -

LdÉ -12

i=¥+cdÉ dd¥→ -151¥ + bit

sinusoids

sinusoids either voltage follows the form

I. a signal , current or ,

phase

cosiwttoj
Im

MN
✗ let =
Im
)
peak value angular frequency
Im
-
-

K 71

1- = =
¥

sine / cosine function completes one

cycle when the angle or phase increases by

271 radian ,
ie ,
w -1=21-1

the frequency of a periodic signal is the number of cycles completed in

one second f= f- s w = 217 f

* special cases ^

Im

rrr
✗ 1-11 =
Im cos we
.
Im
-
-

Im

rrr
✗ 1-11 =
Im sin we
.
Im
-
-

function
* commonly , sinusoidal signal are expressed using the cosine

rather than sine function

I. If a periodic voltage V1 t ) with period T is applied to a

V ""
R Pitt
resistance the power delivered at instance is =
,
R

V'
The delivered in one period is Ey =/ To Pitt de =/ To ¥
'
do
energy

The average power delivered is

'
'

I f- Stutts di l Vrmg

Parg =
E- =
f- for de =

R
=
R

square value of
'

where Vrms =

( ±
,
Stutts de l ( root mean - -

vie , )

similarly ,
for a periodic current it -4 Terms =
¥5b it tide

Pavg Irmi R
and the average
power delivered to a resistor is =
.

If the periodic signal shown above sinusoidal

, either voltage or current ,
is

✗ it ) = Im Wslwt -101 Irms =

f- IT Ini wit wt -101dL

'

.
'

cos -0 =
I+£ wszo i. I rms =
¥ / To Im'll -100512 wt -120 )dI

"

=
¥7 [ Ttztw sin 12W -1+20
sin 20
) -

Ew sin 20 ]

Im
=
2

the rms value of a sinusoidal signal =

peak value of the signal ÷ z

* Another form of I Imcoswtwso Imsinwtsin acoswt bsinwtr

-

✗ It ) wscwtto )
= =
-
=

where a =
Imwso , b= Im Sino
 If a and b are known , how to find Im and 0 ?

it 1 Imsi not
-

a'+ b =/ Im Im
'
Im
'

i. a-+ b
'

wso =
. .
=

ii. ka =
-
Imsi no
= -

Tano i. 0 = -

tan
- '
1¥ )
☒ moose

Phasors

EX . V1 -11 = 10 Cos WI -155in ( wt -100° ) -15 Cos I WI -190° ) =

Acoslwtr -10 )

the standard identities

tedious to
carry out operation by using tri
geometric
phasor representation of sinusoidal signal helps to facilitate the operation

Defi .
✗ (t ) =
Im cos lwt -10 ) =
Re { Im cos lwtt 01 + j Im sin lwtto ) }
A T
take the real parte
rectangular form of a complex number atbj
{ Im eilwt }
-101
= Re
t
exponential form
{ Im eioej }
we
= Re
T
phasor in exponential form
or Im < 0 :
phasor in polar form

or Im oosotj Im Sino =
at bj :
phasor in
rectangular form

or TIM :
hwang 's form

i. the
magnitude of a phaser peak value of the sinusoidal signal =
Im

{
=

the
angle of a phasor = the phase angle of the sinusoidal signal =p
Operation of Phsors
Ñ ""
A e A 01 A Wso , jA sino ,

{ 13
= = < = +

for 2 phasor , "

= Bei =
B < Oz =
Boos 02 + j B sin 02

① addition and subtraction

Ém = ÑIÑ =
( Aws 011=1300502 ) tj I Asin 01 I Bsinoz ) =
Im < 0
a b

* if a> 0 , atbj = a-+ b- < tan

-
'
da

if as 0 , atbj =
-

la -

bj ) =
-

l a) 41 bi
-
-
< tank
1
i tan
"
is a multi value function and the value actually given by most circulator is
'

the principle value ,

i. e. ,
-

¥ s tan
-
'
ka e ¥

② multiplication

TIM =
Ñ Ñ . =
A e.JO
'
.

Be JOZ =
AB EJ 1040 " = AB < (011-02) = Im < 0

③ division
AEJQ
Im =
¥ =

Beja
=
¥ ed
" " °"
=
¥ < (01-02) =
Im < 0

"
Euler formula .
e =
cosxtisinx

* a < 10 -

T1 ) =
at Cosio a) + -

j sin 10--111 ) = -

a lcosotjsino )
= -

a < O
Go the addition mentioned
back to
previously
V1 -1 ) = 10 COSWI -155in ( wt -1000 ) -150051 WE -190° )

= to ooswtt 5 Ws ( Wt -

boy + 5 wslwt -190°)

= Re { 10 eiwtf + Re { g- eilw
-40 "
} + Re { g- eilwt-1909 }

J
=
Re { 110+5 e- "°+5eJ90° , ejwt }
b
10 +14.3 } -

j -
2. 5) -1
5J
=
14.33 -125J =
14.54<9.90

=
Re / 14.54 ejlwt -19.97 }

=
14.54 cos IWT -19.9° )

* phasor as
rotating vectors : ✗ Itt =
Im ooslwt -101

imaginary When
^
I starts
"
-7 from 0
Imejo
phasor
- -

Imcosotj Imsi no
-

Im
-

☒ msinp
: < 0 = =
,

o i
> real
Imooso

if we is taken into account ,

ie ,

,
Im < ( wt -10 )

rotates counter-clockwise in the complex plane with an

angular velocity of w

imaginary

Imsinlw-1-101
- - -

→
FW the projection on the real axis traces out X
o i
> real as a function of time
Imai's
:( WHO)

¥1m i☒m of this rotating

"

the phasor simply

"
snapshot
-

is a
> ✗µ ,
vector at -1=0

Vt
* phase relationship imaginary
n

ñ
>

Ex V11 -11=3 WSIW -1-1409--3<40

{ V21-11=40051 Wt 1¢00
.

200 ) =
4<-20 1 zoo > real
uñ
Ñ leads v7 by boo or Ñz lags Ñ by bi

this indicates that V11 -1 ) reaches its peak value 600 earlier than V21-4

Complex impedance ( PATH

① resistance

0hm 's law V=IR or V14 =

it -1112

if it )= Im cost wt -10,1 ,
then VH1 =
RIM WSLW-1-10-+1 =
Fm cost wt -1011

I =
Im <
OI ,
Ñ =
Fm <
Ov= RIm<O±= IR , Ou =O[ IÑ and I are in phase )

i. Ohm 's law in phasor Ñ = IR , Tm = Im -

R

7
Ñ OI = Ov
I
7
V11)
Ov OI
.

, i.
, >
its
② inductance
Re { Ieiwy
dice,
V1 -11 =L
de Ñ# =
hjw-I.ci#=zi-I
an impedance that is
where z<=jwL impedance of inductance , pure imaginary → called
imaginary is
,

pure reactance
= WL < 90°

Ñ = WL < 900£ Tm < Or = WL Im < (02+90) .

'

. Ñm= WL Im ,
< Or = <
102-1907
^
I ^
"

÷
,
>
:

i. Ut)

i > >
Litt

>
I

① Capitan ce
Re / ltmeiwt }
due ,
it ) =
C dy I =
jwo Ñ or Ñ =
juice I =
Zu É

where Zo =
jwu , impedance of a
capacitor ,
pure imaginary
= W' c c- 90°

Tm < Or = ( two < -90° ) Im < OI =

I <
10£ -90°)

i. Tm =
Imo ,
Ov =
OI -900 Ñ lags I by 900
^
Ñ
^
90°
I >
;
,

i. Ut)
^

> >
its
① Ñ ZRÉ resistor ZR R

}
= : =
,

② Ñ =
Zc I : inductor , Zi =
jwl Ñ= ZÉ , Ohm's law in phasor

③ Ñ = ZLÉ :
capacitor , Zo =
two

Kirchhoff 's laws in phasor form

→
Re { v5 eiwy
V11 -4 V2 ( t )
typical KVL
equation 1- V31 -11=0
-

a .

Re { ( iitvz in eiw-4=0 -

.
'

.
Ñ Ñz Ñ + - = 0 KVL in phasor form

similarly IT IT IT + -
= 0 KCL in phasor form

Therefore ,
all the laws , principles , rules and methods introduced before for the resistor

impedance elements and phasors

can
apply to

For instance series connection :

Zeq = -211--22-1 - "

{ parallel connection :
l
=
¥ ¥-1+ -
. .

zeq ,

the functions of phasors and impedances is to transfer time -

domain treatment

the
to
frequency -
domain treatment .
In this way ,
calculation can be much

simplified !

In start with the circuit in time domain translate it into

summary i ,

frequency domain ( impedance and phasor ) , solve for the desired phasor quantity

and translate the phasor back to time domain

 it )
EX .
)
www moon

b- or 60m14 if V51-11=2500511000-4 , find it)

=
Tm cos lwtrtov)
Vs t ) ~ 100nF n

① time -

domain -
Vs + VRtVLtVc=o -

Ust Ritu -1 L%¥ 1- tcftoitldt + V40)

take derivative with respect to time Ld + R did + =

dVd¥
1000

assume it )= Im cos let -10 ;-) need to find Im ,

OI

LW IMCOSIWITOI )
- -

RW Im sin IWITOI ) + II cos Lwt -102) = -

w Tmsinlwtt Or )

tedious and complicated to solve !

② frequency -
domain Ld + R did + =
dVd¥

{ Imeilwtto }
"
it -11 Im coslwt -10-4
{
=
ice , =
Re
-1+04
V1 -4 =
Fm cos lwttov ) Vt ) =
Re { Tmeilw }

i. -

Lw Im
'
ejlwt-101 > +
jw RIM eilwt-10-11+1, Imejlwt-1011 = jwvmejlwt -1001

EJOI jwvmejo
'
1 Lw jwkt E)
-
-

+ Im =

t 7

Jmeiot =
T it
Rtjwctjwt "
=
Imei 01 =
I i ,
I
=
ZRTZCTZL

¥R ¥c ZL

ZK ZL

Ñ ~
Zc
i. I =
Fear
1
For this case ,
Ñ = 25<00 ,
2-12=50 . ZC =
-10J , -2L =
boj , Zeq =
50 -50J =
50oz < ¢50

.
'

.
I =
2¥ c- 45° i. it =
¥ cos (10001-450)
Ex .

inn
-1
v1 -4
Find it -4 and v1 -4
Vs=10ws4V± o .
if
-

I
ZR=5b
'
f mm
+
I

10<00 I Zo =

jlwu =
-2.5J
-

10<00
I =
5- 2.5J
=
Iib -10.8J = 1.789<26.570 (A)

Ñ =
I Zo= ( 1.789<26.5701×1 -2.5J ) =
4.47 < -63.43°
215<-900

i. it ) =
1.789 Cos 14ft 26.57° )

V1 -11=4.49 cos (4-1-63.45)

EX .

2mF 0.21-1
0
11 room

{ " Find Zin when 50rad / s

{
Zin w=
→ gr

-100mF
o
time domain → frequency domain

jwo= -10J jwtioj

0
11 room

i. Zin =L -10J ) -1113 -2J ) 11110J -181 ]

{ 3

{
3.22 -

j 1.07
•
3.22 j 11.07
jwJ= -2J
= -

0
Ex . 6N
mm
-1
Find V01 -4
200114-6-159 I 10mF -

{ 51-1 -
Volt )

6
mm
+

Ñ
20<-15 ± -25J -

{ 20J ,

the capacitor and the inductor in parallel

'

i are

-2¥ -1¥
"

i. Zeq =
( ) =
100J

Apply voltage division principle

N
100J 20<-150 15.96°
V0 = ✗ =
17115 <
ooyiooj
0.8575<30.960

i , VH1 =
17,15 Cos 141 -115.96°)
Chio .
Sinusoidal steady-State Analysis
EX.IO -

I
10h 1H
nm room

{
time-domain

t-yo.ir
"✗
±
zixqyy
20hrs40 0.*,

,
find ix
using nodal analysis
Sol .
convert the time-domain circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent
Torii jwL='jqñ '
mm ④ omen ④
1
20<00 I

I =Ñtwujz.SI
2Iµ §jwL=j2
= -

reference node

Apply nodal analysis .

Ñ -20<00 Ñ -

o Ñ-Ñ
Ñ ¥¥j
+ =
°
+

{
10 -25J 4J = =
18.97<18.430

vi. ñ - zÑ -0
+
Ñ -0 = 0
Ñ =

?s¥j = 13.91<193.30
g. -2.5J 2J

Ñ 18.97<18.430
IT
-0

i. = =
=
9,59<108.430
,
-2.5J 2.5<-900

ix =
7159005141 -1108.4° )
Ex ,
10-2
1000514-1+450 )
+ -

4h
am Trio

bcosztr % = IF § 31-1 { 12h

I
find to
using nodal analysis
Sol .
convert the time-domain circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent
Toit
g-
'

+ -
; supernode
:ñ ji
< i
iiiii , I '
☒ inn Tio
"

\ l
:
- - - .

3<00 ⇐ -

j}
f§jb { 12N
I
±

Apply nodal analysis .

apply KCL to the supernode

Vi -0
-3<00-1 VII. 0
+ 1- to = 0 Ñ 25,98<-70.480
{
=

oj
Ñ Ñz
-
=
10<450 VI = 31.41<-89.480

i. IT =
Ñ¥ = 2.62<-871180

Io =
2,62005121 -87,18° )
Chiu -

Ex . 10-3
4N
mn

1 Tio
b- cos 5h

.li/
TO
"
±
room 200515-1-190 )

sr §
,
*
I
find to mesh analysis
using
Sol .
convert the time-domain circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent
4N
win

vñ jz
Tio
5<0 -

/ imdb.FI -1-20<90

Sr

§
= -

jz
/
KVL to mesh
Apply 1,2 .

{ 8ii-iojli -isl-zjci -i i-o-zjli~z-iTI-zjli-z.is/t4i2 -120<900 = O

iz = 520° ,
iz = -
Io

'

,
'

Ñz =
6.12<-35.220 .
'

.
Ño = -

6,12<-35.220

to = -

b. 12 Cos 15T -35.22° )

EX .

10-4

/ 40055T

0.051=5 I § 6h

oiim
8h
am -

t
1000550 T Vo Io IF A 100554
-1
.

I
find Vo mesh analysis
using
Sol .
convert the time domain -

circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent
supermen
/ j< ji
- - - - -
- -

-
:

:
-

joy =: Tia :{ br
i. -

win
8h
- -

Ém±
10<0 T
voÉ-j2¥ 1^3<00
Apply mesh analysis

Apply KVL to mesh 1 , supermesh

10<00+81 Ñ IT ) zjli -

Ñ 1=0

g-81nF
-

,
-

-
Ñ) -

4J is + big +
5J ( ie iz )
-
= o

Iz = -

3<00 ,
Ñq iz -
=
4<00

'

i Ñ, =
3,618<274.50 .
'

.
Ño = -

2jlÑ -
Ñz ) =
-

9,213 j -

b. 568--9.950<222,320

V0 = 9,756 cos 15ft 222.32° )

Superposition -1hm .

Ex . 10-5

I ¥1
!
5<01 = -2J
T.jo

I ñim I 20290° V
8s }
1 =p -2J /
Sol ,

① let current source equal to zero

un
t
t.gr Tai '

I m I 20<904
8s }
1 =p -2J /
gttioj -1¥ )
"
'

.
'

-2J 1118 -110J ) : . Zeq = I =

0.25 -2.25J

20<900
ÑO
'

.
'

.
=
4 -2J -10.25-2.25J
=
-2.353 -12,353J

let
②
voltage source equal to zero

un

5<0
¥ -2J ar
TI .
"

I ñim
'

¥
8s
§ Fit
=p -2J
apply KVL to mesh 112

8 IT -110J ( it is )
-
-

2jiÑ -
iz )=o

{ -2J Ño iz
"

-2.049 -11.176J
=
-
=

( iz ITI -
-

zjlii -
i} / + qiz = o

based on ① and ② ,Ño=Ño 't Ño "

= -5 -1J 3.529--6.12<144.78
.
Ex ,
10-0

FEET
/
+
v0

I 100052J I 25in 54=0 If .

I 5V

' ' ' '

Sol the three with time at three different frequencies
' '

sources
. .

vary

i. apply superposition principle

① set all sources -

-
o
except the 5 v -

source

convert the time domain -

circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent

TEF jwL=o

; EEE short
t
± sv
circuit
1 I f I
open circuit

apply voltage -

division principle

v9 11+4
'
= ✗
5 =
I V

"

② all voltage
"

set sources o
except the lowsze source
-

convert the time domain -

circuit into a
frequency -

domain equivalent
My 4J
0
In 4N

10<00--1 -5J
I y f-
4s 11 -5 jr Zeq 1.951J
• ' '

. . .
=
2.439 -

apply voltage division principle

Ñ it
"
= ✗ 10<00 =
2.498<-30.790
qj -1 zeq
④ set all sources -

-
o
except the current source

convert the time-domain circuit into a

frequency -

domain equivalent
I
10J
I in

T 2<-900 -2J

I g-
2jr Zeq 0.8
• ' '

.
4h11 -

.
.
= -
1. bj

apply current division principle

ioj
Ñ =

( I -10.8 bj ,
✗ 2<-900 =
2,428<-800
10J + i.
-

i. Ño "'
= Ñ ,
-

I =
2,328<-800

't )
"
V0 2.328 WS 15h -80° )
'

=
. .

④ Based on ① , ② 130

" "'
V0 =
Vo 't Vo + Vo

= It 2,498 cos (2-430,790) -12,3285in 15T -110° )

 Uh 10-5

Ex 10-7 .

In ji }r
- -
- -

i ar
-

mm mm 11
I
1
,

120<-900-1 § ""
ion
{
+
vx

" -
-
-
I -
- . .
!§J4r
-

Find Ñx using the method of source transtromation

Sol .

① apply the method of source transformation

-

=
4s
-

ji }r
i
-

,
-1mm 11
" ,
'

i
'

114<-90 I :{ in +
Ñ
{ 5s
I

{
.

Ion
'

/
'
' '

I I !q't -1jar
-

'

1- '
= = -
==
20<-90
-

current of the current source I =

5
=
4<-90

5h11 131-1 j4n ) i. Zeq -11.25J

' '
= 2,5
.

②
apply the method of source transformation
1-
iisiijizsiiqr -

ji }r

ifvmtomrimm 11

i
'

it is
+
v1
ion
}
if i
-

i I
- -
- - - -

Ñ =
IT ✗
Zeq =/ 14<-900 ) =
-4J ] ✗ 125 -11.25J ) =
5 -

j to

apply voltage division principle

Ñ =

25 -11.25J -14
10
✗ 15 -

j 107 =
515192-280
I
}j -110
-