ANCIENT HISTORY Prelims Notes

• IMP MISC
o Pottery
i. Red-Black, Ochre - IVC, Chalcolithic, Megalithic
ii. Painted Grey Ware - Vedic Age
iii. NBPW - Mahajanapada, Mauryan
iv. Red Ware - Post Mauryan, Gupta
o Coins
i. Silver Punch marked - Mauryan
ii. Coins bearing name/face of king - Indo Greeks
iii. Gold coins (large scale) - Kushans
iv. Largest number of gold coins (but lesser purity compared to
Kushans) - Gupta
• Land Grants
i. Lands to Brahmans & Buddhist monks - Satavahanas
ii.
iii. Land grants to officials (feudal practice) - Harsha

o Inscriptions-
i. Ayodhya Inscription - Pushyamitra Shunga
ii. Junagarh Inscription - Rudraraman
iii. Allahabad Inscription (prayag Prashasti) - Samudragupta -
by Harisena
• ALLAHABAD PILLAR -
i. Ashoka (originally)
ii. Samudragupta (Prayag Prashasti by
Harisena)
iii. Jehangir incription (in Persian language)
iv. Mehrauli inscription - Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
v. Bhitari inscription (UP) - Skandagupta
vi. Aihole Inscription - Pulakesin II (mentions Harsha also)
vii. Pugalur incsription (1st century AD) -> mentions 3
generations of Cheras
viii. Madhuban Plate Inscription - Harsha

• Books/Works
i. Kalidasa -
• Malvikagnimitra
• Abhigyanshakuntalam
• Vikramorvashiya

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 Poems
o Ritu Samhar
o Meghadootam
o Raghuvansam
o KumarSambhav

2. Ashvaghosa -
a. Buddhacharita (Sanskrit)
b. Saundarananda
3. Buddhaghosa
a. Vishnudhimagga
4. Vishakadatta - written in Gupta times
a. Mudra Rakshash - Chandragupta maurya story
b. Devi Chandraguptam
c. Natya Darpan
5. Bhasha -
a. Swapnavasavadattam
6. Sudraka -
a. Mrichhakatika - Vasantsena & Charudatta love story
b. Padma Prabhitaka
c. Vinasavavadata
7. Banabhatta
a. Harshacharita
b. Kadambari
8. Harsha -
a. 3 Plays => Priyadarshini, Nagananda, Ratnavali

9. Bharavi -
a. Kiratarjuniya (Mammalapu ram Arjuna's Penance)
10. Dandi -
a. Dasakumarcharita

11. Magh -
a. Shishupal Vadha
b. Bhattikavya
12. Bihana -
a. Vikramdevcharita (Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI)
13. Kalhana
a. Rajatarangini (Kashmir kings)
14. Kamandaka (Chanakya of Guptas)
a. Nitisar
15. Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta king)
a. Kaviraj Marg (1st Kannada Poetry)

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 16.
Megasthenes Indica Admin and socio ecocnomic
conditions of Mauryas
Ptolemy Geography Of 2nd century AD
India
Fa-Hien Fo-Kuo-ki 5th century AD - Records of
(Record of the Gupta empire ( visited in time
Buddhist of Chandragupta II aka
Countries) Vikramaditya)
Hieun Tsang Si-Yu-Ki 5-7th century AD :
(Buddhist Harshavardhan empire
Records of the
Western World)
I-tsing Record of 7th century AD - Gupta period
Buddhist religion under Sri Gupta
as practiced in
India and Malay
Archipelago
Hwuili Life of Hieun Accounts of hieun tsang's
Tsang travel in India

• Sangam Literature - Secular

i. 1st Sangam (mythological) - chaired by Agastya Mahamuni
at Madurai
ii. 2nd Sangam - Tamil text on grammar - Tolkkapiyam =>
chaired by Tolkkapiyar at Kapatpuram
iii. 3rd Sangam - most imp - massive literature- chaired by
Nakkirar at Madurai
i. 18 Major Works -Melkanakus (Narrative) - on love
and God
a. Tirumurugaruppadai - on tamil god Murugan
by Nakkirar (prez of 3rd sangam)
ii. 18 Minor Works - Kilkanakus (Didactic)
a. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar
iii. 3 epics
a. Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal - Madurai,
Pandyan King, Vaishnavism Shaivism Jainism,
Pattani Cult

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 b. Manimegalai by Sattalai Sattanar (story of a
dancer becoming Buddhist nun)
c. Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttokadevar(story of
hero Sivaka becoming Jain monk)

• PREHISTORY/ Stone Age

• Paleolithic/old stone age (5,00,000-10,000BC)
i. Pliestocene period
ii. Quartzite man
iii. Larger stone tool - blunt
iv. Bori (MH), Bhimbetka
• Mesolithic/Microlithic/later stone age (10,000-4,000BC)
i. Transition phase Fishing started
ii. Domestication of animals
iii. Small stone tools - microliths
iv. Adamgarh (MP), Sarai Nahraya (UP), Bhimbetka (MP)
• Neolithic/ New Stone Age (6000-1000BC)
i. Settled life - agri, animal domestication
ii. Using cotton & wools for clothes
iii. Polished microlith - sharp flintstones
iv. Pottery making
v. Mastered use of fire
vi. Mehergarh - 1st village (Baluchistan)
o Prehistoric Findings =>
i. Bhimbetka - 500 painted rock shelters (MP)
ii. Nevasa - Evidence of cotton
iii. Atranjikheda - Textile printing
iv. Inamgaon - Mother goddess statue (MH)
v. Mehargarh, Baluchistan - earliest evidence of agri, settled life
vi. Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice
vii. Bagor and Adamgarh, Raj - Earliest evidence of domestication of
animal
viii. Chirand, Bihar - Serpant cult
ix. Burzahom Gulfkral, J&K - Pit dwelling
• IVC
• 2500-1500BC

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 •

• Developed own Script - mostly Boustrophedon => written from right to left and
left to right in alternate lines
• Pictographic inscription
• Did NOT write long inscriptions, unlike Egyptians & Mesopotamians
• Bronze Age (no iron)
• Crops - Wheat, Barley, Peas, Jowar, Ragi, Mustard, Lentils, Cotton, Rice (at
Lothal and Rangpur, was rarely grown tho) - DID NOT GROW SUGARCANE, NO
MAIZE
• 2 crops were grown together
• First to Grow Cotton (called Sindon)

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 • Canals & dams
• Used Solid wheels => NOT spoked wheels (used by Aryans)
• Animals - dogs, cats, buffalo, pigs,cow, camel, chicken, goat, sheep, elephant
(ivory tusks) - NO HORSE
• Copper imported from Oman + from Khetri also (had some Nickel too)
• Specialised production centers
• Religion -
• Pashupati Seal (surrounded by elephant, rhino, tiger, buffalo & 2 deer at
feet)
• Mother Goddess (fertility Goddess) - MohenJoDaro, terracotta statue
• Phallic worship
• Fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, Harappa
• Amulets used as protection against ghosts and evil spirits
• Society - Matriarchal
• Later Harappan Civilisation (after 1900BC) => writing, long-distance trade, craft
specialisation -> Disappeared -> civilisation deteriorating
• Towns-
• Almost all major sites had 2 parts - citadel (higher ground) and
residential lower town (on eastern side)
• Streets intersect at right angles
• Drainage system found in small towns also
• Sites -
• Harappa - Montgomery distt, Left bank of Ravi
i. Row of six granaries
ii. Evidences of fractional and coffin burial
• Mohenjodaro - Larkana distt, right bank of Indus
i. Grid planning of city
ii. Large granary and Grand Bath
• Chanhudaro - Sind, bank of Indus
i. Bead makers shop
ii. Footprints of dog chasing dog
iii. Only IVC site WITHOUT CITADEL
• Kalibangan - Raj, bank of Ghaggar
i. Bangle industry
ii. Wooden plough
• Dholavira - Rann of Kucch (Khadir Bet island)
i. Unique water management
ii. 3 parts of town
iii. 10 lettered site
• Dholavira and Lothal => entire settlement was fortified
• Lothal - near Gulf of Cambay, near Bhogawa river
i. Evidence of horse from terracotta figurine
ii. Beads and trade port

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 iii. Aka Manchester of Indus Valley
• Megalithic Phase
• 2nd century BC in Peninsula => megalith builders (graves called
megaliths because encircled by large stones)
• Iron weapons buried with dead i.e. Iron Age=> agri not advanced
• Red-Black pottery
Chalcolithic Period - used copper as well as stone
• Aka stone-copper age => decline from IVC as they did not use bronze
• Red-Black Ware Pottery
• People mostly lived on river banks near hills => Western India and Deccan
• NO burnt bricks
• Knew terracotta like Harappans
o Belan Valley, UP => evidence of Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic sistes in
sequence
▪ Koldihwa (in Belan Valley) - earliest evidence of rice
o RECENT sites-
• Keeladi, TN - Sangam site - Tamil Brahmi script
• Chebrolou, Andhra Pradesh - worship of goddess Saptamatrika - 7
goddess => Sanskrit insciption
• Vedic Age (1500-600BC)
• Unplanned urbanization
• No burnt bricks
c. Painted Grey Ware Pottery - Early Rig Vedic Age
i. Early Vedic Period/ Rig Vedic Period (1500-1000BC) -> no
idolatory
1. No Temple + No idol worship - worshipped forces of
nature
2. Female Dieties - Usha, Aditi, Prithvi, Aryani, Saraswati
3. Economy around Cattle
4. Bali - voluntary tribute
5. Sapta Sindhu region
ii. 1000BC -> Discovery of Iron
iii. Late Vedic Period (1000-600BC)
1. Knew use of Iron (Shyaam Ayas/Krishna Ayas)
2. Did not have knowledge of burnt bricks
3. Rice and Wheat => staple
4. Economy around land
5. Bali -> became compulsory
6. Status of women depreciated
7. Indo-Gangetic region

• Aryans came from -

a. Tibet : Dayanand Saraswati

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 b. Arctic region : Tilak
c. Central Asia
▪ Aryans defeated Dasyus (natives)
• Das - defeated Aryans
• Dasyu - defeated natives
▪ Brought horses, knew use of iron
• Rituals
a. Panch Mahayagyas
i. Brahma Yagya
ii. Bhuta Yagya - for living beings
iii. Deva Yagya - for gods
iv. Manushya Yagya - for friends, relatives
v. Pitru Yagya - for forefathers
• Others - Rajasuya, Ashwamedha,
Narmedha/Purushmedha, Agnichayana
b. Vajapeya - Chariot race
• Culture
a. Women
i. No Sati
ii. No child marriage
iii. No pardah system
iv. Received education
v. Widow remarriage
vi. Active participation of women in public life
vii. Patriarchal Family (unlike matriarchal in IVC)
viii. Joint families :- Kutumba
b. Polity
i. Rajan (EVP - battle and secure cows, LVP - battle and secure lands)
ii. Kula - family, Vis/Jana - tribe
iii. Officers - Purohit (priest), Senani (commander), Gramani (village
chief), Ugra & Jivagrabha (police like), Akshvapa (accountant),
Bhagadugha (tax collector), Madhyamasi (mediator in disputes)
iv. 3 assemblies -
1. Sabha (only few elders) => some women also => LVP ->
became small body + women not allowed
2. Vidhata => most important assembly => women present
=> secular, religious and military purpose => disappeared
in Later Vedic period
3. Samiti => gained significance only during end of EVP => not
present in LVP
c. Coins -
i. Satamana - silver coin
ii. Nishaka

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 d. River Names -
i.
Sindhu Indus
Drishadvari Ghaggar/Chitang
Satudri Satluj
Vipas Beas
Parushni Ravi
Asikni Chenab
Vitasta Jhelum

5. MAHAJANPADAS
a. 2nd urbanisation
b. NBPW Pottery
c. Ganas - Oligarchy Mahajanpadas (Budhha and Mahavira belonged to
such Ganas)
d. Angutta Nikaya - Part of Sutta Pitaka mentioning Mahajanapadas
e. Bhagwati Sutra - Jain text mentioning Mahajanapadas

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 f. Coins -
i. Satamana - silver coin
ii. Nishaka

g.

▪ Republic States - Malla, Vajji

6. Magadha
a. HARYANKAS
i. Bimbisara (542-493BC)
i. Marriage alliances - expansion of Magadha westward and
northward
ii. Girivraj/Rajgir - earliest capital surrounded by 5 hills
ii. Ajatasatru (492-460BC)
i. Aggressive policy of expansion
ii. 1st Buddhist Council at Rajgriha 483BC
iii. Udayin (460-444BC)

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 i. Built fort at Pataliputra and made it capital (center of
kingdom)
b. SHISUNAGAS
i. Shishunag
i. Temporarily shifted capital to Vaishali
ii. Kala Ashoka
i. Defeated Avanti (capital - Ujjain)
ii. 2nd Buddhist Council at Vaishali 383BC
c. NANDAS - 1st Non-Kshatriya rulers
i. Mahapadmananda
i. Aka Ugrasen or Ekarat
ii. Dhananada
i. Strongest army of the period
ii. Stopped alexander
iii. Conquered Kalinga => brought image of Jina as a victory trophy

o Cause of Rise of Magadha

i. Geog advantage - strategic capitals (Rajgriha and then Patna)
ii. Adundance of natural resources (iron)
iii. Fertile Ganga plains - agri
iv. Rise of towns and metallic money - trade and commerce
v. Elephants used in war
vi. Unorthodox character of Magadhan society
vii. Ambitious rulers and their policies

7. MAURYAS (322-185BC)
a. Literary Sources
i. Arthashastra - Kautilya

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 ii.Indica - Megasthenes
iii.Mudra Rakshasa - Vishakadatta (chanakya-Chandragupta story) -
written in Gupta times
iv. Devi-Chandragupta - Vishakadatta (Sanskrit political drama)
v. Puranas
vi. Jatakas - socio-economic condition of Magadha
vii. Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa - decribe Ashoka's role in spreading
Buddhism to SL
viii. Divyavadana - Tibetan Buddhist text - Ashoka and his efforts to
spread Buddhism
b. Archaeological Sources
i. Silver Punch mark coins - without name of rulers

ii. Burnt bricks and ringed well

iii. NBPW
iv. Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya
v. Ashokan edicts - Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts, Cave Insciptions
i. All pillars carved out of Chunar hills => displaced at
different places
ii. 3 languages - Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic
iii. 4 scripts -
1. Brahmi, Kharoshti (Manshera & Shabzgiri
inscriptions) for Prakrit
2. Greek, Aramaic
• Edict 13 in Kandahar is bilingual (Greek and
Aramaic)
iv. Important Inscriptions- (deciphered by James Princep in
1837)
1. Sarnath - Dhamma Ashoka
2. Maski & Gujara - Ashoka revealed his true name
3. Barbu - Ashoka expressed his faith in Buddhism

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 4. Rumandei - land grants and economic favours to
monasteries
5. Manshera - Kharosthi script used
• Major Rock Edicts - principles of dhamma
• Minor Rock Edicts - personal history of Ashoka

3. Admin

a.

b. States regulated trade and commerce

c. Officers were paid salary in cash
d. Officers-
i. Rajuka - administration of justice
ii. Samaharta - taxes
iii. Sannidhata - treasurer
iv. Sithadhyaksha - director of Agriculture
v. Amatya - civil servant to look after day to day administration
e. Megasthenes => committee system for admin of municipalities in cities (6
committes of 5 members each). Functions-
i. Industrial arts
ii. Entertainment of foreigners
iii. Registration of birth and death
iv. Trade and commerce
v. Public sale of mfg goods
vi. Collection of taxes on articles sold
f. Espionage -
i. Pativedaka - Special reportere/spy
ii. Sanstha - spies working in palace
iii. Visha kanya - woman spy
iv. Gudha-Purusha - secret agent
v. Cara - secret agent
4. Economy

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 a. State took active part
b. Shudras => involved in agriculture first time
c. Sita => crown land
d. Irrigation by state
e. Taxation - 1/6th of produce
f. Weight and measures - regulated by states
g. Relief measures during famines
5. Army
i. Maintenance of huge army (6L soldiers)
ii. All 4 varnas permitted in army
iii. Also maintained Navy
2. Rulers
i. Chandragupta Maurya (322-298BC)
i. Adopted Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelagola
along with Bhadrabahu
ii. Bindusara (298-273BC)
i. Antiochus I sent his ambassador Diamakus to his court and asked
for sweet wine, figs and a sophist
ii. 1st Jain Council in Pataliputra 299BC
iii. Patronized Ajivika sect
iii. Ashoka
i. Founded city of Srinagar acc to Kalhana's Rajatharangini
ii. Ashoka's Dhamma
1. Diff from Buddhism
2. Tenet of tolerance + moral conducts
3. Objective - to preserve social order as with Mauryan
expansion the pop become heterogenous, diverse and
multi-racial
4. Pay respects to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks
5. Mercy to slaves
6. If people behaved well => would attain Swarga
iii. Aka Devinami Priyadarshini

8. POST MAURYAN

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 o

o INSIDERS
1. SUNGA DYNASTY (185-73 BC)
i. Estd by Pushyamitra Sunga, Brahmin Commander-in-chief
ii. Capital - Vidisha (MP)
iii. Performed Aswamedh Yajna (Patanjali assisted) =>Ayodhya Inscription
iv. Revival of Brahmanical religion
v. Buddha Stupa at Barhut
vi. Succeeded by Agnimitra (hero of Malvikarjun of Kalidas)
vii. Greek ambassador Herodotus constructed pillar Garudadhwaja (at
Vidisha)- in honour of God Vasudeva
2. KANVA DYNASTY (73-28 BC)
i. Vasudeva
ii. Confined to Magadha only
iii. Annexed by Satavahanas
3. SATAVAHANAS (60BC - 225AD) - 30 kings
i. Successors of Mauryans in Deccan and Central India
ii. Capital - Pratishtana (banks of Godavari), Port city - Bharuch
iii. Gathsaptasati - by Hala (Satavahana ruler)
iv. Founder - Simuka
v. Satakarni I - performed vedic sacrifices

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 vi. Succeeded by - Vakataka dynasty in MH; Ikshvaku dynasty in Andhra
i. Ikshvaku => feudatories of Satavahanas
ii. Capital - Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda)
iii. Patornized Amravati school
vii. Started the practise of donating land to Brahmans/Buddhist monks -
aka BRAHMADEYA => led to feudalism
viii. Language - Prakrit
ix. Gautamiputra Shatkarani (23rd king)
i. Metronymics - taking Mother's name before his name (Polygyny
society)
x. But patrilineal succession -> NOT matrilineal
xi. NO gold coins
xii. Hinduism
Religious Land Grants
▪ Brahmadeya - donated to Brahmans
▪ Devadana - donated to Gods
▪ Agrahara - tax free settlement of priests - also had right vested with
temple and monasteries to call for Vishti (unpaid labour) from tillers
of donated land => priests could collect tax from tillers tho
4. CHEDI
i. In Kalinga region (Orissa)
ii. Capital - Sisupalgarh
iii. Kharavela ruler - patronized Jainism

o OUTSIDERS
5. INDO-GREEK
i. First foreign rulers of NW India in post Maurya period
ii. Menander (165-145BC) - Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena - Milind-
Panho
iii. Capital - Sialkot
iv. Introduced regular coinage in India in large number
v. First coins to bear names and images of kings were issued by Indo-
Greeks
6. SAKAS
i. Aka Scythians, replaced Indo-Greeks
ii. Rudraraman (130-150 AD) - repaired Sudarsan lake (made by
Chandragupta Maurya) and gave patronage to Sanskrit
i. Title of Mahakshatrap
iii. Junagarh Inscription => attributed to Rudraraman
iv. 58 BC - Vikramaditya defeated Sakas => Vikram Samvat
v. Satrap System of govt
i. Similar to that of Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran

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 ii. Each province (satrap) under a military governor called
Mahakshatrap
iii. They issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own
coins
7. PARTHIANS (1st century BC- 1st Century AD)
i. From Iran => replaced Sakas in NW India (but controlled a smaller area)
ii. Gondaphernes => St. Thomas came to India from israel to propagate
Christianity
8. KUSHANS (1st to 3rd century AD)
i. Replaced Parthians in NW India => then expanded to lower Indus basin
and Ganga basin
ii. Controlled silk route
iii. Founded by Kadphises I
iv. First to issue gold coins on a wide scale => gold coins of high purity
v. Most famous ruler - Kanishka (78 - 101 AD) - aka Second Ashoka =>
started Saka Era in 78 AD (after defeating Sakas)
vi. Empire spread over 5 countries - Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, India
vii. Capital - Peshawar (Purushpura)
viii. Patron of Mahayana Buddhism => 4th Buddhist Council in Kundalvana,
Kashmir by Kanishk
ix. Patronized Scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashvagosha, Vasumitra, Parsava,
Charaka
x. Large headless statue of Kanishk at Mathura
9. SANGAM AGE (300-600 AD)

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 o

▪ Categories of People in South India-

i. Vellalar - landowners
ii. Uzhavar - ordinary ploughmen
iii. Adimai and Kadaisiyar - slaves and landless labourers
• Similarly in North India =>
i. Bhojaka - village headman (also largest landowner)
ii. Grihapati - small landowner
iii. Dasa Karmakar - landless
▪ Hero worship prevalent - Viragals - stone slabs with hero's inscriptions
1. CHERAS
i. Capital - Vanji
ii. Senguttuvan - greatest ruler (aka Red Chera, Good Chera) - created
temple of Kannagi
iii. Roman temple of Augustus (later destroyed by Tipu)
iv. Muziris Port
v. Pugalur incsription(1st century AD) -> mentions 3 generations of Cheras
2. EARLY CHOLAS
i. Capital - Kaveripatnam/Puhar
ii. Karikala Chola - greatest ruler - founded Puhar port
iii. Puhar Port
iv. Uraiyur - chief political center famous for cotton trade
3. PANDYAS
i. Patronized Sangam assembly at Madurai
ii. Meduncheliya ruler - Known for curse of Kannagi
iii. Madurai => capital
iv. Korkai Port - Pearl Trade

TAMIL LITERATURE- secular

1. 1st Sangam (mythological) - chaired by Agastya Mahamuni at Madurai
2. 2nd Sangam - Tamil text on grammar - Tolkkapiyam => chaired by Tolkkapiyar at
Kapatpuram

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 3. 3rd Sangam - most imp - massive literature- chaired by Nakkirar at Madurai
i. 18 Major Works -Melkanakus (Narrative) - on love and God
i. Tirumurugaruppadai - on tamil god Murugan by Nakkirar (prez of
3rd sangam)
ii. 18 Minor Works - Kilkanakus (Didactic)
i. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar - code of ethics & universal human
values
iii. 3 epics
i. Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal - Madurai, Pandyan King,
Vaishnavism Shaivism Jainism, Pattani Cult
ii. Manimegalai by Sattalai Sattanar (story of a dancer becoming
Buddhist nun)
iii. Sivaga Sindamani by Tiruttokadevar(story of hero Sivaka
becoming Jain monk)
10. GUPTAS
i. Literary Sources
i. Nitisar by Kamandaka
ii. Devichandraguptam by Vishakadutta
iii. Mrichakatika by Sudraka
iv. Kathasagarsarita by Somdev
v. Sawpanwasavdatta by Bhasa
ii. Political History
i. Sri Gupta - founded dynasty
ii. Ghatotkach
iii. Chandragupta I
1. Assumed title Maharajadhiraja
2. Started Gupta Era in 320AD
3. Issued many gold coins => king and queen on coins
4. Matrimonial alliance with Licchavi (nepal) princess
Kumaradevi - Kumaradevi coins
iv. Samudragupta (335-389AD)
1. Greatest Gupta king - title of Prakrama
2. Prayag Prasasti (Allahabad Pillar inscription) by his poet
Harisena in sanskrit
3. Great conqueror and poet - aka Kaviraja
4. Vaishnav, tolerant to Buddhists also
v. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (380-414AD)
1. Matrimonial alliance (of his daughter) with Naga dynasty
2. Issued silver coins
3. Made Ujjain second capital
4. Vishakadatta's play Natya-Darpan and
Devichandraguptam => Chandragupta II defeated Saka
ruler Rudrasimha III

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 5. Iron Pillar (Qutub Minar)
6. Mehrauli Inscription
7. Fa-Hien visited => book Fu-kuo-ki => common life and
untouchability
8. Navaratna of Chandragupta II - Kalidasa, Dhanavantri,
Varahmira, Vetala Bhatta..etc
vi. Kumargupta I (415-455 AD)
1. Worshipper of Lord Kartikeya
2. Founded Nalanda Mahavihara - Mahayana Buddhism
3. Pusyamitra invaded during his reign
vii. Skandagupta (455-467 AD)
1. Pushed back Hunas
2. Repaired Sudarshan Lake (originally built by Chandragupta
Maurya & repaired by Rudraraman)
3. Bhitari Pillar Inscription
4. Continous Hun attacks -> weakened empire
iii. Administration
i. Officers post - Hereditary
ii. High Decentralization as compared to Mauryans
iii. Quasi Feudal economy - hereditary grants
• Religious grants of 2 types -> Agrahara and Devagraha
iv. King took exalted titles like Maharajadhiraj, Samrat, Chakravartin
etc
• Trading bois-
i. Sarthavaha - leaders of
caravan traders
ii. Sresthi - very rich
merchant
iii. Vanik - trader in general
4. Society
i. Varna system modifies due to -
i. Many foreigners assimilated into Indian society as Kshatriyas
ii. Assimilated tribals into Shudras
iii. Guilds of craftsmen transformed into caste with decline of trade
and urban centers
ii. Lil improvement in position of women - education allowed, but Sati
present
iii. Gods getting consorts - Lakshmi with Vishnu, Parvati with Shiva
iv. Evolution of Vajrayana Budhhism and tantric cults
v. Idol Worship became common
5. Economy
i. Land survey
ii. Tax fixed at 1/6th of the produce. Taxes -

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 i. Bali
ii. Bhaga
iii. Bhogkar
iv. Hiranyanka - tax in cash
iii. Paid salary in form of land grants (Mauryans paid in cash)
i. Pustapala - officer maintained land records

4. Largest no. of gold coins (but not as pure as Kushana coins)

5. Decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade
vi. East Coast Ports - Tamralipti, Ghantashala, Kandura
vii. Western Coast Ports - Bharuch, Chaul, Kalyan, Cambay
f. Culture
i. Decline of animal sacrifice as Bhagwatism/Vishnu worship grew
ii. Idol worship - free standing temple
iii. Rock cut caves - Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh caves
g. Inscriptions-
i. Allahabad Inscription (prayag Prashasti) - Samudragupta - by Harisena
• ALLAHABAD PILLAR -
i. Ashoka (originally)
ii. Samudragupta (Prayag Prashasti by Harisena)
iii. Jehangir incription (in Persian language)
ii. Mehrauli inscription - Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
iii. Bhitari inscription (UP) - Skandagupta
▪ Other inscriptions
• Ayodhya Inscription - Pushyamitra Shunga
• Junagarh Inscription - Rudraraman
• Aihole Inscription - Pulakesin II (mentions to Harsha also)
h. Literature

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 i.

ii. Buddhist texts => Abhidharma Kosha by Dignana, Vishnudhimagga by

Buddhaghosha
k. POST GUPTAN AGE (550-750 AD)
o 5 major powers emerged in North India -
▪ Maukharis (western UP)
▪ Maitrakas - (Saurashtra)
▪ Gaudas - (Bengal) - Shashank Gauda (uprooted Bodhi tree)
▪ Kamarupa - (assam)
▪ Pushyabhuti (Thaneshwar)
i. Prabhakarvardhan assumed title Parambhattaraka
Maharajadhiraja
ii. Marriage alliance with Maukharis
iii. Made Kannauj capital
• Rajyavardhan became king => Shashank Gowda of Bengal
killed him and captured his sister Rajyashri => so 16 year
old Harshavardhan had to step up => killed shashank
gowda and freed his sister Rajyashri
iv. Harshavardhan (606-647 AD)
a. Officers -
i. Baladhikrit - commander
ii. Vrihadeshwawar - head of cavalary
iii. Katuk - elephant brigade head
b. Political Career-
i. Conquered Kannauj (capital), Bengal,
Assam, Gujarat, Bihar, Raj

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 ii. Defeated by Pulakesin II of Badami
Chalukyans in Guj and Narmada was agreed
as border
iii. Aihole inscription (commissioned by
Pulakesin II) on walls of Jain temple -
"Sakalottara Padeshwara" (lord of whole
north India) refers to Harsha
c. Literature -
i. Harsha wrote 3 dramas - Priyadarshini,
Nagananda, Ratnavali
ii. Banabhatta wrote - Harshacharita,
Kadambari, Parvatiparinayam
iii. Hieun Tsang - Si-Yu-Ki
d. Welfare of people - Mahamoksha Parishad ->
distributed wealth to poor
e. Patronised both Shaivism and Buddhism (later
inclined to Buddhism) -> earlier Hinayan, later
became Mahayana (due to closeness with Hieun
Tsang)
f. Liberal spirit => prohibited animal food and killing,
and secular
g. Kannauj Assembly - religious conference presided
by Hieun Tsang
h. Admin
i. Highly feudal and decentralized
ii. Not a lot of coins -> started feudal practice
of paying officers with land grants
iii. Law and order not well maintained
iv. Severe punishment for crime (later reduced
under influence of Buddhism)
v. Madhuban Plate Inscription

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 o

o 3 major South Indian Powers -

• Badami Chalukyans of Deccan (543-775AD)
i. Ancient name Vatapi Chalukyans
ii. Pulakesin II
a. Aihole Inscription
i. Authored by RaviKirti
ii. At banks of Malaprabha river in Raichur
doab in Bijapur, Karnataka
iii. Aihole inscription made under reigning king
Pulakesin II
iv. Mentions defeat of Harsha at hands of
Pulakesin II
v. Mentions shifting of capital from Aihole to
Badami
b. Defeated Harsha
c. Vaishnavite. Secular - tolerant of other faiths
d. Vengi Chalukyans - seperated after death of
Pulakesin II
e. 2 wars with Pallavas
i. Battle of Pullaluru => Mahendravarma I was
killed
ii. Battle of Maninamgula => Pulakesin II was
killed by Narsimhavarma-I (aka Vatapi
Konda)
f. Handed over territories to his brother
vishnuvardhan who started another branch of
Chalukyas => Vengi Chalukyas

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 iii. Last ruler Keertivarma-II was assasinated by Dantidurga
(estd Rashtrakuta dynasty with capital at ellora)
iv. Art and Architecture
a. Developed Vesara Style
b. Rock cut temples and structural temples
i. Rockcut caves of Badami (karnataka)
v. Military Officers-
a. Baladhikrita
b. Dandanayaka
c. Mahaprachanda Danadanayak
vi. Administration
a. Village divided into-
i. Maharashtrakas (provinces)
ii. Rashtrakas (mandalas)
iii. Vishaya (distt)
iv. Bhoga (group of 10 villages)
b. Amatyas - looked after revenue matters
• Pallavas of Kanchi (550-850 AD)
i. Satavahanas => Ikshvaku => Pallavas
ii. Founders of Dravidian architecture
iii. Introduced art of excavating temples from rock
iv. Founded by Simhavishnu (Vaishnavite)
v. Mahendravarma-I
a. Wrote sanskrit drama "Matta vilasa prahasanam"
b. Killed by Pulakesin-II
c. Aka -
i. Vichitrachitta (curious minded)
ii. Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists)
iii. Chaityakari (temple builder)
vi. Narasimhavarma-I
a. Aka "Mammala"
b. Assumed title Vatapikonda (conquered
Vatapi/Badami)
c. Killed Pulakesin-II
d. Built new city Mahabalipuram(Mammalapuram)
vii. Narasimhavarma-II
a. Title - Raja Simha
b. Built Shore Temple
c. Built number of Ghatikas (educational institutions)
viii. Literature
a. Constributed to development of Grantha Script
b. Gave importance to Sanskrit -
i. Bharavi - wrote Kiratarjuneeyan

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 ii. Dandi - wrote Dashakumaracharita
ix. Temples-
a. Developed Dravidan Style of temple archi

b.

•Rajasimheswara Temple/Kailashnath Temple - at

Kanchi
• Pandyas of Madurai

l. After Decline of Pushyabhuti, the void in North India was filled by 3 dynasties -
i. RASHTRAKUTAS
• In deccan region
• Founded by Dantidurga
• Krishna I => built Kailashanath temple at Ellora
• Amoghvarsha => wrote first Kannada Poetry KavirajMarg
• built capital city Manyakhet
• Religious tolerant
• Decentralized admin (like Guptas)
• Administration
i. Rashtra (province) - governor : Rashtrapati
ii. Visaya
iii. Bhukti
ii. PALAS
• Founded by Gopala in 750AD => dominated Eastern India
• Gopala was elected king by people to end anarchy
• Buddhist dynasty
• Initiated miniature painting
• Succeeded by Dharampala
• Revived Nalanda (founded by Kumargupta-I)
• Estd. Vikramshila Univ (second only to Nalanda) - on banks of
Ganga in magadha
• Palas had close trade and cultural links with South East Asia
• Administration-
i. Bhuktis (provinces) - governor : Uparika
ii. Vishayas (division)
iii. Mandals (distt)

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 iii. PRATIHARAS
• In Avanti-Jalor region of Western India
• Worshippers of Laxman (Pratihara means "doorkeeper")
• Mihir Bhoj - strongest ruler - aka Adivarha
• Administration -
i. Visaya (district) : Visayapati
ii. Pattala
o GANGA DYNASTY - Orissa
• Narsimhadev => built Sun Temple Konark
• Anantvarman => built Jagannath Puri Temple
• Kesari => built Lingaraj Temple at Bhuvaneshwar
o KANNAUJ TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (8th century AD)
• Btw Rashtrakutas (Deccan), Palas (east), Pratiharas (West)
• Lasted for 2 centuries and made all three dynasties weak =>
resulted in Islamic invasion
• Kannauj => located on Ganga trade route and was connected to
Silk Route
• Finally, Nagabhatta II of Gurjara-Pratiharas won

o 4 phases -
i. Early Cholas (300BC-200AD)

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 ii. Sangam Cholas (200-800AD)
• Not much info about them
• Pandyas and Pallavas dominated
iii. Medieval/ Imperial Cholas/Mainline Cholas (848-1070AD)
• Founed by Vijayalaya (feudatory of Pallavas of Kanchi) => made
Tanjore (banks of Kaveri) his capital in 850AD
• Aditya 1 - 2nd chola => defeated Pallavas and occupied Western
Ganga Kingdom
• Parantaka (Aditya 1's son) => defeated Pandyas => assumed title
Maduraikonda
• Rajaraja Chola -- defeated Pandyas and Cheras and also SL,
Maldives, Lakshadweep
• built Brihadeshwar/Rajrajeshwaram Temple, Tanjore
(1010AD) on River Kaveri
• Assumed title Mummudi Chola
• Rajendra 1 - captured northward territories; overseas campaign
against Srivijaya kingdom in SE Asia (Bali, Sumatra, Java, Malay)
• even more ambitious than his father => defeated
Mahipala in gangetic valley but didn't annex => created
new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (banks of Kaveri)
• Assumed title Gangaikonda

iv. Later Cholas (1070-1279AD)

• United Chalukyas and Cholas
• Absorbed by Pandyan empire in 1279AD

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 o Administration
▪ Decentralised Administration : - Units -
• Mandalam (province)
• Valanadu (distt)
• Nadu (block)
• Kottam (village)
• Ur (smallest admin unit)
▪ Villages -
• 2 types of assemblies - Ur (general assembly), Mahasabha
(gathering of adult men in agraharas)
• Brahmadeya and Agrahara => lands for Brahmans
• Devadana - tax for temples
• Intercaste village

▪ Brahmans and peasants (No kshatriya)

m. Foreign Literature
i.
Megasthenes Indica Admin and socio ecocnomic
conditions of Mauryas
Ptolemy Geography Of 2nd century AD
India
Fa-Hien Fo-Kuo-ki (Record 5th century AD - Records of Gupta
of the Buddhist empire ( visited in time of
Countries) Chandragupta II aka Vikramaditya)
Hieun Tsang Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist 5-7th century AD : Harshavardhan
Records of the empire
Western World)

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 I-tsing Record of 7th century AD - Gupta period
Buddhist religion under Sri Gupta
as practiced in
India and Malay
Archipelago
Hwuili Life of Hiuem Accounts of hieun tsang's travel in
Tsang India

n. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

i. 5th century BC
ii. Very glossy, shiny pottery
iii. Beginning of metallic money, iron implements found, burnt bricks
iv. Second urbanisation => after disappearance of Harappan civ in 1500
BC, for 1000 yrs we do not find any town in India till NBPW phase
o. Brahma Sutras
i. By Badrayana
ii. Summarizes philosophical and spiritual ideas in Upanishads
iii. Foundational texts of Vedanta Philosophy
▪ Prasthanatrayi - 3 authoritative primary sources:
i. Upanishads - shruti prasthana (heard)
ii. BhagavadGita - smriti prasthana (remembered)
iii. Brahma Sutra - nyaya prasthana (logical)

VEDIC AGE (1500BC - 600BC)

p. Vedic Literature
i. VEDAS
• Rig Veda
i. Largest, oldest
ii. 1028 suktas
iii. 10 mandals (books)
iv. Associated Brahmanas: Aitreya, Kaushitaki
v. These Brahmanas supported by Aranyakas
• Yajur Veda
i. Vedic rituals, Yajnas
ii. 2 parts - Shukla (white) and Krishna (black)
iii. Associated brahmanas : Shatapatha Brahmanas
• Sama Veda
i. Smallest
ii. Music and melodies
• Atharva Veda
i. Daily life procedures/medicines
ii. Root of ayurveda

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 iii. Mundaka upanishad
o Shruti Literature (that which is written down) - Each Veda divided into 4
parts
• SAMHITA
i. 1st part of Vedas
ii. Collection of Mantras
• BRAHMANAS
i. Explanation of Samhitas, ritualistic formulae and explain
social and religious meaning of rituals
ii. Commentaries on Vedic hymns
iii. 2nd part of Vedas
iv. Each school had its own Brahmana
v. Most are lost
• ARANYAKAS
i. 3rd part of Vedas =>'forest dweller'
ii. Diluting emphasis of sacrificial rituals => more emphasis
on philosophical and spiritual interpretation of rituals
iii. Reasoning behind vedic rituals
• UPANISHADS
i. End part of Vedas
ii. 'sitting nearby' => dialogues btw master and disciple
iii. Philosophical content
iv. 108 total
a. Kathopanishad => yama-Nachiketa dialogue,
Chariot Allegory
b. Mahaupanishad => Vasudev kutumbakum
c. Tettreya => athithi devo bhava
d. Ishabaso => Lokpal motto
o Smriti Literature (that which is remembered) =>
• VEDANGAS (6 peripherals of Vedas) -
i. Kalpa Sutras - of each Veda, focus on procedures and
ceremonies
ii. Shiksha - phonetics, pronounciation
iii. Chhanda - oranization of vedic text into verses and
mantras
iv. Jyotish - Vedic astrology
v. Vyakaran - Grammar of sanskrit
vi. Nirukta - Interpretaion of words
• Epics - Mahabharat and Ramayan
• Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras (or Smritishastrasa)
• Bhasya -> review and commentary on Shruti and non-Shruti texts
• PURANAS => composed much later - for masses - not included in
Vedic literature

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 • Agamas => compilation of devotional sects like Vaishnavism,
Shaivism etc
q. Trade Routes during Post-Mauryan Period

i.

o Uttarapath and Dakshinpath

r. Some TERMS
i. SOUTH -
• Vellalar - Large landowners
• Uzhavar - ordinary ploughman
• Kadaisiyar / Adimai - landless labour including slaves

ii. NORTH

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 • Grama Bhojak - village headman, largest landowner
• Grihapati - independent farmer, small landowner
• Dasa Karmkara - did not own land

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