PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications

CHAPTER 2
DIODE APPLICATIONS
BASIC DC POWER SUPPLY
- A DC power supply is one of the most important part of an electronic circuit.
- It converts the supply line AC voltage to an appropriate DC voltage which can be used to power
up the electronic circuit inside various electronic appliances.
- The DC power supply consists of the following parts
o Transformer – It is responsible to step down the AC line voltage to a lower AC voltage.
o Rectifier – Converts the AC voltage to a pulsating DC voltage.
o Filter – Filters the rectified voltage close to the DC voltage but with ripples.
o Voltage Regulator – Smoothes out the entire ripple in the filtered output and maintains
the output to a specified DC voltage level.

Figure 1 DC Power Supply

2-1 HALF – WAVE RECTIFIER

- A diode circuit that produces one half cycle output for one complete cycle of input is called a
half-wave rectifier as shown in Figure 2.
- In the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and produces a positive cycle at the
output taken across RL.
- In the negative cycle the diode is reverse biased and the output is zero.

Average Value of Half Wave Output Voltage

- The average value of the output would the value measured on a DC multimeter.
𝑽𝒑
- The average output is 31.8% of 𝑽𝒑 and is given by 𝑽𝑨𝑽𝑮 = .
𝝅

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications

Figure 2 Half Wave Rectification (Ideal Diode)

2.1.1 Effect of Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

- If the diodes are not
ideal, then the barrier
potential of 0.7 V is
taken into account.
- During the positive half
cycle, the input voltage
must overcome the
barrier potential for the
diode to become Figure 3 Half Wave Rectification (Practical Diode)
forward bias.
- This results in the half cycle to appear at the output.
- During the negative cycle the diode is reverse biased so there is no output.
- The peak output voltage in half wave rectifier is given by
𝑽𝒑(𝒐𝒖𝒕) = 𝑽𝒑 𝒊𝒏 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-2 Page 49

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
2.1.2 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
- PIV is the peak value of the input
voltage and is given as 𝐏𝐈𝐕 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑛

2.1.3 Transformer Coupling

- Transformer is used to either step
down or step up the source
voltage.
- The amount of step down is
determined by the turn ratio.
Figure 4 Half Wave Rectifier with Transformer Coupling
- Turn Ratio ‘n’ is defined as the ratio of number of secondary turns (NSEC) to the number of
primary turns (NPRI).
- If n < 1, the transformer is step down and if n > 1, the transformer is step up.
- The secondary voltage of a transformer is given by
𝑽𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝒏𝑽𝒑𝒓𝒊
- If n > 1, secondary voltage is greater than primary while if n < 1, the secondary voltage is less
than the primary.
- The peak output voltage in transformer coupled half wave rectifier is given by
𝑽𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝒑 𝒔𝒆𝒄 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽
- And PIV is given by
𝑷𝑰𝑽 = 𝑽𝒑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-3 Page 51

2-2 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

- For each complete cycle of the input voltage, the full wave rectifier produces two cycles at the
output that are both in the same direction.
- The frequency of the output doubles
compared to the input, i.e. 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛 .
- There are two types of full wave rectifier
Figure 5 Full Wave Rectification
circuit.
o Center – tapped Full Wave Rectifier
o Bridge Full Wave Rectifier

Average Value of Full Wave Output Voltage

- The average value of the output would the value measured on a DC multimeter. The average
output is 63.7% of 𝑽𝒑 and is given by
𝟐𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝑨𝑽𝑮 =
𝝅

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
2.2.1 Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
- A center-tapped rectifier uses two diode connected to the secondary of the transformer.
- Half of the total secondary voltage appears at the two ends of the winding.

Figure 6 Center-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Rectification Mechanism
- The rectification mechanism of the center-tapped rectifier can be described as follows
o In the positive half cycle of the input, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse
biased.
o The flow of current is shown in Figure 7. This results in a positive cycle at the output.
o During the negative cycle of the input, D2 is forward biased while D1 is reverse.
o The flow of current again results in a positive cycle at the output.

Figure 7 Rectification Mechanism

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
Effect of Turn Ratio on the Output Voltage and PIV
- If n = 1, then the peak rectified output voltage equals half the peak primary input voltage
minus the diode drop.
- If we want the output rectified voltage to be equal to the peak input voltage then the turn ratio
should be equal to 2, i.e., n = 2.
- In general, the output voltage of a center-tapped rectifier is given by
𝑽𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽
𝟐
- The PIV voltage is given by 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 2𝑉𝑝 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 0.7𝑉.
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-5 Page 55

22.2 Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

- First note that the transformer is not center-tapped therefore the secondary voltage will not be
divided in half.

Rectification Mechanism
- The rectification mechanism of the bridge rectifier can be described as follows
o In the positive input cycle, D1 and D2 are forward biased and conduct current in the
direction shown in Figure 8(a).
o This produces a positive output at the load resistance RL.
o During the negative input cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct current in
the direction shown in Figure 8(b).
o As this direction is also the same as in the positive cycle, it produces positive output at RL.

Figure 8 Bridge Rectifier

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
Bridge Output Voltage and PIV
- For the case of ideal diodes the
output voltage is given by 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =
𝑽𝒑 𝒔𝒆𝒄 .
- For practical diodes, the output
rectified voltage is given by
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝒑 𝒔𝒆𝒄 − 𝟏. 𝟒𝑽
- The PIV for is ideal diodes and
practical diodes is given respectively
as
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑜𝑢𝑡
And
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 0.7𝑉

Figure 9 Filter Operation

NOTE – Refer to Example 2-6 Page 58

2-3 POWER SUPPLY FILTERS AND REGULATORS

- A power supply filter is used to remove the fluctuations in the output of a rectifier to produce a
constant DC level as shown in Figure 9.
- Filters are made from capacitors.

2.3.1 Capacitor-Input Filter

- This filter uses a capacitor connected
to the rectifier output to the ground.

Filter Mechanism
- The basic filter mechanism can be
given by an example of half wave
rectifier (Figure 10).
- During the positive quarter cycle of
the input (Figure 10a), the diode is
forward biased and charges the
capacitor to 𝑽𝒑 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽.
- As the input begins to decrease from
its peak (Figure 10b), the diode
becomes reverse biased because the
capacitor remains charged.
- This means that voltage at the anode
of the diode is lower than the voltage
at the cathode.
- During the rest of the cycle, the
capacitor discharges through RL.
- The rate of discharge is determined by
Figure 10 Filter Mechanism

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
the RLC time constant. Bigger constant means that the capacitor will discharge slowly.
- In rectifier filter, the constant is kept long as compared to the period of the input.
- When the next quarter positive cycle comes (Figure 10c), the diode will again become forward
bias and recharges the capacitor.

Ripple Voltage
- As the capacitor is continuously charging and discharging, this variation of voltage appears as
ripple at the output of the filter and is called ripple voltage, 𝑽𝒓 𝒑𝒑 .
- Big capacitors result in lower ripples (good filter) and small capacitor give higher ripples (bad
filter).

Ripple Factor
- The ripple factor is an
indication of how good a filter
is working.
- Small ripple factor means the
filter is good. It can be made as
small as possible by putting
large value of capacitor or load
resistance in the circuit.
- The ripple factor is given by Figure 11 Effect of capacitor on
𝑽ripples
𝒓 𝒑𝒑
𝒓=
𝑽𝑫𝑪
- The 𝑉𝑟 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑉𝐷𝐶 in the filtered rectifier circuit are given by
𝟏
𝑽𝒓 𝒑𝒑 = 𝑽
𝒇𝑹𝑳 𝑪 𝒑 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝟏
𝑽𝑫𝑪 = 𝟏 − 𝑽
𝟐𝒇𝑹𝑳 𝑪 𝒑 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-7 Page 62

2.3.2 Voltage Regulator

- Voltage regulators are used to remove
the ripple completely and give smooth
DC output voltage.
- It is connected to the output of the filtered rectifier. Figure 12 Voltage Regulator
- The ripple factor of less than 10% is ideal for the regulator to smooth.
- Voltage regulators usually come in three-terminal IC’s. One is input; one is output and third is
ground.
- C1 acts as a rectifier filter and C2 act as smoothing filter as shown in Figure 12.

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications

Figure 13 Diode Limiter

2-4 DIODE LIMITING AND CLAMPING CIRCUITS
2.4.1 Diode Limiters or Clippers
- Diode limiters or clippers are used to clip some portion of the signal voltage above or below a
voltage level.

Circuit Operation
- For the circuit in Figure 13(a), during the positive cycle of the input, diode is forward biased and
the output is limited to 0.7V (positive limiter).
- During negative cycle, the diode is reverse biased and the output will look like the input.
- The output voltage is given by the voltage divider as
𝑹𝑳
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝑳 𝒊𝒏
- For the circuit in Figure 13(b), the output will be reverse as now diode will be reverse biased in
positive cycle and forward biased in the negative cycle (negative limiter).
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-8 Page 66

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
Biased Limiters
- By adding a bias voltage, the level of AC voltage limit can be adjusted.

Circuit Operation
First Circuit (Figure 14)
- The voltage at point A must be
more than 𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽 for the
diode to become forward
biased.
- Once the input is greater than
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 0.7𝑉, all the voltage will
clip and the output will remain
𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽 (positive limiter).
- For the negative cycle, the
output will follow the input
according to the voltage
divider.

Second Circuit
- The input a point A must be
below −𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽 for the
diode to become forward
biased.
- The output in this circuit will
be opposite of the first
(negative limiter).

Third Circuit
- If we turn around the diode in
the first circuit in Figure 14,
we get the third circuit.
- Until the input voltage is less
than 𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽, the diode
will remain forward biased
and the output will be
𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽.
- When the voltage at Point A is
greater than 𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽, Figure 14 Biased Limiters

the diode will become reverse biased and the output will follow the input voltage based on the
voltage divider.

Fourth Circuit
- If we turn around the diode in the second circuit in Figure 14, we get the fourth circuit.
- Until the input voltage is more than −𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽, the diode will remain forward biased and
the output will be −𝑽𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽.

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
- When the voltage at Point A is less than −𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 + 0.7𝑉, the diode will become reverse biased
and the output will follow the input voltage based on the voltage divider.
NOTE – Refer to Example 2-10 Page 68

2.4.2 Diode Clampers

- Diode clampers are used to add
a DC level to an AC voltage.
- The circuit in Figure 15(a & b)
add a positive DC level to the
AC Voltage while the circuit in
Figure 15(c) adds a negative
level.

Circuit Operation
- Taking the negative quarter of
the input signal, diode is
forward biased and charges the
capacitor to 𝑽𝒑(𝒊𝒏) − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽.
- After that the diode is reverse
biased because the cathode of
the diode is at higher potential
than the signal voltage.
- This is because the capacitor
keeps its charge and
discharges very slowly through
RL.
- The slow discharge is due to
the large RC time constant
required for the circuit to work
properly.
- In this way the capacitor acts like a battery in series Figure
with 15the input
Diode voltage. This results in
Clampers
adding the capacitor voltage to the input voltage and appears as DC level at the output.

Condition of Operation
- If the RC time constant is 100 times the period of the signal, the clamping is excellent.
- If the time constant is 10 times the period then the clamping is good.

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
2-5 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
- Voltage multiplier use clamping
action to increase the peak
rectified voltage.

2.5.1 Voltage Doubler

- Voltage doubler is a circuit with
multiplication factor of 2.

Circuit Operation Figure (16)

- During the positive half cycle of
the secondary voltage, diode D1
is forward and D2 is reverse
biased.
- Capacitor C1 is charged to
𝑽𝒑 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽.
- During the negative cycle, diode
D2 is forward and D1 is reverse
biased.
- As C1 cannot discharge, it acts Figure 16 Voltage Doubler

as a battery and adds to the secondary voltage to charge C2 to approximately 𝟐𝑽𝒑.

- In this way, the input voltage is doubled and output across C2 will give us twice the input voltage.

2.5.2 Voltage Tripler

- Adding another diode and
capacitor to the doubler creates a
voltage tripler.

Circuit Operation Figure (17)

- During the positive half cycle of
the secondary voltage, C1 charges
to 𝑽𝒑 through D1.
- During the negative cycle, C2
charges to 𝟐𝑽𝒑 through D2 as
described in the doubler.
- During the next positive cycle, C3
charges to 𝟐𝑽𝒑 through D3 as D1 Figure 17 Voltage Tripler
and D2 are reverse biased.
- The tripler output is taken across C1 and C3.

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PHYS 162 - Chapter 2 Diode Applications
2.5.3 Voltage Quadrupler
- Adding another diode and
capacitor to the tripler produces
a voltage quadrupler.

Circuit Operation
- C4 is charged to 𝟐𝑽𝒑 through D4
on a negative cycle.
- The 4𝑉𝑝 output is taken across
C2 and C4.

Figure 18 Voltage Quadrupler

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