DISSERTATION

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
A Dissertation
Submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements for the subject
ARC-426 Dissertation
By
Mansi Jain
[Sch. No. 181110239]
Department of Architecture and Planning
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal
April 2022
1
Declaration
I Mansi Jain, Scholar No. 181110239 hereby declare that the dissertation entitled
“ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS” submitted by me in fulfilment of
the requirements for the subject ARC-426 Dissertation at the Department of
Architecture and Planning, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal,
India, is a record of the work carried out by me.
To the best of my knowledge, this dissertation does not infringe upon anyone’s
copyright not violate any proprietary rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations, or
any other material from the work of other persons included in this dissertation,
published or otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard
referencing practices.
The matter embodied in this dissertation has not been submitted to any other University
or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.
Date: _______________ Mansi Jain
Certificate
This is to certify that the declaration of Miss Mansi Jain is true to the best of my
knowledge and that the student has worked for one semester for preparing this
dissertation.
DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 2

Navneet Munoth
Date: _______________ Dissertation coordinator
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................9
1.1 BACKGROUND.............................................................................................................9
ENERGY EFFICIENCY...................................................................................................10
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS/ PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION...........................................11
1.3 AIM.............................................................................................................................11
1.4 OBJECTIVE................................................................................................................11
1.5 SCOPE........................................................................................................................12
1.6 LIMITATIONS.............................................................................................................12
1.7 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 02: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................12
2.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................13
2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS........................................................................13
2.2.1 Energy Conservation..........................................................................................14
2.2.2 Growth in Energy Use in the Developed World..................................................14
2.2.3 Energy Use in Hot Climates/ Developing Countries..........................................16

2.2.4 Addressing the need to conserve Energy..........................................................16
2.3 ENERGY PERFORMANCE..........................................................................................17
2.3.1 Energy Consumption..........................................................................................18
2.3.2 Building Regulations...........................................................................................18
2.4 EU ENERGY POLICY: ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS DIRECTIVE...........19
2.4.1 Recommendation...............................................................................................19
2.4.2 Implementation..................................................................................................20
2.4.3 Status..................................................................................................................21
2.5 FABRIC ISSUES..........................................................................................................21
2.5.1 Winter versus Summer R-Values.......................................................................22
CHAPTER 03: PASSIVE RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES....................................................23
3.1 BUILDING DESIGN.....................................................................................................23
3.2 PASSIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS...............................................23
3.2.1 Passive Solar Energy..........................................................................................24
3.2.2 Passive Solar Heating........................................................................................24
3.3 DIRECT AND INDIRECT GAIN SYSTEMS..................................................................25
3.3.1 Direct Gain..........................................................................................................26
3.3.2 Indirect Gain........................................................................................................27
3.3.3 Case Study: The Wallasey School......................................................................29
3.4 PASSIVE SOLAR COOLING.......................................................................................31
3.4.1 Passive Solar Energy..........................................................................................32
3.4.2 High Thermal Mass............................................................................................32
3.4.3 High Thermal Mass with Night Ventilation.......................................................33
3.4.3 Evaporative Cooling............................................................................................33
CHAPTER 04: INTEGRATED ‘ACTIVE’ RENEWABLES & NOBLE SYSTEMS......................34
4.1 SMALL SCALE INTEGRATED RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES..................................34

4.1.1 Solar Photovoltaics............................................................................................34
4.2 BENEFITS OF PV SYSTEMS......................................................................................35
4.3 LOCAL ENERGY GENERATION.................................................................................35
4.3.1 Solar Water Heating...........................................................................................35
4.3.2 Ducted Wind Turbines........................................................................................36
CHAPTER 05: CASE STUDIES: ENERGY CONSUMPTION..................................................38
5.1 THE BULLITT CENTER, SEATTLE, WASHINGTON...................................................38
5.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................38
5.1.2 Integrated Design...............................................................................................42
5.1.3 Building Form......................................................................................................47
5.1.4 Systems..............................................................................................................52
5.1.5 Performance.......................................................................................................59
5.1.6 Lessons Learned................................................................................................64
5.2 INDIRA PARYAVARAN BHAWAN, NEW DELHI, INDIA.............................................66
5.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................66
5.2.2 Design Feature....................................................................................................70
5.2.3 Passive Design Strategies.................................................................................70
5.2.4 Passive Design Strategies.................................................................................72
5.2.5 Renewable Energy..............................................................................................73
5.2.6 Conclusion..........................................................................................................74
CHAPTER 06: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION & FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS.................75
6.1 DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................75
6.2 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................76
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK.............................................................77
6.3.1 Major Recommendations...................................................................................77
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................78

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Energy use in commercial buildings......................................................................................... 13

Figure 2: Percentage use of energy consumption................................................................................... 14
Figure 3: Conduction: is the transfer of energy via a material as faster moving hotter
particles collide with slower moving colder particles..........................................................................22
Figure 4: Winter versus summer R values................................................................................................ 23
Figure 5: Design strategy: windows and doors should be orientated within 30 degrees of
true south................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 6: Direct gain solar system................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 7: The overhang allows in the winter sun while shading the south facing glass in the
summer.................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 8: Clerestory windows in a direct gain system let sunlight strike thermal mass on the
back wall.................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 9: Trombe wall vents circulate heated air to the living area in the day time,
meanwhile at night the vents are closed to prevent reverse cycling of heated air...................29
Figure 10: Energy consumption for a typical school.............................................................................31

Figure 11: Cells combined to form modules and then onto arrays..................................................36
Figure 12: Air flow characteristics around the edge of a building...................................................39
Figure 13: Cross-section through a DWT................................................................................................... 40
Figure 14: The Bullitt Center under construction, spring 2012 (John Stamets)........................42
Figure 15: Seattle’s central business districts: Downtown and Capitol Hill................................43
Figure 16: Site of the Bullitt Center,............................................................................................................. 44
Figure 17: Site sections through the Bullitt Center: parallel and perpendicular to E. Madison
St................................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 18: The seven “petals” of the Living Building Challenge TM: Site, Water, Energy,
Health, Materials, Equity, and Beauty.......................................................................................................... 45
Figure 19: Integrated Design elements of the Bullitt Center (Miller Hull)...................................45
Figure 20: Concept sketch of the Bullitt Center from the project design charrette, June 2009.
..................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 21: The Imperative for High Efficiency......................................................................................... 48
Figure 22: The Path to Net Zero Energy, showing the architecture and engineering energy
efficiency measures, and the measures that require tenant engagement, to reach the target
set by the size of the PV power plant........................................................................................................... 50
Figure 23: Exploded view of the primary elements of the building’s energy supply and
energy efficiency measures.............................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 24: Form Option 2: Heating EUI 11.46 kBTU/SF year............................................................52
Figure 25: Form Option 1: Heating EUI 10.00 kBTU/SF year............................................................52
Figure 26: “U” Scheme: central atrium for light and ventilation.......................................................53
Figure 27: “O” Scheme: central atrium for light and ventilation.......................................................53
Figure 28: Daylight distribution for 100% vs. 50% window area of façade................................54
Figure 29: Section of the Schü co window and integrated blind system........................................56
Figure 30: Bullitt Center integrated systems for power production, daylighting, heating,
cooling and ventilation...................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 31: Radiant in-floor heating & cooling using ground- source heat pumps, and heat
recovery ventilation strategies....................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 32: Net-zero energy use: energy use vs. energy production, and the periods of
energy deficit and surplus that balance over the course of the year..............................................59
Figure 33: Heat Pump, schematic diagram................................................................................................ 60
Figure 34: Heat Recovery Ventilator, schematic illustration.............................................................61
Figure 35: Bullitt Center year one energy use and production: predicted vs. actual.
Predicted use is corrected (blue line) for the actual occupancy (difference between design
and actual occupancy)........................................................................................................................................ 64

Figure 36: Indira Paryavaran Bhawan: view............................................................................................ 73
Figure 37: Annual energy production and consumption graph........................................................74
Figure 38: Effective ventilation pattern due to building design. Figure 39: Final design
view of North-South blocks.............................................................................................................................. 75
Figure 40: Landscape designing of the courtyard.................................................................................. 76
Figure 41: Ventilation through the courtyard.......................................................................................... 77
Figure 42: Energy saving active design strategies (all in one)..........................................................78
Figure 43: Energy consumed by sector....................................................................................................... 80
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Methodology of the study................................................................................................................ 13

Table 2: Opportunities for Energy Conservation and Renewables..................................................19
Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct gain Systems......................................................30
Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Indirect gain Systems..................................................31
Table 5: Energy benchmarks for a good, typical and poor performing schools.........................33
Table 6: CO2 emissions by fuel type............................................................................................................. 34
Table 7: Calculation of CO2 emissions......................................................................................................... 34
Table 8: Bullitt Center Electrical Load Categories.................................................................................. 64

ABSTRACT
The need for energy continues to rise, necessitating the generation of massive volumes
of electricity. Buildings have undergone changes to improve their energy efficiency.
Understanding how energy is used in buildings necessitates knowledge of the amounts
of energy consumed and the various types of fuels employed. Buildings that may
contribute to their energy needs by generating renewable energy can lower the quantity
of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the structure. As a result, in order to succeed in
constructing a sustainable society, buildings will need to be continually enhanced as
technology advances.
Although there is a large amount of information available about energy efficiency in

commercial buildings, some of it is contradictory, the goal of this dissertation is to gain

a clear understanding of energy efficiency in buildings, specifically in commercial
buildings, and to outline what would be the most feasible renewable technique to be
adopted in commercial buildings.
There are many renewable technologies available today, some of which have succeeded
and others have failed in gaining consumer acceptance. For example, in commercial
buildings, overheating is an issue that must be addressed. The various case studies
provided will aid in evaluating the benefits of each technology and to what extent it has
impacted design features, construction, and subsequent use.
Energy-efficient buildings do not have to be more expensive to construct than

conventional structures; in fact, if they are well-maintained and efficiently manage
energy, they can be just as reliable, comfortable, and productive as conventional
structures.
CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Because of the rising need for energy for heating and cooling in buildings, the usage of
energy in buildings has increased in recent years. Buildings could not be operated or
inhabited without energy. Insulation, plant, lighting, and controls have all been improved,

all of which are important components in achieving an energy efficient structure. It's
critical to understand what "energy efficiency" means at this point.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy efficiency refers to using the least amount of energy possible for heating,
cooling, equipment, and lighting in order to keep a structure comfortable. The building
envelope is an essential aspect that influences energy efficiency. Walls, windows, doors,
roofs, and foundations are all examples of construction features that connect the
interior and exterior of a structure. To keep the building warm in the winter and cool in
the summer, all of these components must operate together.
The amount of energy used varies based on the building's fabric and systems, as well
as how they are operated. Heating and cooling systems use the most energy in a
building, however controls like programmable thermostats and building energy
management systems can drastically cut their energy use. Zone heating and cooling
systems are also employed in some buildings, which can cut heating and cooling in
underused regions. Integrated space and water heating systems can give the most
energy-efficient heating solution in commercial buildings.
For example, by insulating water pipes and water heaters to limit heat loss, the energy
consumed to heat water can be lowered. Due to greater production costs, a large
reliance on energy was previously unavailable.
Energy audits are a good way to figure out how energy efficient a facility is and what
adjustments may be done to make it more efficient. To guarantee that the heating,
cooling, equipment, and lighting all operate together effectively and efficiently, tests
should be conducted.
Buildings emit Carbon Dioxide (CO2), although this sector receives less attention than
other polluters like transportation and industry. In addition to energy conservation and
efficiency measures, incorporating renewable energy into the building sector will benefit
the industry by lowering carbon dioxide emissions and allowing renewable energy to be
used for heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting.
New buildings are easier to design with energy efficient features, while existing
buildings account for nearly all of the building stock. As a result, this sector presents

both a greater difficulty for energy efficiency implementation and a bigger possibility for
overall energy efficiency benefits. Although energy efficiency programmes for existing
buildings have been shown to be cost beneficial, major organizations and building
owners have had limited success in persuading them to undertake energy efficiency
projects such as retrofits and retro commissions.
The usage of benchmarks, which serve as representative criteria against which

structures can be compared and performance monitored, is a significant component.
The comparison of energy consumption with a square meter of floor area to the
benchmark, for example, will allow the decision maker to observe and assess the
amount of energy consumed and where improvements may be made to reduce
consumption within that specific area.
Energy-efficient buildings do not have to be more expensive to construct than

conventional structures; in fact, if they are well-maintained and efficiently manage
energy, they can be just as reliable, comfortable, and productive as conventional
structures.
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS/ PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Energy efficient buildings do not cost necessarily more to build than normal buildings, if
they are well maintained and manage energy effectively, they are set to be very reliable,
comfortable and as productive as a normal building. Hence the question arises, what
are the methodologies one can adapt to achieve efficiency without worrying about the
cost.
1.3 AIM
The aims of this thesis are as follows:
● To identify what has been done so far towards making buildings more
sustainable in terms of energy use and what could be done to improve the
building.
● To maximize the use of day lighting ensuring the lighting levels are appropriate
for the building.
● Considering renewable energy and combined heat and power in buildings.

1.4 OBJECTIVE
● To appreciate the significance and benefits of energy efficiency in buildings.
● To have a general understanding of the methodology used to determine the
energy efficiency of buildings, the different opportunities for improving the
energy efficiency of buildings and the potential savings.
● To have an overview of the different mechanisms for financing energy efficiency
measures.
● To have conceptualized an approach to setting out and implementing policies to
facilitate energy efficiency in buildings in the country.
1.5 SCOPE
The scope of this dissertation is to provide an outline of what energy efficiency is and
the history of building energy conservation. One of the most important aspects of the
project is defining the challenge. In recent years, all new structures have tended to solve
the concerns, while aging buildings are becoming increasingly difficult to maintain. The
case study is examined and discussed in order to provide a comprehensive grasp of
energy conservation and the most modern passive and active renewable energy
solutions used by buildings.
1.6 LIMITATIONS
The technologies are covered in a monotonous way and individual demands for the
variety of commercial buildings are not included.
1.7 METHODOLOGY

Table 1: Methodology of the study
CHAPTER 02: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on providing a broad understanding of what energy efficiency is
and what potential impacts it may have on both buildings and building regulations in
order to create a sustainable environment that will benefit future generations and raise
awareness of the importance of sustainable building design.
2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS

Residential, commercial, institutional, and public constructions make up the building
stock. Building design, building materials, heating, cooling, lighting, and appliances all
have opportunities to reduce energy requirements through energy efficiency and
passive renewable energy in buildings. This chapter will concentrate on small-scale
active renewable energy technology and its distribution, as well as the advantages of

local energy generation in buildings in general and more embedded systems in
commercial buildings particularly.
Commercial structures include offices, hospitals, schools, police stations, places of

worship, warehouses, hotels, libraries, retail malls, and other structures. Although each
of these commercial operations has its own set of energy requirements, commercial
buildings as a whole use more than half of their energy for heating and lighting.
Electricity and natural gas are

the most frequent fuel types
utilized in commercial buildings.
Commercial buildings
occasionally use a different
source of energy, such as locally
generated group or district
energy in the form of heat and/or
power. This is most applicable in
situations where a centralized
heating and cooling system
distributes energy in the form of
steam, hot water, or chilled water
Figure 1: Energy use in commercial buildings
to a number of buildings, such as
in big cities or university campuses, where it is more efficient to have a centralized
heating and cooling system that distributes energy in the form of steam, hot water, or
chilled water to a number of buildings. Because it is more efficient and cost-effective to
centralize plant and distribution, a district system can save money on equipment and
maintenance while also saving energy.

Figure 2: Percentage use of energy consumption
2.2.1 Energy Conservation
The need to save energy is as old as humankind's usage of it. For most of human
history, energy use was constrained by the amount of work that could be accomplished
by humans, generally alone but occasionally in huge groups. Later on, humans learnt to
delegate duties involving heavy lifting and transportation to animals and animal teams.
Early, energy saving meant doing less. Then, as intelligence progressed, finding easier
ways to complete tasks became a part of it. The development of the wheel, for example,
was an early step toward energy saving. Apart from muscle, fire is the oldest main
source of energy that humans can manage.
2.2.2 Growth in Energy Use in the Developed World
Lighting was the first application of electrical power in the late 1800s. Engines became
more efficient as time went on, producing more electrical power. However, until the
commercialization of fluorescent lighting soon before World War II, lights remained
inefficient.
Nikola Tesla was significantly responsible for the creation of practical electric motors
around the end of the nineteenth century. Mechanical power's applications were greatly
increased as a result of this. By the turn of the century, a plethora of small machines
and labor-saving technologies had made "energy" a ubiquitous commodity.
Electrical equipment development, unlike mechanical equipment development, was

mostly based on theory. When compared to combustion-driven machinery, all practical
electrical motors are efficient. However, because these motors are single-speed
devices, the efficiency of applications handled by affordable alternating-current motors

is generally limited. Early on, efficient variable-speed motors were created, but they had
significant cost and maintenance issues.
Energy consumption per capita was quickly increasing by the turn of the twentieth
century, as did the world's energy-consuming population. At home, appliances took the
place of muscle power. Machines increased factory and agricultural production.
Automobiles ushered in a new era of fuel consumption. Ships were propelled by fuel
instead of wind. The available supply of energy continued to expand comfortably ahead
of demand as air travel became another user of fuel. During the 1930s, massive
hydropower production plants were erected to create jobs. Nuclear fission generated
electricity as a by-product of nuclear weapons, and it became a major source of energy
from the 1950s forward.
Until the early 1970s, there was a widespread belief that energy prices would continue
to fall. Nuclear power supporters, for example, warned of electricity that would be "too
cheap to meter." As a result, efficiency became less of a concern for engineers who
created energy-consuming equipment, and efficiency became less of a worry for the
general public and government.
Scientists and environmentalists, on the other hand, were concerned about the rapid
depletion of the world's natural resources. Despite certain leaders' warnings about
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries using oil as a weapon
to strangle some countries, these warnings appear to have gone unheeded. Several
industrialized western countries were caught off guard by the OPEC countries' increase
in oil prices in 1973, resulting in energy crises. The majority of energy consumers, such
as industries, transportation, and home systems, have come to a total halt in many
countries. This went on to spell out the main areas of government energy conservation
policy as follows:
1. Energy prices need to reflect the cost of supply

2. Energy consumers need to be in a situation to make decisions in the light of
adequate information about energy costs and about the ways in which energy
can be more efficiently used. The government regards its role as ensuring that
the information available is comprehensive. In appropriate cases it may be
necessary to ensure via legislation the provision of comparative information.

3. Public authorities are responsible for 6% of energy use and the government has a
particular responsibility for ensuring that potential reductions in consumption are
achieved.
4. Public sector housing, which accounts for 9% of total energy use, is another area
where no substantial progress can be expected without major public expenditure.
5. The government is identifying the areas where the research and development
could lead to a considerable improvement in energy use.
6. In certain cases, mandatory measures to promote energy conservation are
appropriate.
The Green Paper continued by saying that these policies needed to be reinforced by the
adoption of a mixture of three courses of action designed to maximize conservation by
raising energy prices to the consumer through:
● Taxation
● Reinforcing or extending mandatory measures
● Encouraging energy saving through grants and tax allowances.
2.2.3 Energy Use in Hot Climates/ Developing Countries
When it comes to energy consumption in tropical buildings, cooling with air conditioning
consumes a greater percentage of the energy than heating. However, as compared to
developed countries, some tropical countries that happen to be developing countries
consume very little energy.
2.2.4 Addressing the need to conserve Energy
Addressing the issue to minimize the effects of the present crises and future energy
demands, the western and most developed countries who are considered responsible
for the consumption of most of the world’s energy, reached to the conclusion on four
main aspects for conserving energy resources and they are as follows:
● Reducing energy consumption in buildings, by energy management and energy

efficient measures;
● The urgent requirement for alternatives and renewable energy sources of lower
price;

● The design of buildings for the attainment of thermal efficiency including better
insulation;
● Conserving water, materials and energy sources.
Solar energy and its uses are more realistic in terms of linking local generation (supply
and demand) and hence are the most desirable for the future in terms of energy
conservation via alternative or renewable sources. The table below depicts energy
conservation and renewable energy opportunities:
Energy Hierarchy Domestic Non-Domestic
Reduce Demand • Well-designed layout • Well-designed layout

• Passive solar design • Passive solar design
• Life cycle analysis of • Life cycle analysis of
materials materials
• High levels of insulation • Natural ventilation
• High NHER (10 or above) • High levels of insulation
• BREEAM
Energy Efficiency • Condensing boilers • Building Energy

• Energy efficient white Management Systems
goods and lighting • Energy efficient
• Good heating controls appliances and
• Influence behaviour equipment
• Condensing boilers
• Energy efficient/Natural
ventilation
• Influence behavior
Renewable Energy • Passive solar design • Passive solar design

• Solar water/air heating • Photovoltaics
• Photovoltaics • Solar water/air heating
• Small scale vertical axis • Small scale hydro
wind turbines • Small scale wind
CHP/ District Heating • District heating and CHP • CHP with waste digestion
• CHP feeding district
heating
Table 2: Opportunities for Energy Conservation and Renewables

2.3 ENERGY PERFORMANCE
It wasn't until the issue of energy use in buildings became a hot topic that the search for
energy performance metrics truly got underway. Energy performance indicators are
metrics that allow you to compare different levels of energy use in the delivery of a
specific service. The goal is to create an index that allows building comparisons to be
made more easily.
The occupancy hours, the severity of the climate, and the type of activity in the structure
are all aspects to consider when constructing building energy performance indices. The
easiest way to account for climatic severity and occupancy hours is to divide annual
energy demand per unit area by a factor based on climate or occupancy hours.
The energy performance of a building is becoming an increasingly significant aspect of

its functioning. A building with a high rating may be eligible for special recognition
through a variety of voluntary or mandatory schemes, boosting its resale value and
rental income. Energy rating can assist in identifying inefficiently run buildings as well
as potential for energy and cost savings.
It's always possible to distinguish between how to build a 'Low energy building' and how
to design a 'Energy efficient building.' Energy efficient building solutions are frequently
achieved by selecting the lowest possible energy requirements while maximizing
resource use. In terms of installed equipment, defining what should be preserved and
for what purpose is an approach for identifying and rating low energy and energy
efficient buildings. Certification is frequently related to rating schemes. The term
"certification" refers to the process of examining a building while it is still in the design
stage.
As a result, energy performance's primary goal is to promote the practise of specifying

materials, components, and systems. An energy performance's main goal is to indicate
what is required of a building in terms of a target energy consumption.
2.3.1 Energy Consumption
Energy consumption in buildings can be categorized into three categories:
● Primary Energy: This relates to the calorific value of the fossil fuels in their ‘raw’
state

● Secondary Energy: This is available from electricity, and other types of energy
manufactured from a primary energy source
● Useful Energy: This refers to the energy required for the performance of a given
task. This is usually applicable to space heating load evaluations and other
efficiencies.
2.3.2 Building Regulations
Section 1 of the Building Act 1984 gives the Secretary of State powers to make building
regulations, which have three aims:
1. Securing the health, safety, welfare and convenience of people in or about

buildings and of others who may be affected by buildings or matters connected
with buildings.
2. Preventing waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamination of water.
3. Furthering the conservation of fuel and power.
In 1965, national construction requirements for insulation were enacted. Since then,
requirements have been improved throughout time, most recently by the Building
Regulations (Amendment) Regulations SI 1994/1850 (Scotland and Northern Ireland
have a distinct building control system). These expanded the requirement that
'reasonable provision shall be made for the conservation of fuel and power in buildings'
in the Building Regulations SI 1991/2768. This requirement is to be met, according to
paragraph L1 of Schedule 1 (England and Wales), by:
● Limiting the heat loss through the fabric of the building;

● Controlling the operation of the space heating and hot water systems;
● Limiting the heat loss from hot water vessels and hot water service pipe-work;
● Limiting the heat loss from hot water pipes and hot air ducts used for space
heating;
● Installing in buildings artificial lighting systems which are designed and
constructed to use no more fuel and power than is reasonably practicable in the
circumstances and making reasonable provision for controlling such systems.
The latter is not applicable to houses and some smaller structures. Approved Document
L backs up the five general requirements outlined above. This document gives thorough

instructions on how to comply with the building regulations, which apply to new
construction and some conversions. Technical data on the thermal performance of
various building elements (windows, doors, roof lights, and so on) is provided, allowing
for the calculation of the anticipated rate of heat loss through the fabric of any building.
The 1994 amendments made it mandatory for newly constructed residences to have an
energy rating computed using the government's Standard Assessment Procedure
(SAP). Fuel expenses, ventilation, fabric heat losses, water heating requirements,
internal heat gains (e.g. human body heat and heat from home appliances), and solar
gains are all factored into the approach. This energy rating is calculated using a
spreadsheet that is supported by a set of tables that provide typical data. The latter
contains data on the effectiveness of various types of heating systems, as well as
estimates of hot water use as a function of floor area. The SAP rating is expressed on a
scale ranging from 1 to 100. A rating of 1 represents a poor standard of energy
efficiency while 100 represents a very high standard (reflected in the lowest energy
costs).In the context of the Building Regulations, a SAP rating of 60 or below indicates
the need for a higher standard of fabric insulation.
2.4 EU ENERGY POLICY: ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS

DIRECTIVE
2.4.1 Recommendation
Given that enforcing energy efficiency criteria in national building codes has proven to
be one of the most efficient and cost-effective ways of increasing energy efficiency in
most EU nations, this regulation could be critical for future energy efficiency gains. Its
impact, however, is highly dependent on how it is implemented in national legislation. It
is critical that a national debate about implementation take place, with a focus on how
to maximize the benefits of implementation rather than how to make the fewest
modifications possible. Current construction rules in all nations have relatively low
energy efficiency and renewable energy requirements, resulting in higher energy usage
than is financially effective. Users are trapped with these unnecessarily high prices
because most dwellings are built according to the standards. This problem can be
solved by enacting new, more stringent building codes, which will benefit users,
contractors, and the environment. As a result, NGOs and other interested parties should

press for a bold implementation of the new regulation, which will help to achieve this
goal.
It is proposed that the threshold for requiring current energy efficiency standards for
building renovations be established at renovations costing more than 10% of the
structure's worth.
2.4.2 Implementation
● The regulation must be implemented by the end of 2005, with some flexibility for
sections of it to be postponed until 2008. As a result, there is limited
implementation experience. Many European countries have recently revised or
are actively revising their energy performance regulations in order to increase
building energy efficiency and comply with the directive's criteria.
● Minimum requirements for energy performance of buildings based on a
standardized methodology are applied and updated on a regular basis for all new
structures and existing buildings larger than 1000 square meters that are being
renovated. The performance will include energy use for heating, ventilation, and
lighting, as well as the possibility of heat recovery and cost-effective utilization of
local renewable energy sources.
● Member states will have to adopt a common process for preparing minimum
integrated energy performance standards for each kind of building. This
methodology will need to account for climate variables as well as considerations
like insulation, heating, ventilation, lighting, building orientation, heat recovery,
and the usage of renewable energy sources.
● Energy performance certificates no more than ten years old, providing advise on
how to enhance energy performance, will be required for all buildings whether
erected, sold, or leased. These energy performance certificates will be displayed
in public buildings and other types of public buildings, together with information
on suggested and actual inside temperatures.
● Expert inspection and appraisal of heating and cooling equipment. Boilers with a
rated output of 20 to 100 kW will need to be inspected on a regular basis by
Member States. Boilers with a temperature exceeding this limit must be
inspected every two years (gas boilers every four years).

2.4.3 Status
The EU Parliament backed the Commission's proposal with modest changes on October
10, 2002. Following that, the Commission accepted the final language that the
Parliament had agreed on in October. The Parliament and the Commission had been
debating for almost a year and a half. At the energy ministers' meeting on November 25,
the EU countries also agreed to the document and adopted it. The directive's provisions
must be implemented in national legislation by the end of 2005, while some obligations
may be postponed until 2008.
2.5 FABRIC ISSUES

Building insulation is an important aspect of construction materials. Insulation is made
up of materials that reduce the flow of energy through building surfaces. This covers
materials that inhibit energy conduction as well as radiation. Without insulation, the
energy flow in buildings would be too great to maintain comfortable conditions through
passive means, that is, without using
mechanical heating and cooling processes.
Thermodynamic resistance (R) is a measure of

an insulating material's effectiveness; the higher
the "R - value" of a material, the better; Figure
2.2 illustrates the R - values of the most
prevalent construction materials. The "U - value,"
which is measured in W/ o C/m and is used to
calculate total energy transfer, is the reciprocal
of the thermal resistance. The greater the
Figure 3: Conduction: is the transfer of energy via a material
thermal resistance, the lower the U - value. as faster moving hotter particles collide with slower moving
colder particles
The process of heat transfer via a material
medium in which kinetic energy is carried from particle to particle without the particles
being displaced is known as thermal conduction. A material's thermal conductivity is
determined by its density, the size of its molecules, its electrical conductivity, and its
thickness.

2.5.1 Winter versus Summer R-Values
In both summer and winter, the difference in R-values is reported for the identical
materials. Because total heat transfer is dependent on whether energy is going into or
out of the structure, this is the case. Highly reflecting surfaces, such as foil, aluminium
paint, and light-coloured roofing materials, will aid to limit radiant heat gains in the
summer when it is hotter outside than within.
Figure 4: Winter versus summer R values
Reflective surfaces on or beneath the roof will do little to prevent energy from being
transported through the ceiling in the winter, when the inside of the home is warmer.
Any warm air trapped on top of the ceiling is free to escape, resulting in a thinner
insulating air coating than in the summer.
CHAPTER 03: PASSIVE RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES

The roles of energy efficiency and energy conservation find the notion that once these
issues have been addressed, energy consumption can be further reduced by making
use of the available renewable resources that can be applied passively, i.e. by non-
mechanical means.
3.1 BUILDING DESIGN

Energy is graded, and the higher the grade, the greater the influence on the environment.
Matching the proper amount of energy grade with the needs of the user is the key to
minimizing the impact of buildings on the environment. Low-grade energy sources, such
as passive solar gain, should be paired with low-grade jobs, such as heating rooms.
Natural daylight, limited use of electrical lighting at night, and natural ventilation are just
a few examples of low-energy building design ideas. Achieving the proper balance of
heat loss and gain requires ensuring that a building's facade and mechanical systems
work together to limit energy emissions.
Low-energy solutions are frequently less expensive to commission, maintain, and install
than other alternatives. A combination of traditional architecture with alternative energy
sources not only provides a comfortable environment for building occupants, but it can
also save money.
Changes in the earth's temperature are caused by the impact of solar radiation.
Because the earth has such a large heat storage capacity, it takes a long time for it to
cool down after nightfall, and even longer for it to warm up once the sun rises. As a
result of this phenomena, the afternoons have greater temperatures than the mornings,
despite the fact that the amount of solar energy is similar at both times.
As a result, building design should be built on a similar notion, with buildings intended to
achieve a steady state thermal condition with no deviations owing to changes in the
external climate. This process entails the incorporation of thick walls that store heat
throughout the day and prevent heat from seeping into the building's interior. Heat
stored by the thick walls will be dissipated into the structure throughout the night, when
there is no sunlight. In order for occupants in a structure to be comfortable, they must
shed heat in proportion to the amount created by physical activities.

3.2 PASSIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS
Passive solar designs include passive solar heating, cooling, day lighting and natural
ventilation.
3.2.1 Passive Solar Energy
Passive approaches for making the best use of sunshine date back to the Romans, who
employed them in locations like common meeting rooms and the bath house. Large
window apertures were used in such places. For at least a millennium after the fall of
the Roman Empire, the ability to create enormous sheets of glass vanished. The glass
process did not reappear in France until the end of the seventeenth century.
Cities were overcrowded in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and most buildings,
including residences, were dimly lit. It wasn't until the late 1800s that urban planners
began to look at the possibility of improving internal conditions. After finding that
ultraviolet light kills microorganisms, the planners were more worried about the medical
benefits of sunshine at this time. The later discovery that UV light does not penetrate
windows had little effect on this new-found practise of permitting sunlight into homes,
which was further supported by studies that strong light in the winter is necessary to
maintain human hormone balances. People are more likely to acquire midwinter
depression if they don't have it.
3.2.2 Passive Solar Heating
3.2.2.1 General
South facing windows are projected to allow access to the sun's heat in the winter,
while simultaneously providing insulation against the cold. In a mild environment, the
policy in the summer is to let the sun shine in while storing the heat. The majority of the
internal spaces are positioned on the southern part of the structure, where the majority
of the day's lighting, heating, and cooling equipment are located.
When designing buildings for passive solar renewable energy, significant quantities of
windows facing south should be used to allow maximum solar access. In addition,
south-facing windows should be combined with construction materials that collect and
gradually release the heat received by the sun. When it comes to commercial buildings,

there are complex demands for heating, cooling, and lighting, thus their design
strategies require computer analysis (e.g., using an energy modelling tool like ESPR) by
an architect or engineer.
The floor plans of a structure should be

constructed to maximize passive solar
heating, and design strategy plays a
significant role. For instance, proper glazing in
windows and doors, as well as orientation
within 30 degrees of true south.
The optimum orientation for direct gain in

Figure 5: Design strategy: windows and doors should
passive solar structures is due south due to be orientated within 30 degrees of true south
the solar path. It is not necessary to have all of the south-facing surfaces on the same
wall. For example, clerestory windows can direct the sun from the south into the
building's back. As the surface moves away from due south, the system's efficiency and
capacity to control shading and summer overheating deteriorate.
The basic requirements to optimize the use of passive solar heating in buildings are as
follows:
● Buildings should face south with the main orientation of the building within 30o ,
buildings located South East will take more advantage of the morning sun, while
those located on the South West will benefit more from the late afternoon sun
delaying the evening heating period.
● The glazing should be concentrated on the south-side as they are most
frequently used and require most heating, so as the living rooms, with little used
rooms such as bathrooms on the north
● Responsive zoned heating systems facilitate automatic isolation of areas when
and where necessary, thus avoiding the unnecessary heating of unoccupied
rooms
● Avoid over shading by other buildings in order to benefit from the mid-winter sun
● Buildings should be thermally massive to avoid overheating in the summer 36
● The windows should be large enough to provide enough day lighting minimum
15% of a room’s floor area (Dept of Environment – Best Practice Programme)

● Buildings should be well insulated to minimize the overall heat loss.
3.3 DIRECT AND INDIRECT GAIN SYSTEMS

Direct and indirect gain systems are the two most common types of heating systems.
Collectors are used in direct gain systems to let light enter the home directly, where it is
absorbed and transformed into heat. Indirect gain systems produce external
intermediate areas where light is converted to heat, which is subsequently exchanged
with the home via intermediary elements. This technique can be seen in roof ponds,
greenhouses, and trombe walls.
However, whenever sunlight penetrates directly into a building, overheating and glare
can develop, and this must be managed with proper methods. In full sunshine, a "direct-
gain" area can overheat and is many times brighter than is required for "regular" indoor
lighting, which might cause glare issues. The sun streams in through the south-facing
windows in the late morning and early afternoon. Because of the low angle, sunlight can
enter far into the structure, beyond the normal direct gain region. The occupants will be
bothered by glare if the building and occupied spaces are not designed to control the
influence of the sun's penetration. Low sun angles will be addressed by careful sun
angle analysis and design solutions. For example, light shelves can intercept the sun
and diffuse the daylight.
3.3.1 Direct Gain
Direct gain is the simplest and most cost-effective method of construction. This
technology allows sunshine to enter the structure through enormous expanses of south-
facing glass, immediately heating the floor and walls.
To maximize the amount of sunshine striking the

backside of walls or floors, clerestory windows
and skylights are used. They can increase the
direct gain system's efficacy; typically, skylights
cause warming in the summer, and in a climate
like the UK's, these might leak if improperly
Figure 6: Direct gain solar system
constructed or poorly insulated.

Figure 8: Clerestory windows in a direct gain system let Figure 7: The overhang allows in the winter sun while
sunlight strike thermal mass on the back wall. shading the south facing glass in the summer
For optimal summer, winter, and mid-season performance in direct gain systems, the
amount of south facing glass and thermal storage mass should be balanced.
Overheating happens when the windows collect more heat than the floor or walls can
absorb. As a result, in the summer, shade is essential to reduce heat gain. Overhangs,
awnings, trellises, louvers, solar screens, and adjustable insulation are some of the
options. Nowadays, exterior shading is preferred over interior shading since exterior
screens and other measures prevent heat from entering the structure.
Furthermore, the placement and quantity of cloth mass should be considered. Thermal
storage, for example, might be smaller and more broadly dispersed in the living space
than in conventional passive systems. Because covering the thermal storage mass with
carpet or other materials reduces its storage capacity, it is critical to arrange furniture
such that solar collecting, storage, and distribution are not hampered. The table below
compares the advantages and disadvantages of various direct gain systems:
Advantages Disadvantages
South facing windows provide natural day Large amounts of south facing glass can
lighting and outdoor views cause problems with glare and privacy
It provides direct heating. There is no The thermal mass used for heat storage
need to transfer energy from one area to should not be covered by carpet or
another blocked by furnishings

The number and size of south facing It can overheat if the windows and
windows can be adjusted to match the thermal mass are not balanced
space for thermal mass. Clerestory
windows can let sunlight fall directly on
the back parts of floors or walls used as
thermal mass
It is comparatively low in cost to build, South facing windows need summer

since no special room has to be added. shading and a night time isolative
The floor, walls, can serve as the storage covering in winter. Night time insulation
mass. The solar elements are can be provided by exterior mounted
incorporated into the occupied/living panels, interior draperies, shutters, pop in
space. panels, or other insulating window
treatments
Furnishings and fabrics exposed to

ultraviolet radiation from the sun can
degrade or change colour.
Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct gain Systems
3.3.2 Indirect Gain
The storage mass is placed between the south-facing window and the living space in
this way. Thermal walls and various sorts of materials are used in indirect gain systems
to store gathered heat. A masonry Trombe wall, a water wall of tubes or barrels situated
several millimetres behind the window are all conventional techniques to store mass.
When compared to direct gain, which is typically 100-150mm thick but spread out over a
broader area, the brick trombe wall is often 200-300mm thick. The mass of the wall
absorbs the sunlight that passes through the
south facing glass. The wall gradually heats up
and transfers the heat to the living spaces
anywhere between 6 and 8 hours later. The time
lag between the mass warming and the heat
being released helps to maintain consistent
temperatures in the living area, so heating is
accessible late in the afternoon and evening
when it is most needed. This is especially handy
in a home setting when the house is uninhabited during the day but occupied at night.

The walls of the Trombe can be vented or not. The vented wall allows hot air to enter the
living area directly. Because hot air would cycle back to the front of the trombe wall
from the living area if the wall vents were not closed at night, a vented trombe wall
necessitates nighttime sealing of wall vents. Because it's difficult to ensure that vents
open and close properly, trombe walls have been less popular in recent years.
Trombone walls gain more heat during the night, according to research. As a result,
adding movable insulation to the trombe wall Figure 9: Trombe wall vents circulate heated air to
will increase its efficiency. The table below lists the living area in the day time, meanwhile at night
the vents are closed to prevent reverse cycling of
the advantages and disadvantages of indirect heated air.
gain systems:
Advantages Disadvantages
The storage mass is positioned closer to The south facing view and natural
the glass or collection area, which allows daylight is lost. Some trombe walls have
for efficient collection of solar energy. been designed with windows set into the
wall to compensate.
The floor and wall space of the living area The trombe wall may take up too much
can be used more flexibly since the wall space in a smaller building.
storage mass is moved next to the south
facing glass. This frees the interior space
and does not expose furnishings to direct
sunlight.
The thickness and heat storage capacity Furniture and objects placed against or
of the thermal mass heats up gradually on the trombe wall affect the efficiency of
and distributes the heat to the living area the trombe wall heating the living area.
when it is most required.
Because the trombe wall heats only the

area it is connected to, the cost of labor
and materials in its construction may be
high relative to the contribution it makes
to the overall heating needs of the
building.
Vented trombe walls must be closed at

night to prevent reverse cycling of heated

air.
In the summer or on winter days without

sunshine, the trombe wall acts as a very
poorly insulated wall. Exterior moveable
insulation would improve its effect on
comfort and energy use.
Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Indirect gain Systems
3.3.3 Case Study: The Wallasey School
The Wallasey school in Cheshire was constructed in 1961, and the design was
stimulated by earlier US and French buildings. The Wallasey school building has the
basic features required for passive solar heating and daylighting and it is thus
considered as a direct gain design. Some of the features of the school are:
● Thermally heavy weight construction (dense concrete or brickwork). This stores

the thermal energy through the day and into the night;
● A large area of south facing glazing to capture the sunlight;
● Thick insulation on the outside of the structure to retain the heat
The oil-fired heating system was later discovered to be unneeded and was removed
after the construction of the school building. As a result, the facility was completely
heated using a combination of solar energy, light, equipment heat gains, and student
occupancy.
Energy is provided in the majority of schools in two forms: fossil fuel (gas, oil, coal, or
LPG) and electricity. Although some schools only have access to electricity or use it
more extensively, some schools use fossil fuel for space heating, hot water, and some
catering appliances. Lighting, electrical equipment, and catering all need electricity. The
following is a breakdown of energy consumption:

Figure 10: Energy consumption for a typical school
The majority of the energy used in schools is for heating and hot water. As a result, the
school may decide to concentrate on heating systems. Electricity rates can be as high
as 6 pence per kilowatt-hour, whereas fossil fuel prices can be as low as 1 penny per
kilowatt-hour. Fossil fuels account for up to 80% of the energy used in schools, and they
also account for 40% of the cost. The cost breakdown for energy use at a typical school
is depicted in the diagram below. Lighting accounts for over half of all electricity costs,
with the rest coming from electrical equipment, caterers, fans, and pumps.
Benchmarking allows schools to compare their energy usage to that of their peers. The
majority of schools want to know how they can save electricity and water. So that a
school may determine performance for each type of energy use, benchmarks are
calculated separately for fossil fuels and electricity. The variety of benchmarks offered
aids in identifying measurable potential savings that are feasible. For fossil fuel and
electricity, the benchmark in schools is measured in kilowatt/hour (kWh) per m2 of
heated floor space per year. The energy benchmarks for a good, typical, and bad
performing school are shown in the table below.

Energy benchmarks (kWh/m2) for good, typical and poorly performing schools
Annual Energy Primary School Secondary School Secondary School

(kWh/m2) (no pool) (no pool) (with pool)
Fossil Electricity Fossil Electricity Fossil Electricity

Fuel Fuel Fuel
Good Practice 110 25 117 28 142 29
Typical Practice 157 34 160 36 187 36
Poor Practice 209 47 207 4 233 41

Table 5: Energy benchmarks for a good, typical and poor performing schools
The calculation of carbon dioxide CO2 emissions is possible through the factors
available at the table below:
CO2 emissions by fuel type
Kg CO2/ kWh Kg CO2/ litre
Electricity 0.43
Natural gas 0.19
Gas/ Diesel Oil 0.25 2.68
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) 0.23 1.65
Renewable Energy 0.00 0.00

Table 6: CO2 emissions by fuel type
To calculate a school’s carbon dioxide emissions, it is required to multiply the

consumption in (kWh) by the CO2 factor:
Fuel Annual kWh CO2 Factor Annual kg CO2
Natural Gas 1,134,000 X 0.19 = 215,460
Electricity 266,000 X 0.43 = 114,380

Total 1,400,000 X 329,840
Table 7: Calculation of CO2 emissions
3.4 PASSIVE SOLAR COOLING

Before the advent of refrigeration technology, people kept cool in buildings by using
natural methods e.g.:
● Breezes flowing through windows

● Water evaporating from springs and fountains
● Large amounts of stone and earth to absorb daytime heat.
These concepts have been developed as important aspects of building design for
thousands of years. Surprisingly, passive cooling is now regarded as an "alternative" to
mechanical cooling, which necessitates the use of complex refrigeration systems. It is
possible to eliminate mechanical cooling or air conditioning, or at the very least
minimise the size and expense of the equipment, by incorporating passive cooling
systems into modern structures. 18 Cooling, in whatever form, is the polar opposite of
warmth. As a result, it entails the collecting apertures selectively rejecting the incident
energy. Heat flow between storage elements and ambient heat sinks in the building,
such as windows providing ventilation, reduces thermal storage.
In locations where cooling is a major issue, passive cooling solutions can be utilised to
reduce, and in some cases eliminate, the need for mechanical air conditioning. In many
circumstances, thermal comfort in summer involves more than just keeping the indoor
air temperature below 24°C in modern structures with substantial internal gains;
comfort is mostly tied to a temperature and humidity balance.
There are several passive cooling strategies, and they are as follows:
3.4.1 Passive Solar Energy
To keep occupants cool, this method relies primarily on-air circulation. Wind-driven
cross ventilation is enhanced through window openings on opposite sides of the
building. Because natural breezes cannot be scheduled, architects and designers
frequently use tall gaps within structures called stacks or chimneys to increase natural
ventilation.

Warm air can exit via the top of the stack, while colder air enters from the bottom. To
allow for air passage, ventilation necessitates that the building be opened during the
day.
3.4.2 High Thermal Mass
This method is based on the ability of the building's materials to absorb heat during the
day. The mass releases heat each night, preparing it to absorb heat the next day.
Thermal mass must be exposed to the living spaces in order to be efficient. When the
exposed mass area of a residential building equals the floor area, it is deemed to have
average mass. A slab floor is a simple technique to do this in a design. For every square
foot of floor area, high-mass structures could contain up to three square feet of
exposed mass. High mass can be achieved by using large masonry fireplaces and
inside brick walls.
3.4.3 High Thermal Mass with Night Ventilation
This method relies on the thermal mass's daily heat storage paired with night ventilation
to cool the mass. To remove the heat, the building must be closed during the day and
opened at night.
3.4.3 Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling lowers the temperature of the interior air by evaporating water. This
is often done directly in the space in dry areas. However, indirect methods like roof
ponds enable evaporative cooling to be applied in more moderate climates as well.
Mechanical techniques, such as fans, are frequently used to complement ventilation

and evaporative cooling. When compared to refrigeration systems, they utilise
significantly less energy to maintain comfort. These tactics can also be used in entirely
passive systems that do not require any additional machinery or energy to operate.

CHAPTER 04: INTEGRATED ‘ACTIVE’ RENEWABLES &
NOBLE SYSTEMS
As mentioned in Chapter 1, new buildings have more possibilities for energy efficiency
and new renewable systems that can be created or installed during the building's
construction stage. These systems may include building elements that are integrated
into the construction or technology such as PV, solar water heating, ducted wind
turbines (DWT), and combined heat and power (CHP).
4.1 SMALL SCALE INTEGRATED RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES

The types of small scale integrated renewable technology appropriate for integration in
commercial buildings are discussed in the following sections:
4.1.1 Solar Photovoltaics
Semiconductor materials, such as silicon, are used to make photovoltaic (PV) cells,
which are the most popular. A fraction of the light that strikes the material (solar cell) is
absorbed by the cell material. The absorbed light (photons) send their energy to the

semiconductor. This energy dislodges electrons, allowing them to freely flow. This flow
of electrons provides an electrical current, which may be taken off and used externally
to charge a battery, power a device, or power a building by installing metal contacts on
the top and bottom of the PV cell.
Individual photovoltaic cells can be used for small applications, although more power is
required. A module is made up of several cells, and modules can also be combined
together to make arrays. In principle, arrays can be as
small as a few modules to power a building to as large as
thousands of modules to power an entire town.
PV is a versatile construction material. It can be used for

roofs, curtain walls, and decorative screens incorporated
in glass, as well as directly replacing other traditional
building materials. These items can provide the same
structural and weather protection benefits as traditional
alternatives while also generating electricity. PV Figure 11: Cells combined to form
modules and then onto arrays
generates around 100 kWh/m 2 depending on the kind of
PV and the efficiency of the system.
There are several different types of PV panel:
● Monocrystalline PV – this is a single crystal structure and is the simplest type of

PV
● Polycrystalline PV – this uses multiple crystals which makes it simpler and more
energy efficient to manufacture;
● Thick-film PV – a film-based PV which is efficient in poor light conditions;
● Thin-film PV – also a film-based PV but very thin, allowing it to be used in
complex applications such as curved roofs. It can also resist damage from
vandalism.
4.2 BENEFITS OF PV SYSTEMS

Photovoltaics have a number of benefits and they are as follows:
● Safe operation

● Simple to operate
● Minimum maintenance and no moving parts
● No emissions and pollution
● Ability to integrate into existing and new buildings
● High dependability, durability and long life (approximately 30+ years)
● Silent operation and no environmental impacts
4.3 LOCAL ENERGY GENERATION
4.3.1 Solar Water Heating
There are two primary types, both of which are typically installed on the roofs of
buildings facing south or southwest. The sun heats water that passes through tubes in
a flat plate called a solar collector in some systems. The hot water is circulated through
these tubes from the solar collector to a holding tank until it is needed. Instead of water,
an antifreeze solution is pumped through the tubes in other systems. This type of fluid
will keep the tubes from freezing in colder areas. The sun heats the liquid, which then
travels down the tubes to the holding tank, similar to the water-based method. The heat
from the tubes' liquid is transferred to the water tank, which warms it. The liquid in the
tubes is then re-circulated back up through the solar collector in both systems, where
the process starts all over again.
Solar water heating is a method that uses the sun to heat water. In both residential and
commercial structures, hot water is used for a variety of purposes. The two most
prevalent types of hot water are hot water for swimming pools and hot water for indoor
use. with a payback time of under two years Solar water heating systems are one of the
most cost-effective ways to heat swimming pools. These systems, which are normally
mounted on the building's roof and consist of plastic tubes with a diameter of no more
than a quarter inch and are coloured black to absorb heat from the sun, are made up of
plastic tubes with a diameter of no more than a quarter inch. Water is circulated from
the pool, through the solar collector, and then back into the pool by the current pool
pump.

Hot water at a medium temperature is utilised for daily indoor activities such as bathing,
cleaning, and, in some cases, building heating. Solar water heaters can be used to warm
water for use in buildings in a variety of ways:
Passive Systems: These rely on the main water line's water pressure or the natural
propensity for hot water to climb (thermo siphoning). These systems are among the
most affordable, because they don't have any moving parts that could go down over
time. A batch or "breadbox" water heater is the most basic system. Passive systems
consist of a collector, usually a glazed box with a metal tank or piping inside which is
painted black, and a storage tank which can be an existing water heater.
Active Systems: Pumps circulate water or another liquid through a solar collector in
active systems. The solar collector's hot water is frequently stored in a conventional
water heater, which serves as a backup system when the sun isn't shining. Although
these systems are more expensive, their better efficiencies usually compensate for the
higher initial cost.
Residential and commercial building applications that require temperatures below 93°C
typically use flat-plate or transpired air collectors, meanwhile those requiring
temperatures greater than 93°C use evacuated-tube or concentrating collectors.
4.3.2 Ducted Wind Turbines
The DWT was created in 1979 by a Glasgow engineer with the new goal of modular
application. It was then explored for integration into the building design by the
mechanical engineering department at the University of Strathclyde. The influence of
the aerofoil on the wind turbine is one of the key differences between the DWT and a
normal wind turbine. The result on the flow characteristics around the edge of a building
and via the DWT is shown in DWT. It can be observed that the pressure on the building's
edge is positive, while the pressure through the DWT is negative. The greater the
pressure differential, the greater the velocity through the turbine blades, and hence the
more power generated.

Figure 12: Air flow characteristics around the edge of a building
Although duct wind turbines are still in the experimental stage, they show promise for
low-power applications. It has gone through wind tunnel testing and has been
constructed as a larger prototype for field testing. The device is best suited for locations
with a directional wind regime and can be integrated with larger structures, according to
the findings. The ducted wind turbine has proven its ability to produce significant
amounts of power in both the wind tunnel and in the field, and it is also quiet and robust.
The ducted wind turbine had a cleverly
hidden turbine within the framework to
minimise the visual impact if these units
were put on building rooftops, in addition to
being strong and contributing to a quiet
operation.
This device is made of easily

available/recyclable material e.g. sheet
metal/ducting and the location of the
generator beneath the ducting does not
obstruct air flow as it would for the Figure 13: Cross-section through a DWT
conventional wind turbines. The case study below demonstrates the use of DWT in
buildings.

CHAPTER 05: CASE STUDIES: ENERGY CONSUMPTION
5.1 THE BULLITT CENTER, SEATTLE, WASHINGTON
5.1.1 Introduction
The Bullitt Foundation, a sixty-year-old Seattle philanthropy, owns and operates the
Bullitt Center. Its mission is to make the Pacific Northwest a global example for
sustainable, resilient prosperity. Its purpose is to protect the natural environment in the
Pacific Northwest by supporting responsible human activities and sustainable
communities.
The Foundation sponsored parks and open spaces in its early years. Later on, it became
more concerned with the conservation of natural landscapes and wildlife habitat. The
Bullitt Foundation currently promotes a balanced approach to preserving the natural and
built ecosystems' health and sustainability. It envisions a future in which natural
ecosystems are preserved while a sustainable human population is accommodated in
healthy, lively, equitable, and prosperous communities.
5.1.1a Purpose
The Foundation and its six employees have been operating well for decades out of the
converted carriage house of the Stimson-Bullitt estate in Seattle's First Hill
neighbourhood, and the Bullitt Center wasn't intended to house them. The Bullitt
Foundation's Board of Directors made the brave decision to dedicate a significant
amount of its endowment to developing this model for 21st-century sustainability. It's a
tangible manifestation of the foundation's dedication to urban ecology, or the belief that
cities must address resource flows locally and sustainably in order to preserve the wild
places from which the majority of our resources are derived.

Denis Hayes, President and CEO of the Bullitt Foundation, saw
the Bullitt Center as an expression of his vision. Denis has been
a vocal proponent of the world's transition away from fossil
fuels and toward a more sustainable system based on energy
efficiency and renewable energy sources. He was named the
first director of the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI),
which is now the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), by President Jimmy Carter, and spearheaded the early
attempts to shift the United States toward a renewable energy
future. He was one of the first to warn of the existential threat posed by global climate
change, which is driven by the use of fossil fuels. In his 1977 book, Rays of Hope, Denis
outlined a roadmap for the transition to a post-petroleum world based on energy
efficiency and renewable energy sources.
But why did Denis and the Bullitt Foundation decide to build the world's most
environmentally friendly structure? The focus of carbon-cutting efforts is typically on
emissions from cars and power plants, although buildings account for about 48 percent
of the US contribution to global greenhouse emissions. Buildings are the conduits via
which the vast bulk of the country's electricity (75 percent) flows. The majority of this
energy comes from coal (37%) and natural gas (24%) Figure 14: The Bullitt Center
combustion (30 percent). In order to reduce atmospheric under construction, spring
2012 (John Stamets).
greenhouse gas emissions in this century, we will need to
improve the performance of our current buildings as well as design, construct, and
operate ultra-high-performance new buildings.
While energy efficiency and renewable energy were important aspects of the building's
vision, Denis believed it was critical to set the bar extremely high for this project and
address all of the building's resource flows and environmental implications. He intended
to disprove the idea that structures are disposable commodities, tools for speculative
investment with a useful life measured in decades rather than centuries. While he chose
to build a new structure rather than renovate an old structure, he believes that the
lessons acquired from the design, construction, and operation of this structure will
benefit both new and existing structures.

Buildings are the most common and long-lasting objects of human civilization. For
decades after their construction, they have a huge impact on our life and the health of
the environment. The majority of modern office buildings are designed as commodities
with the goal of generating quick returns on investment. The Bullitt Center was
conceived and constructed with the long future in mind. It will run largely on site
resources and pay for energy embodied in its materials and construction with carbon
offsets; it will provide ecosystem services by restoring the site's natural hydrology and
returning nutrients to the land; and it will provide a healthy environment to support the
activities of visitors and workers for the next 250 years.
5.1.1b Place
The site was chosen because of its strong visibility and accessibility in a largely
residential neighbourhood that is seeking for economic and commercial growth.
Improved walkability, economic development that takes advantage of Madison Street's
strategic positioning as a vibrant connector, sensitive infill development, and the
creation of interesting urban spaces are among the targeted improvements identified in
the Central Area Action Plan for the Madison-Miller neighbourhood.
Figure 15: Seattle’s central business districts: Downtown and Capitol Hill.
McGilvery Place Park, just to the west of the building, has been refurbished as part of
this project, and now features a public plaza, seating areas, and an all-weather Ping-

Pong table. Madison Street now has a better pedestrian crossing that serves the
neighbouring retail shops, schools, and churches.
The project site at Madison Street and 15th Avenue was chosen because of its great
visibility, accessibility, and potential to meet Capitol Hill and the Central Area's
community development goals. It's a mixed-use area with a variety of locally owned
shops and restaurants, parks, public and private schools, medical institutions and
hospitals, and a diverse range of housing options.
Within the Capitol Hill Urban Center Village, the location is located. The neighbourhood
commercial zone (NC3-65) allows for a 65-foot-tall skyscraper with a total construction
space of 42,823 square feet. Furthermore, the project has been approved as a
participant in Seattle's Living Building Pilot Program. Under the Land Use Code, the Pilot
Program allows for greater flexibility in improving energy and water self-sufficiency. For
example, to accommodate solar energy or water collection systems and to improve
daylighting, natural ventilation, and the quality of the indoor environment, Living Building
projects are eligible for an expanded list of Land Use Code departures, including
building height, floor area ratios, and the extent of solar equipment.
Figure 16: Site of the Bullitt Center,

Figure 17: Site sections through the Bullitt Center: parallel and perpendicular to E. Madison St.
5.1.1c Performance
LEED has become the industry standard in voluntary

green building certification because to the efforts of
the US Green Building Council. It has pushed the
discussion about high-performance buildings past
regulatory regulations and toward voluntary
adoption of considerably higher building standards.
However, LEED as a mechanism for advancing the
extremely high-performance buildings required to
meet the problems of the twenty-first century has Figure 18: The seven “petals” of the Living
Building Challenge TM: Site, Water, Energy,
flaws. It is a prescriptive and predictive standard Health, Materials, Equity, and Beauty.
among these. If a project team obtains the required number of points during the design
and construction phase by using both mandated features and anticipating high energy
performance, the building receives certification and a plaque to display on the first day
of operation.
Because it is performance-based, the Bullitt Foundation elected to pursue the more

rigorous Living Building Challenge TM (LBC). "We no longer have time for good intentions,
to check-off boxes that indicate we've done this and done that, but result in a building
that doesn't perform as it was planned to," Denis Hayes stated in picking the LBC for the
Bullitt Centre’s green certification. Before a building can receive Living Building
certification, it must perform as designed and meet all of the requirements for energy,

water, and materials, as well as criteria for the site, health, equity, and beauty, for a full
year of operation.
Figure 19: Integrated Design elements of the Bullitt Center (Miller Hull).
5.1.2 Integrated Design
Integrated design is a comprehensive approach to architecture that considers the

structure as a system rather than a collection of discrete components. It's not about the
individual components as much as it is about how they work together. When elements
of a structure perform many roles, this is an indicator of integrated design.
Integrated design, as a design process, entails multidisciplinary collaboration from

concept to completion and delivery of a building. Integrated design methods are a
combination of architectural and mechanical features that work together to create
better results than they might on their own. The Bullitt Centre’s design ideas are quite
prevalent in modern structures, and the technology used is easily available. However,
only a few buildings have fully incorporated the state-of-the-art technologies and high-

performance design principles used in the Bullitt Center, and none are as vast or
ambitious in their performance aims as the Bullitt Center.
The owner's and design and construction team's adherence to unambiguous

performance targets is maybe the single most crucial stage in constructing a super
high-performance building. The Living Building Challenge TM's criterion for net-zero
energy made the energy performance aim for this building crystal clear; it was the most
powerful factor informing the design process.
When compared to an average Seattle office building (EUI = 72 kBTU/sf year), achieving
net-zero for a six-story commercial office building in Seattle means achieving energy
efficiency improvements of up to 77 percent, or 62 percent better than the 2009 Seattle
Code minimum building (EUI = 42 kBTU/sf year). This is a lofty ambition, especially for a
structure that aims to be cost competitive with Seattle's other Class-A commercial
office buildings.
The margin of error between the expected power supply from the building's photovoltaic
power plant and the building's energy consumption was razor thin, necessitating every
design decision to bring the building closer to its net-zero energy target. The Bullitt
centre’s ambitions are so lofty that the design team was forced to go beyond just an
integrated design model and into performance-based integrated design.
5.1.2a Process
In order to harness all of the key stakeholders' knowledge and experience for the best
potential performance outcomes throughout the project lifetime, an integrated design

approach necessitates early involvement of all key players.
The Bullitt Foundation's owner representative, Point 32, oversaw the whole process,
from project conception and feasibility to building administration. Point 32, led by Chris
Rogers and Chris Faul, oversaw the selection of the site and design team, as well as
permitting, funding, construction, media, and communications. They collaborated with
the City of Seattle to create and pass Ordinance123206, the Living Building Pilot
Program, which facilitated permitting for some of the building's departures from
traditional methods for water supply, stormwater management, waste treatment, and
power supply, as well as signalling the City's support for much higher building

performance standards. The importance of Point 32's contribution to the project's
success cannot be overstated. It would not have happened if they hadn't brought a wide
range of services to the table, as well as their talent and perseverance. While some of
these services are generally offered by the architect and developer, a project of this kind
necessitated the integration services provided by Point 32.
The Miller Hull Partnership was

chosen to lead the design team
because of their track record of
success, architectural design
expertise, technological prowess, and
demonstrated ability to manage an
integrated design process. Engineers,
constructors, and consultants were
chosen in collaboration with Point 32
and the Bullitt Foundation, based on
Figure 20: Concept sketch of the Bullitt Center from the project
their expertise in respective fields as design charrette, June 2009.
well as their demonstrated ability to operate as part of a cohesive team.
Miller Hull and Point 32 gathered all of the project's information and research, then
gathered the whole design team and project stakeholders for a two-day hands-on
design charrette aimed at identifying all of the project's important criteria and outlining
the building's form.
The cards were all set out on the table on the first day. Denis Hayes presented his vision
for the project and his expectations for its success; the design team presented all
known data regarding the site and the project's purpose; and the stakeholders
expressed their expectations, worries, and suggestions. The parameters for the project
arose during this lengthy brainstorming session. The programme was changed from a
mixed-use commercial office plus housing to a commercial office plus ground floor
retail, which was one of the most significant decisions made on that first day. The
determination of the Bullitt Foundation and the design and construction team to attain
Living Building certification for the building was the most critical factor. Perhaps the

most important choice of the entire project was the determination to attain an
unmatched degree of performance for an urban skyscraper of this magnitude.
The first day's debate was synthesised and turned into a building idea design over night.
The floor areas and volumes could be calculated based on this first design concept, as
well as the possible area for photovoltaic panels to generate electricity. The end product
was a photovoltaic (PV) array capable of fulfilling the annual energy requirements for a
building with an energy use index (EUI) of 20 kBTU/sf-year and a floor area of roughly
48,000 sf. This was the building's initial energy performance aim.
Figure 21: The Imperative for High Efficiency.
Day two of the charrette delves deeper into the details, with the performance objective
and building schedule in place and a very rough design for the building's form in front of
them. Small groups of designers and stakeholders were formed to focus on certain
aspects of the project, such as energy and systems, water and waste, materials and
construction, building programme and usage, and landscape and neighbourhood.
Teams switched between intense emphasis on a specific aspect of the project and
large-group debate and synthesis of the entire project. This day was more about finding
issues than it was about solving problems. It was also an opportunity to identify
expertise and assign roles, as well as to identify knowledge gaps and recruit more team
members to fill them. It was also an opportunity for all of the stakeholders to start

forming the bonds that would be crucial to the project's success. The charrette provided
a firm foundation for the design team to begin their work, as well as a sense of shared
ownership and expectation for the project.
Performance-based Design
Almost every step of the design process was affected by the goal of achieving a net-
zero building. As a result of this requirement, a performance-based design methodology
was developed, requiring early and ongoing coordination and collaboration among all
members of the design team. Through all phases of design, fabrication, and
construction, integrated design aims to leverage the abilities and insights of all parties
to improve project goals, decrease waste, increase value to the owner, and maximise
efficiency.
These were the steps followed by the Bullitt Center design team:
Step1: Aggressive Goals
To attain high performance, everyone engaged must be committed to achieving high

performance goals. The Bullitt Center's energy performance aim was to be net-zero.
Following the design charrette, further design and energy analysis resulted in a six-story,
50,000-square-foot structure with space for a PV "power plant" capable of supplying the
annual energy needs of a building with an EUI of 16 kBTU/ sf • year. The design team's
energy goal was set at this level.
Step2: Analyse the Site & Climate
It's all about working with nature when it comes to high-performance design. It starts
with three questions: What is this place? What will nature allow us to do in this location?
And how would nature assist us in this situation? This includes comprehending the day-
to-night temperature changes, rainfall, cloud cover, and the hourly availability of sun,
wind, and light for all 8,760 hours of the year. The design team defined climate design
priorities and architectural design methods based on this knowledge.

Figure 22: The Path to Net Zero Energy, showing the architecture and engineering
energy efficiency measures, and the measures that require tenant engagement, to
reach the target set by the size of the PV power plant.
Step3: Design for reduced Energy Demand
The climate, use, and building systems informed the building's

form, envelope, and organisation, which were thoroughly
tested, modelled, and evaluated to optimise its performance.
The goals are to create a comfortable, healthy, and beautiful
structure that can "surf" for as long and as often as possible
without mechanical aid. Half of the battle is lowering the
building's energy usage. The second half entails making it
simple and natural for employees to consume as little energy
as possible. Low-flow fixtures and composting toilets are only
a few of the ways "activity loads" are lowered or eliminated,
including a "irresistible stair" to limit elevator use, showers and

bike parking to promote human-powered transportation, and low-flow fixtures and
composting toilets.
Step4: Use Efficient Equipment
To meet the remaining needs for heating, cooling, ventilation, and illumination, the
design team chose clever, energy-efficient equipment and systems. Sensors attached to
the building's central nervous system monitor light levels, CO2 levels, indoor and
outdoor temperatures, as well as wind and sun, to efficiently and effectively control and
deliver heating, cooling, ventilation, and illumination.
Step5: Use Renewable Energy
The only sources of sustainable, renewable energy used to operate this building and
power the equipment inside is the sunlight that falls on it and the energy source or sink
of the ground beneath it.
Step6: Verify Performance
Stewardship is a long-term commitment based on continuous feedback. It necessitates

meticulous upkeep and adherence to the project's performance objectives. The vital
signs of this facility will be monitored, and its performance will be studied, with the goal
of improving its operational energy use.
Figure 23: Exploded view of
the primary elements of the
5.1.3 Building Form building’s energy supply and
energy efficiency measures.
The Bullitt Centre’s shape is determined by performance
measurements rather than metaphor or aesthetics. The building's energy and water use,
as well as the durability, longevity, toxicity, and origins of its materials, as well as its
function, form, and organisation, all had extremely high-performance requirements to
meet.
In a typical Seattle office building of this size, space heating accounts for roughly 1/3 of
the energy demand. The UW Integrated Design Lab (IDL) used Ecotect, a sustainable
design analysis programme, to investigate the relationship between conductive heat
loss through the envelope and solar heat gains through the windows in an early energy
analysis. A number of building shapes were investigated, each with a different surface-
to-volume (S/V) ratio but the same window-to-wall area proportion. Larger S/V ratios

increase winter heat loss; however, on a sunny winter day, this loss may be countered by
increased heat gains through the windows.
The marginal passive solar heat gains achieved with more south-facing windows were
smaller than the heat lost by having more wall and window surfaces for heat to escape
through, according to these early form studies. An examination of several massing
configurations, ranging from low surface-to-volume cube-like forms to shapes with
greater surface-to-volume ratios, revealed that compact, low S/V climate-rejecting
forms had lower total energy loads than forms with more envelope area and higher S/V
ratios.
The conflict between competing aims for energy performance, sunshine and fresh air
requirements, reaction to the neighbourhood environment and expected future growth,
and achieving the most cost-effective structure possible drove the conceptual design.
Construction cost was a crucial consideration, as it is with any building, especially if this
structure is to serve as a model for commercial office development in Seattle and
beyond. But, more than any other single issue, it was the competition for light that drove
the creation of this building's design.
Figure 25: Form Option 1: Heating EUI 10.00 kBTU/SF year

Figure 24: Form Option 2: Heating EUI 11.46 kBTU/SF year
5.1.3a Daylight Design
"Every occupiable space must have operable windows that allow access to fresh air and
daylight," according to the Living Building Challenge. Workstations, which are where
workers will spend the majority of their working days, must be no more than 30 feet
away from an operable window. To meet these objectives, each of the first design
proposals included an atrium to bring more of the floor plate closer to a source of

daylight and fresh air while also driving daylight deep into the centre of the structure.
These early design considerations were also influenced by the potential for an atrium to
improve cross- and stack-ventilation.
As a result, an "O" scheme and a "U" scheme were created. However, when we used
Radiance, a digital daylight design tool, to compute the sunshine distribution and
intensity on each floor level, we discovered that the atrium only provided moderate
levels of daylighting to the third and fourth floors (3 and 4 levels from the roof). The roof
apertures were not only too small in comparison to the atrium's depth, but they also
competed for light with the rooftop PV array, and the additional building envelope area
increased heat loss.
Figure 27: “O” Scheme: central atrium for light and Figure 26: “U” Scheme: central atrium for light and
ventilation. ventilation.
The final design is a "T-shaped" layout in which the top four stories are set back 15' from
the northwest and southeast perimeters, resulting in a higher proportion of floor space
within 30' of the perimeter. The top four floors are planned around a 21-foot-deep
central service core, which is bordered by 24-foot-deep working zones that stretch to
the building's periphery. These floors are made of engineered strong wood with a
concrete bathroom core to support both lateral and gravity loads. They are supported by
a two-story concrete platform that includes a two-story lobby and exhibition area on
Level 1 on the west side of the building, as well as a mezzanine (Level 2).
The assumed ideal situation of a fully glass façade and an 11'-6" floor-to-floor height
(10'-9" ceiling) was used to investigate daylighting. This was done on the third level at
3:00 p.m. on a December day that was uniformly overcast. The daylight distribution and

intensity were very similar when compared to a facade with fewer windows in
alternating vertical bands of glass and an insulated opaque wall. However, roughly 77
percent of the floor surface in both circumstances went below the target 2 percent
daylight factor.
Figure 28: Daylight distribution for 100% vs. 50% window area of façade.
The effect of raising ceiling heights to spread daylight deeper into the structure was the
subject of the next design inquiry. The ceiling height was raised to 13'-1" and the floor-
to-floor height was elevated to 13'-10". The area that fell below the required DF was
decreased to 38 percent when modelled using the same alternating window and opaque
wall structure, and the majority of this area is in the service core of each floor. A 10'
expansion of the building height was authorised under the Living Structure Ordinance,
allowing for a sufficient amount of daylit workstation area to be created in order to
produce an economically viable commercial office building. It would have been almost
impossible to complete this project without extending the floor-to-floor heights of the
upper four storeys due to the peculiar pentagon-shaped geometry of the construction
site.
5.1.3b Building Envelope
The number one climate design objective for buildings in the Pacific Northwest is to
keep the heat in and the cold out in the winter, even in large office buildings with
relatively substantial internal heat gains. To reduce the heating load and achieve the

net-zero energy aim, an airtight enclosure and a well-insulated envelope with thermal
breaks to minimise conductive paths where heat can escape are also essential.
An iterative process of finding the best balance between windows for views, daylight,
and ventilation, and insulated opaque walls to keep the heat in and the cold out is
required when designing a high-performance building envelope. More glass also
necessitates more shade in the summer to decrease solar heat input. In recent high-
performance office buildings in Seattle, fully glass facades with operable apertures have
been adopted, with the goal of lowering energy consumption through natural ventilation
and daylighting. While these solutions reduce electric lighting consumption, they also
increase heating demand, especially in buildings that use natural ventilation without
heat recovery.
Ecotect and then EnergyPlus models were utilised for thermal analysis, while Radiance
and physical models were employed for daylighting, to arrive at the best percentage of
glass-to-floor area and glass-to-insulated-wall area. The resulting window area is slightly
smaller than that of a comparable modern office structure.
Pre-design research utilising simple Ecotect form studies revealed that boosting the
insulation levels in the walls and roof, as well as improving the efficiency of the
windows, could significantly reduce the building's heating loads. In these experiments,
increasing wall insulation from R-19 to R-25 and roof insulation from R-30 to R-39, as
well as improving window U-factors from 0.60 (insulated glass) to 0.14 (multi-pane/film
assembly), resulting in a 62 percent reduction in heating load using simplified building
geometry.
The outside wall assembly of the Bullitt Center begins with a rain screen system made
up of a metal panel, air space, and 4 inches of mineral wool (R-16.8). This component is
attached to a 6" light steel-framed wall with 5/8" glass mat gypsum sheathing,
fibreglass batt insulation (R-19), and gypsum wall board on the inside with fibreglass
clips. This gives the wall an R-value of around 36. The area-weighted average R-value for
the opaque portions of the outside walls is 21.4, after accounting for framing and other
parts of the wall assembly with lower levels of insulation.
Infiltration can be one of a building's biggest individual heating loads. To obtain a

measured infiltration rate of 0.24 cfm/sf at 75 Pa, meticulous detailing, building, and

testing were required. This was accomplished by creating a whole-building air barrier
design that defines all air barrier components in the construction documents, as well as
descriptions of all air barrier component joints, interconnections, and penetrations.
5.1.3.c Windows and Exterior Shades
Because windows are the weakest link in any building's thermal encapsulation, this
structure employs the best triple-glazed curtainwall system available. Various windows,
glass, and configurations were tested for thermal, daylighting, and ventilation
performance during the design phase. Top competitors were Kawneer, Crystalite, and
Schüco curtainwall systems. The Schüco system outperformed the competition in all
three categories: air tightness (0.25 cfm/sf @ 1.57 psf), water penetration resistance,
and thermal performance.
Vertical fenestration systems consist of triple-glazed assemblies with one or two low-E
coatings, argon filled, and heated edge spacers for a maximum centre-of-glass U-value
of 0.18. To achieve the best summer shading and winter solar heat gain, a variety of
glass assembly combinations were studied. Solarban 60 and 70, as well as Sungate 500
assemblies (SHGC: 0.36, 0.29, and 0.59, respectively) were used to represent various
façade configurations. While the glazing with the lowest SHGC reduced the cooling load
the greatest in the summer (Solarban 70), the drop in beneficial solar heat gain in the
winter was more than offset.
Automated external louvred blinds serve a number of

purposes. First, they reduce summer warming by blocking
direct solar radiation outside the building envelope. They
reduce glare by scattering daylight and redirecting diffuse
light to the ceiling and other interior surfaces while
blocking direct sunlight penetration. On gloomy days,
automated blinds, unlike fixed outside shades, get entirely
out of the way to maximise the potential for daylighting.
The Warema exterior automatic venetian blinds of the

Bullitt Center have 100 mm (4") aluminium slats with a
reflectance of about 50%. An astronomical time clock that
locates the sun's altitude and azimuth, as well as a sensor

Figure 29: Section of the Schüco
that signals whether it's clear or cloudy, regulating blind deployment and slat angles.
Blinds deploy by façade orientation in clear sky conditions at the minimal slat angle
required to just block direct beam sunlight. They adjust to the sun's angle on a regular
basis and retract when the sun passes around the building or the skies darken. To avoid
unnecessary cycling, once blinds are deployed, they remain in clear sky deployment
mode for a defined time period regardless of sky conditions.
5.1.4 Systems
Because of the performance targets for this building, much of the equipment used is the
best available. But it's all "off-the-shelf" technology, freely available and widely used in
the construction sector. The Schüco triple-glazed curtainwall, for example, is the best on
the market, and ground-source heat pumps have been used as a highly effective way to
heat and cool buildings for years. These are high-cost components that have a hard
time surviving the inevitable "value engineering" process, even if they are specified.
These "top shelf" components, however, are important to obtaining high levels of
performance when incorporated into systems of reinforcing elements. The degree to
which systems are integrated with one another to attain the highest levels of
performance and efficiency is what sets this building distinct from others.

Figure 30: Bullitt Center integrated systems for power production, daylighting, heating, cooling and ventilation.
5.1.4a Natural Ventilation and Passive Cooling
The Bullitt Centre is an open-air structure. The windows open when CO2 sensors detect
a demand for fresh air. When it's too cold or too hot outside, the windows are shut and
the ventilation system supplies 100 percent outside air, which is tempered during the
heating season by energy recovered from the exhaust air exiting the building.
Fresh air is provided by the natural ventilation system, which is primarily designed as a
passive cooling system. This technique saves about 750 hours of annual cooling that
would otherwise be required if the windows were not moveable. During the summer,
motorised actuators open the windows at night to flood the building with cold air and
prevent it from scorching the next afternoon. On hot summer afternoons, night-flush
cooling lowers slab temperatures by 3 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit, allowing this mass to
absorb more unwanted heat.

The building's moveable Schüco windows are roughly 4' x 10' in size. On scissor hinges
positioned along the sides, top, and bottom of these huge openings, these "parallel
opening" windows project directly outward. The triple-glazed window assemblies are
projected horizontally outward about 4" by motorised actuators. These "pop-out"
windows feature greater effective apertures than casement, awning, or hopper windows
of comparable size. On floors 3 through 6, the operable window space is around 4% of
the perimeter ventilated floor area. These parallel opening windows also have the
advantage of not interfering with movable outside or interior blinds, as well as sealing
more effectively, compressing window gaskets uniformly and reducing infiltration heat
loss.
Rain, wind speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity, and sunlight are all
monitored by weather sensors on the roof. When the building is occupied, the windows
automatically open if the outside temperature is above 65oF and the space temperature
is above the (adjustable) natural ventilation cooling setpoint of 72oF. The windows
close if the outside air temperature exceeds 78°F or if the space temperature falls 2°F
below the natural ventilation setpoint. With controls installed on each floor, occupants
can bypass the control system and manually open or close the windows by zone. The
automated services will restart in 30 minutes. If it's pouring or the wind is blowing at
more than 15 miles per hour, the windows will close automatically.
5.1.4b Heating and Cooling
Internal gains from people, lights, and equipment start

the heating process. The windows let in free solar
heating on cool but sunny days. The building envelope
is constructed to keep heat in and cold out.
Supplemental heating isn't required in most occupied
buildings until external temperatures fall below 46°F,
Figure 31: Radiant in-floor heating &
the building's operating balance point temperature. cooling using ground- source heat pumps,
and heat recovery ventilation strategies.
When this occurs, the building's ground source heat
pump system kicks in to produce hot water, which is circulated throughout the structure
and distributed as radiant heat through the concrete floor slabs.

When it's time to chill down, the windows automatically open to let in fresh air. As the
day warms and the outside air no longer effectively cools the structure, the windows
close, and the building's concrete floors and hard surfaces, which had been chilled by
night-flush ventilation the night before, absorb excess heat to keep the interior
comfortable. If the building's mass's cooling capacity is depleted, cool water is
circulated through the floors, sucking in surplus interior heat and sending it to the earth
beneath the structure via ground source heat pumps.
These heating and cooling

systems are powered by
electricity generated by
the building's photovoltaic
("PV") system or
purchased from Seattle
City Light with credits
earned during the summer
months from surplus PV
production. (The Living
Building Challenge
prohibits the use of
Figure 32: Net-zero energy use: energy use vs. energy production, and the
combustion for heating and periods of energy deficit and surplus that balance over the course of the year.
cooling.)
5.1.4c Thermal Source and Supply Systems
The Bullitt Centre’s heat production and distribution system features both a source and
a supply side. A pair of pumps on the source side circulate a water and glycol (anti-
freeze) solution through one of twenty-six 400' deep wells drilled directly beneath the
structure. Each hole is roughly 5-1/2" in diameter and has a loop of 1" diameter plastic
pipe that extends to the well's bottom and then back up. Because the ground
temperature is roughly 55 degrees Fahrenheit all year, cold fluid pumped down the well
returns around 10 degrees Fahrenheit warmer, depending on the heating load.
The thermal energy contained in this comparatively warm fluid is employed in a heat
pump to generate warm water that is circulated through the floor slabs for space

heating. Warm water, normally between 90oF and 100oF depending on the need for
heating, is circulated through tubing organised by thermal zones on each floor of the
building by two supply pumps. The heat pump can be turned off in the summer to
circulate cool water through the floor and use the earth as a heat sink rather than a
source of heat. The heat pump's evaporator and condenser coils exchange roles in this
mode, allowing the system to absorb excess heat from within the structure and reject it
into the relatively cool soil.
There are five heat pumps in the structure.

Three are used to circulate warm water
through the floors for space heating or
cooling in the winter, and occasionally
cool water in the summer. In the winter,
one is utilised to supply warm water to
temper the entering fresh air from the heat
recovery air handler. The production of Figure 33: Heat Pump, schematic diagram.
household hot water is handled by a fifth heat pump.
In a closed loop, each heat pump employs a volatile refrigerant that changes state from
liquid to gas and back as it passes through the pump. Heat from a ground well loop
enters the evaporator stage of the heat pump and is absorbed by the fluid, which boils
and converts the fluid to a gas in Bullitt Centre’s system. The compressor then
compresses this gas into a heated, high-pressure vapour. This high-temperature vapour
is circulated via condenser coils that come into contact with water from a separate
loop, heating the water, which is then pumped through tubing installed in the concrete
flooring to heat the building. This causes the gas in the heat pump to condense into a
warm, pressurised liquid, which is then converted to a cold, low-pressure liquid by
passing it via an expansion valve. This cold fluid gets heat from the relatively warm
ground water loop in the evaporator coils, where it boils into a gas and the cycle is
repeated.
5.1.4d Ventilation and Heat Recovery
There are two types of building systems: water-based and air-based. The water side is
responsible for heating and cooling, while the air side is responsible for ventilation and

passive cooling. The air-side is a hybrid system that includes moveable windows for
both fresh air and passive cooling, as well as fan-delivered ventilation air that is
occasionally tempered by heating coils from the water-side.
Figure 34: Heat Recovery Ventilator, schematic illustration.
A dedicated outside air handling unit installed on the roof provides the building's
principal ventilation air (Level 7). This technology provides fresh air anytime CO2
sensors suggest that more fresh air is required, whether or not the windows are open. A
heat recovery wheel is installed in the rooftop air-handling unit of this system. The
efficiency of an energy recovery ventilator (ERV) in recovering heat from exhaust air and
transferring it to ventilation air is about 65 percent. CO2 readings are used to control
airflow with variable speed drive fans.
Five decentralised water-source heat pump systems, four conference rooms, and the
server/telecom space in the basement are served by two extra supply fans. One of
these supply fans also distributes air to eight terminal units that serve the building's
smaller enclosed conference and quiet rooms.
Three exhaust fans serve the building's bicycle parking and recycling area, as well as
Seattle City Light's transformer vault and the composting units in the basement. Each of
the ten composting units is also equipped with a small exhaust fan. These fans pull air
from the restrooms and circulate it through the toilets and urinals, promoting aerobic
digestion and removing aromas from the bathrooms and basement.
5.1.4e Building Control System
A KMC control system drives the building's direct digital control (DDC). The mechanical
heating and cooling systems, the supply and wastewater systems, the air supply and

exhaust systems, and sump pumps are all monitored, logged, and controlled by this
system. The weather station and indoor sensors, as well as water metres, pump flows,
thermal energy, fans, and window operations, are all monitored, collected, and logged by
this system.
The building's electrical circuits are divided into thirteen panels. Whole building systems
are served by seven panels positioned in the main electrical and mechanical rooms on
level one, the basement, and the roof, and their metered loads are disaggregated per
system. In addition, each floor has a panel that divides the electrical load into four
categories: 1) installed lights; 2) plug receptacles; 3) HVAC systems; 4) plumbing and
fire alarm systems
LOAD CATEGORY
Interior Lighting
Lighting Exterior Lighting
Emergency Lighting
General Plug Loads
Workstation Plug Loads
Copier and Printer
Refrigerators
Plug Loads Microwaves
Dishwashers
Coffee Machines
Windows, Louvers and Blinds
Door Operators
Mechanical Controls
HVAC Pumps
HVAC Systems HVAC Heat Pumps
HVAC Fans
Ceiling Fans
Plumbing and Fire Protection Systems Plumbing Systems
Domestic HW
Reclaim Water System
Composting System

Fire/ Life Safety
Server Room Server Room
Server Room HVAC
Table 8: Bullitt Center Electrical Load Categories.
Climatec's third system collects and aggregates important electrical data from the
Schneider Electric system, as well as metered water and energy flows from the KMC
system, for display and data tracking on the building dashboard. An extra gateway
organises building energy data into relevant "buckets" that may be used to track energy
performance at a finer level than the data given into the building dashboard.
5.1.5 Performance
5.1.5a Energy Performance
A building's energy efficiency can be tested against a number of different standards.

Energy used by other buildings of the same type, either nationally or regionally; a
building built to energy code minimum requirements; a building earning the energy
points required to achieve LEED Silver, Gold, or Platinum certification; and a building that
generates as much energy as it consumes are all examples of common benchmarks
(net-zero energy). To approximate building energy use, all but the first approach
necessitates the use of an energy model. All of these were used at the Bullitt Centre, but
net-zero was always the primary performance metric.
When the Bullitt Centre’s criteria were set, the national average for an office building
according to the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) was 92.7
kBTU/sf year. The annual energy consumption of an average Seattle office building
(Energy Star score = 50) was around 72 kBTU/sf. The preliminary energy model utilised
to estimate a 2009 Seattle Code minimum building built on this site was 42 kBTU/sf
year, according to the preliminary energy model. The EUI for a 6-story, 50,000-square-
foot net-zero energy structure on this site was initially determined by the amount of
solar electricity that could be generated using PV panels arranged on the building. This
figure was predicted to be around 16 kBTU/sf year after a series of design studies.
During the last stages of the building's shell-and-core construction and "tenant
improvement" (TI) of interior areas, the Bullitt Centre’s photovoltaic "power plant" began

providing the building with power in February 2013. By mid-March, tenants were moving
into the facility, and the Bullitt Centre was dedicated on April 22, 2013, Earth Day.
From May 1, 2013 to April 30, 2014, the building produced 114,085 kWhrs more power
than it consumed during its first year of operation. Based on a gross floor area of 50,142
SF, the building's actual EUI was 9.4 kBTU/sf year, or 41.7 percent less energy than the
expected EUI of 16.1 kBTU/sf year. The Bullitt Centre’s energy performance was 77
percent better than a 2009 Seattle Energy Code minimum building (EUI = 42 kBTU/sf
year).
Figure 35: Bullitt Center year one energy use and production: predicted vs. actual. Predicted use is corrected (blue line)
for the actual occupancy (difference between design and actual occupancy).
Actual energy generation roughly matched expected output. In a typical climatic year,
the 244 kW PV array would produce 257,770 kWhrs of power, according to the energy
production model (TMY). The actual amount of power produced was 251,885 kWhrs,
which was 2.3 percent less than expected. In September and October, Seattle saw more
gloomy days, and beginning in February, it had one of the wettest winter/spring periods
on record. This is represented in the difference between expected and actual energy
production.
At least some of the variance between expected and actual energy use is probably
certainly due to occupancy. The building has a maximum design occupancy of 214
persons in offices and 150 people in the classroom and exhibition area on Level 1. On a

normal design day, 158 people work in the offices and 20 people visit the exhibition and
classroom space.
The building was 49 percent leased in May 2014, however just 34 percent of its usual
daily design occupancy was achieved. From June through December, the building was
77.6 percent leased, with a daily occupancy rate that gradually increased from 41% to
51%. The building has been 82.2 percent leased since December, with a median daily
occupancy of 61 percent of design.
Activity loads, which include all energy consumed by people and their equipment
hooked into outlets, such as refrigerators, copy machines, task lights, and computers,
as well as all hard-wired lighting, account for roughly 48% of total building loads. The
estimated total energy usage for the building is 236,389 kWhrs; after accounting for
occupancy, the estimated total energy use is 180,693 kWhrs. The actual total energy
consumption of the building was 137,800 kWhrs, which is still 23.7 percent less than the
expected total energy consumption when occupancy is taken into account.
Access to reliable sub-metered electrical data is required for analysis of how and where
energy is consumed in the building, as well as the effect of occupancy on the facility's
performance. Because the energy portal's building load and activity load data do not
add up to the total building load, this shows that not all of the building's circuits are
accounted for through this metering portal. While we are confident in the overall
building's power use and output data, we are still waiting for precise sub-metered data.
5.1.5b Project Performance
The Bullitt Center is one of the few construction projects that is informed by such clarity
of aim and executed with such dedication to the end result. Its success is due to the
care taken during the design and construction process, as well as the owner's and
design team's adherence to clear performance goals. The client's team had done its
study and came prepared with data, analysis, and performance goals. This information
influenced the design and construction team's selection as well as their preparedness.
They were chosen for their ability to collaborate and play well with others, as well as
their talent and technical prowess.

Here are some of the elements that contributed to the successful outcomes of this
project.
PREPARATION
The Bullitt Centre is one of the few construction projects that is informed by such clarity
of aim and executed with such dedication to the end result. Its success is due to the
care taken during the design and construction process, as well as the owner's and
design team's adherence to clear performance goals. The client's team had done its
study and came prepared with data, analysis, and performance goals. This information
influenced the design and construction team's selection as well as their preparedness.
They were chosen for their ability to collaborate and play well with others, as well as
their talent and technical prowess.
LEADERSHIP
Miller Hull's rigour, discipline, and talent are evident across their 34-year portfolio, as
well as in their written project proposal and a day-long interview with the Building
Advisory Committee. Few firms in the United States are creating huge, complicated
building projects at a better level of performance and beauty than the Miller Hull
Partnership, which is actually practising ecological design. Their ability to orchestrate a
collaborative design process with their consulting partners and project stakeholders, as
well as their performance-based design approach and the rigour and discipline they
bring to their work, all contribute to their success.
Not only did they have everyone they needed at the table, but the Client also knew more
about the dimensions of a "living building" than they did, according to Brian Court.
"Normally, you spend a lot of time educating the client and convincing them to commit
to high performance targets; but, in this project, the client was constantly pushing the
project team, not the other way around."
Denis also contributed to the development of a commitment culture on the construction

site, both via his words and his presence. "Denis isn't the type to stand on a soapbox. He
is a true gentleman. There isn't any nonsense." Denis paid frequent visits to the
construction site, getting to know the workers and listening to their tales and goals for
the project. His presence was crucial in fostering a culture of shared commitment to
constructing a genuinely exceptional structure.

5.1.5c Integrated Design Process
A two-day design charrette with approximately forty members of the project team,
stakeholders, and advisors kicked off the design process. A sense of shared ownership
and accountability for the project was created by sharing all project information,
outlining goals and aspirations, and allowing everyone an opportunity to weigh in with
their vision for the project. "Having the client, the developer, the builders, and the
engineers around the table from the beginning was soothing," Brian Court explains. It
appeared that the burden of responsibility and culpability was evenly spread."
"We were there on day one of the design process, and it was still too late," Schuchart
Construction's Christian LaRocco explains. "You can never be too early to the table." The
builders were at the heart of the design process, participating in all important system
decisions and providing cost and constructability feedback at every stage.
The degree to which "silos" of responsibility were not visible on this construction site
may be the most visible indicator of the integrated process. "The mechanical engineers
were providing unsolicited ideas on materials, the architects were voicing
constructability worries, and the builders were talking about energy performance,"
Christian observed during construction. Members of the project went beyond their
disciplinary interests in ways he hadn't seen previously.
5.1.5d Systems Thinking
The design and consulting team felt driven to leave no stone unturned in their pursuit of
the greatest possible set of design and technological solutions for this project. A
notable illustration of this is the water and resource recovery systems. The designers of
the water and waste systems, 2020 Engineering, looked at a wide range of options, and
because they all had architectural and mechanical ramifications, they played a big part
in creating the building's shape. 2020 examined sunspaces, living machines, and
resource stream diversion with Miller Hull (architects) and PAE (mechanical engineers),
each with form and mechanical system consequences. The architects drew these
systems into the building shape, and the engineers modelled them before coming up
with a final design for the systems. “This building, more than any we’ve built at
Schuchart Construction, is an interconnected system,” says Christian. “I call it the

‘amoeba effect’– every change ripples down the line to other elements of the system.
You can’t change one part without effecting others.”
"We knew it was going to be a completely different approach because the ambitions
were so high," Brian Court recalls, "where it's not really the architect making a couple of
big steps and then letting the engineers figure out how to get the systems to function."
This structure would have to be created from the ground up, with system strategies
coming first." While the idea of the building as an integrated system and a "science-
based" approach to form-making have long been essential to Miller Hull's design
approach, Brian Court finds the idea of the building as an integrated system and a
"science-based" approach to form-making "liberating." "Everything is done for a cause;
nothing is done solely for the purpose of "composition." Early on, the design team
adopted the slogan of performance-based design, which meant that practically every
decision had to be made in light of the project's performance criteria, which included
energy, water, materials, beauty, cost, and longevity.
Christian explains their approach to day-to-day decision making during construction as

"what's best for the project," and more precisely, "what's best serves the design
objective." The energy, water, and material "petals" of the Living Building Challenge
clearly express this design objective. The LBC's conceptual clarity gave a foundation for
the builders, carpenters, and other trades to grasp the project's design goal.
5.1.5e Communication
"Schuchart is the heart of all communication for all players in this project, and our
mindset here is to embrace all of it," Christian LaRocco said in an interview during the
building's development. Christian believes that seeing the project through the "frame" of
each discipline's perspective – and each perspective is radically distinct – has been a
big part of their success on this project. The third-party safety officer has an entirely
different perspective on the project than the architect or engineer. His job as project
manager has been to listen so that he can help each role and discipline on the project
do their tasks.

5.1.6 Lessons Learned
The building's management and continued performance will impart lessons to the
design community for years to come as a living laboratory. Here are some of the
takeaways from the Bullitt Centre’s design and construction.
5.1.6a Program Definition
The project started out as a mixed-use structure featuring retail, offices, and
apartments. This was the design charrette's programme, which lasted for a month or
two following. However, the difficulties of arranging uses and systems, estimating water
use for residential renters, and meeting the energy needs of retail tenants immediately
became clear. While the majority of the time and effort spent on this diversion resulted
in information that was still helpful to the amended programme of a commercial office
building, it diverted time and effort from the project's ultimate programme.
5.1.6b Design Assumptions
Two sets of assumptions that were eventually debunked lingered long into the
conceptual design process, consuming time and effort. One idea was that there would
be some form of atrium to allow light to penetrate the structure and allow for cross- and
stack ventilation. With this method, two conceptions emerged: a "O" plan and a "V" plan,
which split each level in half. These were ultimately rejected after considerable design
and analysis because an atrium did not increase daylighting, competed for light with the
PV panels, resulted in more heat loss, caused real estate difficulties, and, most
importantly, resulted in a building that was too expensive.
The direction and distribution of photovoltaic (PV) panels were the subject of the
second set of assumptions. Panels would be inclined to the south, integrated into the
building skin, and/or supported by a south-facing armature, we assumed. Despite
extensive Rhino + Grasshopper analysis of hundreds of PV configurations, it became
clear that the issue is not one of efficiency (maximising watts per panel), but rather one
of effectiveness: maximising power production in the given area - and maximising that
area by extending over the public right-of-way of sidewalks.

5.1.6c Cost Targets
The team was told from the start of the design process that the building's performance
was the most important factor, and that costs would be addressed after the initial
concepts and systems were built. However, budget is never a secondary consideration,
and a significant amount of time and design work was invested before a cost analysis
was conducted. When it was, it led to a thorough re-evaluation of the conceptual design,
which was now based on cost. Performance and cost targets should be clear and
established as early as feasible in the design process, and a cost estimate should be
present from the start.
The initial cost targets were set at an unreasonably low level. The structure that was
first utilised as a cost comparison was a Class-A office building that the contractors had
previously completed at a cost of $180/SF. The aim was $250/SF with Living Building
Challenge premiums (primarily PV power and alternative water and waste systems); the
building cost ended up being $360/SF. This cost premium can be explained by at least
two general explanations. To begin with, the most effective technology is also the most
costly. Early estimates for the curtainwall system, for example, were around $50/SF,
whereas the actual Schüco curtainwall cost was over $110/SF. Second, some of the
systems are low-volume prototypes that lack the scalability and market penetration
necessary to be competitively priced.
The Living Project Challenge and this construction have as one of their goals the
creation of markets for green, high-performance building materials and equipment. For
example, when it was revealed that the liquid-applied building membrane used to seal
the building and prevent heat loss contained compounds from the "red list" of banned
TM
substances under the Living Building Challenge guidelines, Prosoco reformulated
their product. The goal is that their use in this building, along with the windows and
composting toilet system, will help them gain a footing in the market. To support these
expanding markets, early adopters of new technology pay a higher premium.
5.1.6d Measuring Performance
The lack of dependable sub-metered data from the electrical system via the information
management system has been the biggest barrier in adequately analysing the Bullitt
Centre’s first year performance. The Schneider/Square D electrical system is capable of

collecting and reporting extremely detailed electricity usage statistics. We haven't been
able to collect all of the data we'd like because it uses a proprietary "back-of-house"
system that requires both training and physical access.
We're making progress getting the information needed to make an accurate accounting
of all the building's loads and circuits, and begin getting a reliable flow of sub-metered
system loads that will provide a much more complete picture of how the building is
using energy, thanks to our collaboration with the Bullitt Foundation, PAE, and Unico, the
building management company that "drives" the building.
According to the information so far, the Bullitt Center is achieving or exceeding design
goals in terms of energy use and production. While more data on energy usage is
needed to adequately examine the impact of occupancy on energy performance,
preliminary analysis suggests that occupancy alone may not entirely account for the
building's remarkable first-year performance.
Thermal comfort and happiness with the indoor environment appear to be fulfilling
expectations, according to anecdotal evidence. The building's functioning fits well with
the design aims, according to both real-time tracking through the DDC system and
analysis of sample times and building zones during the last year. We hope to conduct a
more thorough investigation of occupant involvement and satisfaction with the building
environment in the future year.
5.2 INDIRA PARYAVARAN BHAWAN, NEW DELHI, INDIA
5.2.1 Introduction
India faces formidable obstacles in satisfying its energy demands. In comparison to

2003-04, India's primary energy supply will need to rise by 3 to 4 times, and its electrical
generation capacity/supply would need to grow by 5 to 6 times if it maintains an annual
growth rate of 8%. By 2031-32, the country's power generation capacity would be
required to reach 800,000 MW, up from 160,000 MW in 2006-07. This includes all
captive plants. According to estimates, the country is currently experiencing a 9.9%
electricity shortage and a 16.6% peak demand shortage. Domestic and commercial
sectors account for over one-third of total electricity consumption, and these sectors
are expected to consume around 37% in 2020-21.

The building sector's energy consumption continues to rise, owing to the fact that new
buildings are being built at a quicker rate than old ones are being decommissioned. Due
to enhanced urban living standards and advanced ways of energy consumption from
families to the industrial sector, India's per capita energy consumption has increased.
The Indian construction industry is dominated by the residential and commercial

sectors, similar to how the city of Chicago was built. Until 2030, an estimated 700-900
million sqm of commercial and residential space will be constructed each year.
Buildings are also major emitters of Green House Gases (GHG), providing a serious
environmental danger. This is a serious problem that necessitates the development of
energy-efficient buildings that allow for the reduction of GHG emissions while reducing
energy usage.
Increased attempts to improve building energy efficiency have lately been implemented
into several laws in India, such as Energy Conservation Building Codes (ECBC) for
commercial buildings. In addition, the administration wants to study unconventional
energy sources and make a significant push for solar energy adoption.
Thermal comfort (heating and cooling), lighting, water heating, and electrical appliances
are all services provided by electricity in buildings. Buildings that are energy efficient,
green, or high performing, such as NZEBs, have the potential to give long-term solutions
to the problem of future energy demand. With a variety of methods and techniques,
India has progressively begun to implement energy efficiency solutions in its building
sector, as well as supporting the expansion of the green building market in India through
widely used green building certification tools. If this is to be effective, these initiatives
must be improved or scaled up to fulfil the potential for energy savings in India's
building sector, which is growing at an exponential rate. Therefore, India’s building
sector must be supported by strong policies and packages that include multiple facets
of development and scaling of energy efficiency and integration of renewable
technologies in both new and existing buildings.
The global endeavour to reduce CO2 emissions, the growing scarcity of energy
resources, reliance on fossil fuels, and the reality that buildings consume a substantial
portion of the world's primary energy motivate research into innovative building designs,
particularly NZEBs. Since a growing number of stakeholders throughout the world are

attempting to minimise energy consumption, operating expenses, and setting aims to
reduce energy footprints from their building stocks, this topic has gotten a lot of
attention in recent years. The most recent, and certainly most ambitious, of these
endeavours is the development and evolution of NZEBs.
NZEBs are commonly understood as highly energy-efficient buildings that use, over a
year, renewable energy technology to produce the same amount of energy they
consume.
As a result, the NZEB method in a country can vary based on the climate, grid resources
for (green) electricity, and grid infrastructure for heating and cooling. To satisfy the
energy demands of construction, a long-term strategy that may improve energy
efficiency and the usage of renewable energy resources is required. The major goal is to
create energy-efficient buildings, or NZEBs, by including energy conservation techniques
throughout the construction process.
Buildings that are net-zero energy do not exist in a vacuum. Regardless of the many
definitions of net-zero construction. The term "net-zero" implies a connection to a larger
energy grid. The accounting of the chosen metric (e.g., primary energy) over a very long
period (usually a year) is intended to result in a net balance close to zero. The
successful integration and optimization of several architectural concepts and
strategies, such as building orientation with regard to sun path, natural ventilation, solar
shading, day-lighting, solar heat gains, thermal comfort, as well as the deployment of
well-proven insulation practises, energy-efficient glazing, air conditioning, and lighting
systems, and the incorporation of renewable energy technologies for on-site power
generation, are typical requirements for the design of a NZEB.
Green buildings, also known as NZEBs, are not yet widely used in India, but politicians,
architects, and builders are rapidly recognising their advantages and advocating for
them. The government, both at the federal and state levels, is working to integrate
energy efficiency and renewable energy into the building design process.
In India, the following important steps have been implemented to promote NZEB market
adoption: NZEB site and industry alliance (i) NZEB demonstration projects (ii), and Net
Zero certification (iii).
INDIRA PARYAVARAN BHAWAN

The Ministry of Environment and Forests is working on a project to create new office
buildings in Aliganj, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi. The project was created with the goal of
creating a net-zero energy building. The government sector is the first to be targeted for
both green building ratings (5 STAR GRIHA LEED India Platinum) The structure has
received accolades such as the MNRE's Adarsh/GRIHA for best example of renewable
energy integration. A composite zone was
used to create this new office building. This
structure is a radical departure from
traditional building design.
CPWD designed the building with the help of

multi-disciplinary field experts such as an
architect, an electric consultant, an HVAC
consultant, a plumbing consultant, a green
building consultant, a commissioning authority, a landscape consultant, a structure
Figure 36: Indira Paryavaran Bhawan: view
consultant, and other project team members, using an integrated design approach.
The project team emphasised energy

conservation measures at every stage
of building design and construction to
reduce energy demand by using
passive design strategies such as
providing windows with shadings that
provide adequate natural light with the
landscape to reduce ambient
temperature and for outdoor greenery
access with energy-efficient active Figure 37: Annual energy production and consumption graph
systems.
All conceivable energy-efficient and conservation methods were used to reduce the
building's energy load, with the residual demand load being supplied by an onsite solar
PV system with a capacity of 930 kW, making the structure Net Zero Energy.
In comparison to the GRIHA benchmark, Indira Paryavaran Bhawan consumes 67.3

percent less energy. The project incorporated a variety of green construction elements

for the benefit of the tenants, as well as environmentally responsible measures such as
water conservation and rainwater collecting.
The building is oriented in such a way that it allows for maximum solar access and
shading. Two parallel blocks facing north-south have been organised with a linear open
court in the centre. The building's front is set back further to protect tree lines and allow
occupants access to the outdoors.
Authorities received authorization to cut down 46 trees, however only 19 were cut down
and 11 trees were planted to compensate. Sprinklers and drip irrigation were installed to
lessen the need for additional water, and native plants/trees were planted. Local
ecology was protected to the greatest extent possible in order to maintain a cooler
microclimate. Hard green patches are offered to improve the outdoor view access of
the greenery occupants.
On-site STP with FAB/MBBR technology designed to recycle 100% of the water and
produce no wastewater. Water consumption has been cut by 64% thanks to the
installation of water-saving fixtures.
Figure 38: Effective ventilation pattern due to building design. Figure 39: Final design view of North-South blocks
Solar PV panels completely cover the building's top, courtyard, and sides, providing
shade and creating a cooler microclimate. On-site solar energy capacity offers enough
energy to match the building's demand capacity, which is critical in making the building
Net Zero Energy. This is the country's first government building to reach this milestone,
and one of the world's few full-fledged multipurpose office buildings to do so on such a
constrained urban location.

Effective ventilation is supplied by orienting the building N-S and by achieving the best
possible interaction with nature by dividing separate blocks with connected corridors
and giving a large central courtyard.
5.2.2 Design Feature
The energy consumption of a structure is heavily influenced by its design. Using an

integrated design approach, Indira Paryavaran Bhawan was designed in three stages.
The three processes outlined below - passive design, active design, and renewable
design - all assisted in reaching net-zero energy use in buildings. The author resources
Web pages have detailed submission guidelines. Each journal's author resource
guidelines are different, so be sure you're looking for the right one.
5.2.3 Passive Design Strategies
When a building is planned and simply works on its own, it is referred to as passive
design. The orientation of the building envelope (plan, section) to manage airflow is
used in passive design strategies based on climate considerations to try to control
comfort. Aside from that, passive design solutions use materials to manage heat,
maximise the use of free solar energy, maximise the use of free airflow for cooling, and
use shade to minimise heat gain, which can be natural or architectural. Indira
Paryavaran Bhawan is located in Delhi, which is classified as a composite zone, and
was built using passive design principles by the project team.
5.2.3a Orientation
The building is positioned north-south, which allows for efficient ventilation. Two
independent blocks are joined by corridors for maximum interaction with nature, and a
large central courtyard is given for improved air circulation and skylight. Natural flora
has been added to the courtyard, which lowers the ambient temperature and improves
air circulation, allowing cool air to be maintained while hot air can readily escape, as
well as providing a green view. Heat infiltration is reduced by orienting the structure.
According to the energy conservation benchmark, the building's window to wall ratio is
optimal.

5.2.3b Landscaping
Plantation covers more than half of the land outside the structure, including native
species that have been planted to reduce water usage. To allow groundwater recharge,
circulation routes and pathways are lightly surfaced.
Figure 40: Landscape designing of the courtyard
5.2.3c Ventilation
Natural ventilation occurs owing to the

stack effect, hence the courtyard in the
centre of the structure aids in air flow.
Cross ventilation is enhanced through
windows and jaalis.
5.2.3d Daylight
Figure 41: Ventilation through the courtyard
The courtyard has a skylight that allows

natural light to enter the room. As much as 75% of a building's floor space is lit by
natural light, minimising reliance on artificial lighting.
5.2.3e Building
The Building Envelope and Fenestration Rock wool insulation was employed, which was
optimised. The window is made of low heat transmittance double glazed glass with a U-
Value of 0.049 W/m2K, VLT of 0.59, and SHGC of 0.32. Incoming heat is reduced by the

hermetically sealed uPVC windows. Terrace tiles with a high reflectivity (Cool roofs) or
heat intrusion, high strength, and durability.
5.2.3f Materials
Buildings constructed with low embodied energy and recycled content-based products
such as AAC blocks with fly ash and fly ash-based plaster and mortar. Local stone
flooring, bamboo jute composite doors, frames, and flooring were used to construct the
structure. The embodied energy of these products is low. High-efficiency glass, with a
high VLT, low SHGC, and a low U-value, is aided in energy efficiency by adequate
shading. For diffused sunshine, light shelves have been created. Jaalis of stone and
ferro cement were used.
5.2.4 Passive Design Strategies
Fans, pumps, and other appliances and technology are used in active design to change
the state of the building, enhance comfort, and save energy. This is where the majority
of the energy conservation can be accomplished.
5.2.4a Lighting Design
An energy-efficient lighting system with a lux level sensor to improve the operation of
artificial lighting is installed in the building. The building's overall lighting power density
is LPD = 5 W/m2, which is significantly higher than the Energy Conservation Building
Code criteria. The remaining lighting load is powered by installed integrated
photovoltaic (BIPV).
5.2.4b Optimized Energy Systems/ HVAC Systems
To satisfy the 160 TR of air conditioning load, the building utilised a chilled beam
system. By conserving roughly 50 kW of AHU/FCU fan power, a chilled beam system
reduces energy usage by 50% as compared to a traditional system. The chilled water is
delivered at 16° C and returned at 20°
C. This method is employed in the
building from the second to the sixth
story. Varying frequency drivers
(VFDs) are used in water-cooled

chillers and double-skin air handling units to reduce energy usage on variable loads.
VFDs are used in the chilled water pumping system, cooling tower fans, and AHUs. An
integrated building management system controls and monitors all HVAC systems. To
precool fresh supply air from toilet exhaust air, a sensible and latent heat energy
recovery wheel is used. The room temperature is kept at 26.1 degrees Celsius, which is
another excellent energy-saving measure. ECBC requirements are more efficient.
To reduce air conditioning loads, the building adopted functional zoning. Drain pans are
included with the chilled beams to drain accumulated water droplets. The building's
overall HVAC load is 40 m2/TR, which is 50 percent.
5.2.4c Geothermal Heat Exchange System

Figure 42: Energy saving active design strategies (all in one)
A geothermal system has been
installed to suit the building's cooling needs, consisting of 180 vertical bores drilled to a
depth of 80 metres and spaced at least 3 metres apart across the building's grounds.
Without the use of a cooling tower, a Geothermal system may achieve 160 TR of heat
rejection. Each bore is connected to the central air conditioning plant room's condenser
water pipe system through an HDPE U-Loop pipe with a 32mm outer diameter. The heat
rejection capacity of each U-loop grouted with Bentonite Slurry and one U-loop is 0.9 TR.
5.2.5 Renewable Energy
The Indira Paryavarn Bhawan satisfied its energy needs with Efficient Solar PV systems,
a green and clean energy source. A solar PV system with a capacity of 930 kW has been
erected on a 6000 m2 section of the building. The panel covers a total area of 4650 m2
with 2844 solar panels, generating 14.3 lakh units yearly, which is a significant amount.
This is the country's first government building to achieve net-zero energy status, and
one of the world's few full-fledged multipurpose office buildings to accomplish so on a
constrained urban location.
5.2.6 Conclusion
Indira Paryavarn Bhawan is the country's first net-zero energy building, with an annual
energy consumption of 14.21 lakh kWh met by equivalent annual energy generation of
14.3 lakh kWh from solar BIPV installed on-site, and one of the world's few full-fledged

multifunctional office buildings to do so on a tight urban site, according to the case
study. The project stands as a shining example of high-performing government
buildings, as it is the country's highest green-rated structure. This structure will serve as
a model for sustainability, guiding architects, MEP experts, and builders in the
implementation of green standards in future building construction. The building's design
characteristics will assist academicians and professionals in determining the design
standards for net-zero energy structures in a variety of climates.
CHAPTER 06: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION & FUTURE

RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 DISCUSSION
The research and case studies show that there have been substantial advancements in
the field of sustainable buildings, with a focus on low-energy buildings being particularly
important. The United Kingdom has committed to major reductions in greenhouse gas

emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. Regardless of the mechanism utilised to establish
these constraints, the economy will incur considerable expenses. There are a variety of
choices available, including market-based policies across the economy and sector-
specific restrictions. The government's responsibility is to pick the most efficient and
equitable strategies for meeting the emissions targets.
The research and case studies show that

there have been substantial
advancements in the field of sustainable
buildings, with a focus on low-energy
buildings being particularly important. The
United Kingdom has committed to major
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
under the Kyoto Protocol. Regardless of
the mechanism utilised to establish these
Figure 43: Energy consumed by sector
constraints, the economy will incur
considerable expenses. There are a variety of choices available, including market-based
policies across the economy and sector-specific restrictions. The government's
responsibility is to pick the most efficient and equitable strategies for meeting the
emissions targets.
Space heating, water heating, lighting, refrigeration, ventilation, and other services all
demand energy in buildings. These uses, along with household appliances and business
equipment, account for around half of total UK energy demand and a similar amount of
all CO2 emissions due to energy use. Improving the efficiency with which energy is used
in buildings could provide significant opportunities for lowering emissions. Buildings in
the United Kingdom provide numerous chances to improve energy efficiency at a low
cost and with no net cost.
Despite the progress, buildings still do not receive the attention they require. Building
rules in the United Kingdom have improved over time, although there is still need for
improvement in areas such as ventilation (specifying a minimum recovery rate for heat
recovery) and insulation. In commercial buildings, space heating and water heating
account for a lower amount of consumption, whereas lighting accounts for a bigger

share. Air conditioning is an important end use in some types of commercial buildings
in the United Kingdom, but it is a minor one in residential buildings.
Increased knowledge of low-energy buildings and sustainability in schools, colleges,

and universities would be a positive step forward, since it would encourage future
generations to be more economically and environmentally conscious.
6.2 CONCLUSION
As the majority of the case studies in this thesis show, energy efficiency must be
considered before the impact of renewable technology can be maximised. There are
indicators that the public is becoming increasingly aware of and interested in energy
efficiency and renewable energy. The increased awareness and various efforts served
to draw more attention to the issue of CO2 emissions. As a result, buildings should be
built to maximise energy efficiency while maintaining high levels of air quality and
comfort.
The use of sunlight in building design and layout is considered environmentally benign,
and it has had a significant impact on cities and towns. It is of great interest from an
engineering standpoint, and the passive solar techniques have been well embraced by
the residents.
There is also a great potential to use passive and active renewable energy technologies
in buildings and they have the potential to be exploited in:
● Passive solar design

● Photovoltaic cells
● Solar water heating
● Ducted wind turbines
● Combined heat and power (CHP)
Switching to renewables is not a matter of ideology; it can offer a wide range of benefits
including:
● Improving ‘Green’ credentials

● Lowering energy bills
● Introducing the possibility of selling electricity back to the national grid
● Increasing the security of energy supply by minimizing the reliance on fossil fuel

How a building's space is used can have an impact on its energy efficiency. Heat losses
within the building envelope must be kept to a minimum in order to maximise energy
efficiency within a building. This can be accomplished by insulating the roof, walls,
windows, and flooring. The insulation of a building can be improved by linking units
together to increase thermal mass and reduce heat loss through exposed walls. On the
other hand, to avoid condensation difficulties, enough ventilation without draughts is
required.
When it comes to rating the energy efficiency of buildings, having a framework for
defining energy efficiency is critical. How to choose an energy budget for an energy
efficient building, as well as how to evaluate the level of low energy and relative and
absolute energy efficiency, should all be part of a strategy. It's also important to think
about the level of comfort.
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

This thesis can serve as a springboard for future in-depth research into the
development of energy-efficient structures. Further research into renewable
technologies such as ducted wind turbines, comfort levels in various ventilation
strategies, the impact of building materials, and the possibility of using recycled
building materials in various types of buildings without compromising the building's
performance could be pursued.
As technologies improve from day to another, there is always room for improvement,
the investigation could be further extended to investigate the impact.
6.3.1 Major Recommendations
● The need for a long term commitment from the Government to promote energy
efficiency in buildings
● Better end-use analysis needs to be undertaken in order to know what progress is
being made on improving energy efficiency of buildings
● Certification needs to be implemented in parallel with effective information
campaigns to explain to the wider public
● The energy certification programme should be designed to help construct and
maintain end-use databases to help in the policy analysis

REFERENCES
● Appendix G of Approved Document L (Dept of the Environment and Welsh Office,

1995 edition).
● Bruce Anderson, Solar Energy: Fundamentals in Building Design. Mc Graw-hill,
1977
● Building Research Establishment (BRE), Daylighting Design in Architecture
● Building Research Establishment (BRE), http://www.bre.co.uk
● Diana Schumacher, Energy : Crisis or Opportunity?
● Donald R. Wulfinghoff, The Modern History of Energy Conservation: An Overview
for Information Professionals.
● Edward Vine, Drury Crawley, Paul Centolella, Energy Efficiency and the
Environment; Forging the link. Washington, D.C. : American Council for an Energy
Efficient Economy (ACEEE) in cooperation with University wide Energy Research
Group, University of California, 1991.
● Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) EM-4195, Energy Management Systems
for Commercial Buildings
● Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN),
http://www.environmental-expert.com/articles/article193/article193.htm
● Energy Policy – a Consultative Document, Cmnd 7101, HMSO, London, February
1978, pp. 20,21.
● Energy Systems Research Unit (ESRU), http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk
● Environ, http://www.environ.org.uk
● ETSU (Energy Technology Support Unit) (1999) New and Renewable Energy:
st
Prospects for the 21 Century: Supporting Analysis. Report R122.
● EU Official Journal L52 Volume 47 (p. 50-60) on February 21, 2004.

● George Baird, Michael R. Donn, Frank Pool William D.S.Brander, Chan Seong Aun,
Energy Performance of Buildings. Boca Raton CRC Press c1984 (p. 25-51)
● Godfrey Boyle, Renewable Energy; Power for a Sustainable Future. Oxford: Oxford
University Press in association with the Open University, 1996.
● Grant, A.D., Nasr, S.A., Kilpatrick, J. Development of a Ducted Wind Energy
Converter, Wind Engineering, Volume 18 No. 6 1994; Multi-Science Publishing Co.
LTD., UK.
● G.Z.Brown, Sun, Wind and Light.
● Kjeld Johnsen, Energy Conservation in the Built Environment; Session 1 –
Experiences with Energy saving measure in Existing Buildings.
● Kjeld Johnsen, Energy Conservation in the Built Environment; Session 4 – Design
for Low Energy Consumption.
● McVeigh J C, Sun Power, An introduction to the application of solar energy,
Pergamon press, 1977
● National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov
● Ngoka N I, Feasibility of solar energy utilization and research for buildings in
developing countries: Proceedings of the UNESCO international conference on
solar building technology, London, June 1977.
● The Building Regulations: Explained and Illustrated (Blackwell Science 1995)
● The Carbon Trust, http://www.thecarbontrust.co.uk
● Productivity Commission 1999, The Environmental Performance of Commercial
Buildings, Research Report.
● S.D. Pless and P.A. Torcellini, Energy Performance Evaluation of an Educational
Facility: The Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies, Oberlin
College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA. Task No. BEC3.4001
● W.S. Atkins and Partners, Combined heat and power district heating feasibility
programme: stage 1 summary report and recommendations.


DISSERTATION

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ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

in fulfilment of the requirements for the subject

[Sch. No. 181110239]

Department of Architecture and Planning

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal

Date: _______________ Mansi Jain

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 2

Date: _______________ Dissertation coordinator

CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................9

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS/ PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION...........................................11

CHAPTER 02: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................12

2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS........................................................................13

2.2.1 Energy Conservation..........................................................................................14

2.2.2 Growth in Energy Use in the Developed World..................................................14

2.2.3 Energy Use in Hot Climates/ Developing Countries..........................................16

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 3

2.3 ENERGY PERFORMANCE..........................................................................................17

2.3.1 Energy Consumption..........................................................................................18

2.3.2 Building Regulations...........................................................................................18

2.4 EU ENERGY POLICY: ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS DIRECTIVE...........19

2.5 FABRIC ISSUES..........................................................................................................21

2.5.1 Winter versus Summer R-Values.......................................................................22

CHAPTER 03: PASSIVE RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES....................................................23

3.1 BUILDING DESIGN.....................................................................................................23

3.2 PASSIVE RENEWABLE ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS...............................................23

3.2.1 Passive Solar Energy..........................................................................................24

3.2.2 Passive Solar Heating........................................................................................24

3.3 DIRECT AND INDIRECT GAIN SYSTEMS..................................................................25

3.3.1 Direct Gain..........................................................................................................26

3.3.2 Indirect Gain........................................................................................................27

3.3.3 Case Study: The Wallasey School......................................................................29

3.4 PASSIVE SOLAR COOLING.......................................................................................31

3.4.1 Passive Solar Energy..........................................................................................32

3.4.2 High Thermal Mass............................................................................................32

3.4.3 High Thermal Mass with Night Ventilation.......................................................33

3.4.3 Evaporative Cooling............................................................................................33

CHAPTER 04: INTEGRATED ‘ACTIVE’ RENEWABLES & NOBLE SYSTEMS......................34

4.1 SMALL SCALE INTEGRATED RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES..................................34

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 4

4.2 BENEFITS OF PV SYSTEMS......................................................................................35

4.3 LOCAL ENERGY GENERATION.................................................................................35

4.3.1 Solar Water Heating...........................................................................................35

4.3.2 Ducted Wind Turbines........................................................................................36

CHAPTER 05: CASE STUDIES: ENERGY CONSUMPTION..................................................38

5.1 THE BULLITT CENTER, SEATTLE, WASHINGTON...................................................38

5.1.2 Integrated Design...............................................................................................42

5.1.3 Building Form......................................................................................................47

5.1.6 Lessons Learned................................................................................................64

5.2 INDIRA PARYAVARAN BHAWAN, NEW DELHI, INDIA.............................................66

5.2.2 Design Feature....................................................................................................70

5.2.3 Passive Design Strategies.................................................................................70

5.2.4 Passive Design Strategies.................................................................................72

5.2.5 Renewable Energy..............................................................................................73

CHAPTER 06: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION & FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS.................75

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK.............................................................77

6.3.1 Major Recommendations...................................................................................77

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 5

Figure 1: Energy use in commercial buildings......................................................................................... 13

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 6

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 7

Table 1: Methodology of the study................................................................................................................ 13

DISSERTATION | ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS | 8

Although there is a large amount of information available about energy efficiency in