Compilation on

Personal Identity & Its

Medico-legal Aspects

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Dr. B.S. Tomar Neeraj
Dr. Satbir B.A.M.S. 3rd Yr.
Roll
No.1990037
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 SHREE KRISHNA GOVT. AYURVEDIC
COLLEGE, KURUKSHETRA

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is the bona fide

compilation work on “Personal Identity
and its Medico-legal Aspects” done in
Forensic Medicine and Toxicology during
the year 2021-22 by BAMS 3rd Yr. student
Neeraj, Roll no. 1990037.

In charge H.O.D. Int. Examiner Ext.

Examiner

Date:

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 INDEX
PART-A : INTRODUCTIONp
1.) DEFINITION : 04
2.) TYPES : 04
3.) MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFICATION : 04
4.) CORPUS DELICTI : 05

PART-B : DATA FOR IDENTIFICATION

1.) RELIGION : 06
2.) RACE : 06
3.) SEX : 06
3.1) MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF SEX : 06
3.2) METHODS OF SEX VERIFICATION : 07
3.2.1) PHYSICAL MORPHOLOGGY : 07
3.2.2) NUCLEAR SEXING : 07
3.2.3) SEX DETERMINATION FROM SKELETAL REMAINS : 08
4.) AGE : 08
4.1) MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF AGE : 08
4.2) METHODS OF AGE DETERMINATION : 09
4.2.1) AGE DETERMINATION IN FETUS : 09
4.2.2) AGE FROM OSSIFICATION OF BONES : 10
4.2.2) DENTITION IN DETERMINING AGE : 12
4.2.3) ESTIMATION OF AGE FROM TEETH BEYOND 25 : 13
5.) ANTHROPOMETRY : 14
6.) SCARS : 14
7.) TATTOO MARKS : 15
8.) DACTYLOGRAPHY : 16
9.) POROSCOPY : 18
10.) CHEILOSCOPY : 18
11.) TRICOLOGY : 18
12.) FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY : 18
13.) OTHER MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION : 19
14.1) CLOTHES AND PERSONAL EFFECTS : 19
14.2) OCCUPATIONAL MARKS : 19
14.3) HANDWRITTING : 19
14.4) SPEECH, VOICE, MANNER AND HABIT : 19

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 PART-A : INTRODUCTION
1.) DEFINITION : Identification means determination of individuality of a person.
It is done in living person or dead by recognizing certain features or characteristics
that are unique to that person.
2.) TYPES :

Identification may be: 1. Complete

2. Partial
• Complete identification is also called as absolute identification and refers to the
perfect fixation of individuality of a person.
• Partial identification is also called as incomplete identification and implies
ascertainment of only some traits or characteristics regarding the identity.

3.) MEDICO – LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFICATION :

I) IN LIVING PERSONS :
A) Civil cases:
1. In impersonation or false personification cases in relation with:
• Inheritance of property
• Pension
• Life insurance
• Voting rights
• Passport
2. Disputed identity in cases of divorce or nullity of marriage
3. Disputed sex
4. Missing person
5. Lost memory patients.
B) Criminal cases:
1. Identification of accused in criminal offenses of assault, murder, dacoity, sexual
offenses etc.
2. Absconding soldiers
3. Interchange of new born babies in hospital
4. Criminal abortion
5. To fi x-up age of criminal responsibility and majority 6. Impersonation in criminal
cases.

II) IN DEAD PERSONS :

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 Identification is important to identify the individuals who died in mass disaster, air-
crash accidents, fire victims, exhumation, explosion and bomb-blast injuries, mutilated and
decomposed bodies and in skeletal remains.
• In India police have to establish the identity of a person. However, doctor may
provide help by supplying certain facts or data to police, which might be helpful in
identification of a person.
• During medicolegal examination, doctor should record at least two identification
marks and the marks should be described in all certificates issued by him.

4.) CORPUS DELICTI :

“Corpus delicti” is a Latin phrase that means body of the crime. Corpus delicti refers to
the principle that it must be proven that a crime has actually occurred before a person can
be convicted of committing the crime.
 In a charge of homicide, it includes :
1.) Positive identification of the dead body
2.) Proof of its death by criminal act of accused.
 Corpus delicti includes body of victim, bullet or clothing showing marks of the
weapon or photographs showing fatal injuries.
 The identification of a dead body and proof of corpus delicti is essential before a
sentence is passed in murder trials, as unclaimed, decomposed bodies or portions of
a dead body or bones are sometimes produced to support a false charge.

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 PART-B : DATA FOR IDENTIFICATION
1.) RELIGION :
Hindu males- not circumcised, may have sacred thread, necklace of wooden beads, caste
marks on forehead, tuft of hair on back of the head.
Muslim males- normally circumcised, have marks of corns and callosities on lateral aspect of
knees and feet due to their posture during prayer.
Hindu females- put on saris, vermilion on head, silver toe ornaments, tattoo marks, nose
ring aperture in the left nostril and few openings for ear rings along the helix.
Muslim females- put on trousers, no vermilion mark, nose ring in the septum, several
openings on the helix for ear rings and no tattoo marks.
2.) RACE :
The population of world is divided into three types of race namely: 1. Caucasians or
Caucasoid
2. Mongolians or mongoloids
3. Negro or Negroid
“ Cephalic Index (CI) : Maximum breadth of skull × 100
Maximum length of skull ”
RACE DIFFERENTIATION
CAUCASIONS MONGOLS NEGROES
Fair skin Yellowish or pale skin Black skin
Blue or gray iris Black iris Black iris
Raised forehead Forehead inclined backward Small and compressed
forehead
Sharp nose Flattened nose Blunt nose
Straight or wavy, blondes Coarse, straight or wavy, black Thick, woolly, curly and self
brown or fair or brown spiraled
Round, mesaticephalic skull Square, mesaticephalic or Narrow and elongated,
CI = 75-80 Brachycephalic skull CI = 80-85 Dolichocephalic skull CI = 70-
75

3.) SEX :

3.1) MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF SEX :

 For identification in living or dead.
 For determination of sex of a person when:
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 • Sex appears ambiguous (doubtful)
• Sex is concealed
• A person appears to posses’ sex organs of both sexes
 For deducing whether an individual can exercise certain Civil Rights reserved
to one particular sex only.
 For deciding questions related to legitimacy, divorce, paternity, affiliation,
heir-ship and also some criminal offences.
 In case of national or international sports meet or games.

3.2) METHODS OF VERIFICATION :

3.2.1) PHYSICAL MORPHOLOGY :
FEATURES OF MALE FEATURES OF FEMALE
Muscular, strong and stout built Less muscular, delicate and slender built
More height and weight Less height and weight
Eyebrows coarse and thick Eyebrows fine and thin
Voice hoarse after puberty Voice soft
Body hair growth over chest, abdomen and No significant hair growth
limbs
Breast rudimentary Well developed
Thyroid cartilage prominent and angle less than Less prominent and angle more than 120
90
Shoulder broader than hip Hip broader than shoulder
External genitalia scrotum, testis and penis Labia, clitoris and vagina

3.2.2) NUCLEAR SEXING :

Definition : It is the method of sexing of cells which may help in determining sex in doubtful
cases, decomposed and mutilated bodies and fragmentary remains.
 Barr body or sex chromatin :
 It is condensed, inactive, single X-chromosome found in the nuclei of somatic
cells of most females.
 Absent in males.
 In XO(Turner’s Syndrome) no Barr bodies and in XXX, there will be two Barr
bodies.
 Davidson body :
 Some neutrophils in female demonstrate an additional lobe (drumstick),
which is rarely found in males.
 Davidson bodies can be demonstrated in the peripheral smears with Leishman
or Giemsa stains.

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 3.2.3) SEX DETERMINATION FROM SKELETAL REMAINS :
 Sexing from skull Bone :
MALE SKULL FEMALE SKULL
Larger, heavier, rugged, marked ridges Smaller, lighter, thinner walls, smoother
Forehead Steep and less rounded Vertical, rounded, full and infantile
Glabella Prominent Less prominent
Supra-orbital ridge Prominent Less prominent
Zygoma Prominent Less prominent
Frontal and Parietal eminence Less prominent More prominent
Palate U – shaped Parabola
Maxillary teeth Larger Smaller
Mastoid More prominent, large Less pointed and smooth
External auditory meatus, Bony ridge along Often absent
upper border, prominent
Foramen magnum Large and longer Small and rounded
Cranial capacity 1500 to 1550 cc 1350-1400

 Sexing from Pelvic Bones :

MALE PELVIS FEMALE PELVIS
Heavier, rough with prominent muscle Light, smooth, muscle impression less prominent
impressions
Pelvic inlet Heart shaped Circular/oval shaped Circular/oval shaped
Pelvic cavity Conical and funnel shaped Broad and round
Pelvic outlet Smaller Larger
Obturator foramen Large, oval Small, triangular
Acetabulum Large, directed laterally Small, directed antero-laterally
Ilium High, tends to be vertical Lower, laterally divergent
Ischial tuberosity Inverted Everted
Body of pubis Narrow, triangular Broad, square
Symphysis Higher Lower
Sub-pubic angle Narrow (“V” shaped) 70 to 75 Wide (“U” shaped) 90 to 100

4.) AGE :
4.1) MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF AGE :

AGE MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE

5 years Custody of minor is with mother
7 years Below this age, child is not responsible for his criminal act (Sec. 82 IPC)
10 years If child below this age removed from his lawful guardian for purpose of robbing
his property, it will amount to kidnapping (Sec. 369 IPC)
12 years  Age of consent for general physical examination
 Under 12 cannot give valid consent to suffer any harm which may occur

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 from any act done in good faith and for his benefit
14 years Employment : Child under 14 cannot be employed in factory jobs.
14-15 years Can be employed in non-hazardous factory jobs for limited period during day
hours
15 years Can be employed in factory like an adult if he has fitness certificate from a doctor
16 years  Taking away a male under this age without consent of guardian amounts
to kidnapping (Sec. 361 IPC)
 Learner license to drive a vehicle of 50cc engine and without gear.
 Below 16 years, sexual intercourse with a girl with or without her consent
amounts to rape ( Sec. 375 IPC) Above 16 years, girl can give consent to
sexual intercourse.
17 years Admission in a medical college
18 years  Judicial punishment : below this age, offender is tried in juvenile court
(no imprisonment or death sentence)
 Age of marriage for girls
 Can cast vote
 Age for permanent license
 Minimum age for entering a govt. service
 Can authorize the removal of organ from his body for therapeutic
purposes
21 years Age of marriage for males
25 years  Age limit for entering in some govt. services
 Age for contesting membership of Parliament and other legislative bodies
35 years Minimum age for appointment as President, Vice-President and Governor of
States
55-65 years Age of retirement from services under govt., statutory bodies/institutes or from
judiciary services.

4.2) METHODS OF AGE DETERMINATION :

4.2.1) AGE DETRMINATION IN FETUS
AGE IN FEATURES
MONTH
S
1 Eyes indicated by two dark spots, mouth as cleft, beginning of limb bud like process
2 Mouth and nose separated, anus as a dark spot, placenta commenced to form, feet
and hand webbed
3 Placenta developed, head rounded and larger than trunk(head half of crown-rump
length), becomes more human looking, separated by appearance of neck, heart four
chambered, fingers and toes well developed but nails membranous, alimentary tract
situated in abdominal cavity
4 Sex can be differentiated, skin covered by appearing downy lanugo hairs, skin rosy
and firmer; head 1/4th of length of body; umbilicus is near symphysis pubis; brain
convolutions begin to appear; gall bladder formed and meconium found in
duodenum, pupillary membrane appears, fetus can be detected on X-Ray
5 Light hairs appear on scalp, head larger and about 1/3rd of crown-rump length, Lanugo

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 distinct, nails distinct and soft, position of umbilicus recedes upwards, skin covered
with vernix caseosa, bile begins to form, meconium found in beginning of
colon(ascending colon)
6 Skin has wrinkled appearance due to less body fat; reddish in color, Eyelash and
eyebrow appears, eyelids adherent, umbilicus situated farther from pubic symphysis;
cerebral hemispheres cover cerebellum, sylvian fissure formed, meconium present in
transverse colon and testis near kidneys
7 Skin dusky red, thick and fibrous and covered with vernix, eyelids separated, pupillary
membrane disappeared, scalp hairs about 1cm long, nails thick and upto fingertips,
meconium in descending colon, testis near inguinal canal
8 Skin is rosy, not wrinkled, covered with soft hairs, lanugo disappeared from face and
hairs of scalp denser and longer, nails reached upto tip of fingers but not upto tip of
toes, left testis in scrotum, right in canal, scrotum corrugated, meconium reaches
upto rectum
9 Scalp hairs longer and about 2-4 cm, lanugo disappeared from body except shoulders,
vernix found in flexures of joints, nail grows beyond tips of fingers and upto tip of
toes, both testis in scrotum, meconium found in rectum, posterior fontanelle closed
10 Scalp hairs 3-5 cm, lanugo absent from body except shoulders, face not wrinkled, skin
pale, covered with vernix caseosa, umbilicus mid way between pubis symphysis and
xiphisternum, nails projected beyond tips, meconium in rectum, vulva closed, labia
majora cover labia minora and clitoris

4.2.2) AGE FROM OSSIFICATION OF BONES :

 Age is determined by studying the appearance and fusion of ossification centers.
 In majority of bone, primary centers of ossification appear between 7 th and 12th
weeks of intrauterine life. By the age of 11-12th week of intrauterine life, there are
806 centers of ossification.
 At birth there are 450 ossification centers. The adult human skeleton has 206
bones, this shows that 600 centers of ossification have disappeared; they have
united with adjacent centers.
 Ossification begins centrally in an epiphysis and spreads peripherally as it gets
bigger. Process of union of epiphysis and diaphysis is called Fusion.

APPEARANCE OF OSSIFICATION CENTRES

BONE CENTERS OF OSSIFICATION AGE OF APPEARANCE AGE OF UNION
Sternum  Manubrium 5th month IUL 60-70 years
 1st sternebrae 5th month IUL
 2nd and 3rd sternebrae 7th month IUL 14-25 years
 4th sternebrae 10th month IUL
 Xiphisternum 3rd yr. postnatal 40-45 years
Clavicle  Medial end 15-17 years 20-22 years
Scapula  Coracoid base 10-11 years 14-15 years
 Acromian process 14-15 years 17-18 years

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Upper limb
Humerus  Head 1 year At 5-6 yrs., fuses
 Greater tubercle 3 years together and at 17-18
 Lesser tubercle 5 years yrs, fuses with shaft
 Capitulum 1 year At 14-15 years, fuses
 Trochlea 9-10 years with shaft
 Lateral epicondyle 10-11 years
 Medial epicondyle 5-6 years 16 years
Radius  Upper end 5-6 years 15-17 years
 Lower end 1-2 years 17-19 years
Ulna  Upper end 8-9 years 15-17 years
 Lower end 5-6 years 17-19 years
Carpals  Pisiform 9-12 years -
Lower limb
Hip bone  Ischiopubic rami - 7 years
 Iliac crest 15-16 years 19-21 years
 Ischial tuberosity 16-17 years 20-22 years
Femur  Head 1 year 17-18 years
 Greater trochanter 4 years 14-15 years
 Lesser trochanter 14 years 15-17 years
 Lower end 9 months IUL (at birth) 17-18 years
Tibia  Upper end At birth 17-18 years
 Lower end 1 year 16-17 years
Fibula  Upper end 4 years 17-18 years
 Lower end 2 years 16-17 years
Tarsals  Calcaneum 5th month IUL 17-18 years
 Talus 7th month IUL
 Cuboid 9th month IUL
 HOW TO ESTIMATE AGE? :
 METHODS – 1.) Thin CT is the method of choice which is done for evaluating
the ossification stage.
2.) X-Ray examination.
 There are five grades of epiphyseal union :
Grade 0 – Unobservable
Grade 1 – Beginning
Grade 2 – Active
Grade 3 – Recent
Grade 4 – Complete
 X-Rays of wrist, elbow, clavicle and shoulder joints and hip, knee and ankle joints are
done to determine the age before 25 years of age.
 Between 2-6 years, the number of carpal bones present on X-Ray represents the
approximate age in years. (3 carpals – 3 years)

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  Clavicles are the last bone to ossify in skeleton. Ossification stage of medial clavicular
end is done.
 If all the epiphyses of all the long bones are united, the person is most probably over
25 years of age.
4.2.3) DENTITION IN DETERMINING AGE :
 Age from teeth can be determined by-
 Nature of teeth – temporary or permanent
 Number of teeth – whether 20, 24, 28 or 32
 Eruption of teeth
1.) Nature of teeth : Two types of teeth-
a.) Temporary or Deciduous teeth: These are 20 in number and present in
childhood. Each half of jaw contains 2 incisors, 1 canine and 2 molars.
b.) Permanent teeth : These are 32 in number. Each half of each jaw contains 2
incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars.
2.) Number of teeth :
AGE NO. OF TEETH
2-5 20, all deciduous
6 21-24, eruption of 1st permanent molar
7-9 24, 12 permanent(8 incisor and 4molar) and 12
deciduous(4 canine and 8 molar)
10 24, 16 permanent(8 incisor, 4 molar and 4
premolar) and 8 deciduous(4 molar and 4
canine)
11 24, 20 permanent(8 incisor, 4 molar and 8
premolar) and 4 deciduous(4 canine)
12-14 25-28, eruption of 2nd permanent molar
14-17 28, all permanent
17-25 29-32, eruption of 3rd molar

3.) Eruption of teeth :

 Age estimation of teeth is based on their regular eruption pattern.
 Based on eruption, permanent teeth divided in two sets :
a.) Superadded teeth : Temporary incisors and canines are replaced by
permanent incisors and canines whereas temporary molars are replaced
by permanent premolars. The erupting permanent molars do not replace
any temporary tooth that is the reason why these permanent molars are
called as superadded teeth.
b.) Successional teeth : these are the permanent teeth replacing the
temporary teeth. Incisors and canine replaces temporary canine.

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  Spacing of jaw : After eruption of second molar, the mandibular ramus extends
backward to make space for eruption of third molar. This developing space is known
as spacing for third molar.
 Orthopentogram (OPG) : X-ray of the jaw show developmental status of un-erupted
teeth and degree of root calcification.
Teeth Temporary teeth Permanent teeth
(age in months) (age in years)
Central incisor 6-8
Lower 6-8
Upper 7-9
Lateral incisor 7-9
Upper 7-9
Lower 10-12
First molar 12-14 6-7
Canine 17-18 11-12
Second molar 20-30 12-14
First premolar - 9-11
Second premolar - 10-12
3rd molar - 17-25

4.2.4) ESTIMATION OF AGE FROM TEETH BEYOND 25 :

 Based on the secondary changes occurring in teeth.

 Gustafson’s Method : Age estimation is done by noting the changes occurring in
teeth. It includes six parameters :-
1. Attrition: These are the changes caused on masticating surface due to wearing and
tearing.
2. Periodontosis: If oral hygiene is bad, the tooth root may be exposed with
deposition of debris.
3. Secondary dentine: With advance age there may be deposition of secondary
dentine tissue in the pulp cavity.
4. Root resorption: It is a decaying process with resorption of root.
5. Cementum apposition: In this condition, Cementum deposition increases.
6. Transparency of root: It occurs due to rarefaction of dentine tissue.
A formula is used to estimate age. The formula is: An + Pn + Sn + Rn + Cn + Tn =
points → age in years. “n” denotes number of points recorded.

 Miles Method : It uses translucency of root as a sole criteria to estimate age. In this
method, the tooth is grounded up to thickness of 1 mm. The translucency is assessed
by placing the grounded tooth on dotted paper and outline of tooth is drawn.
Thereafter, dots visible through tooth are calculated and then the tooth is removed

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 and the dots in tooth outline are calculated. From the percentage of dots visible
through tooth and actual number, the age of a person is estimated.
5.) ANTHROPOMETRY :
It is also called as Bertillon system. It is based on the principle that:
1. After 21 years of age, the measurement of various body parts of adult do not alter
2. The ratio in size of different parts to one another varies considerably in different
individuals.
Anthropometry includes:
 Descriptive data: Color of hair, eyes, complexion, shape of nose, ears and chin.
 Body measurement: Height, AP diameter of head and trunk, span of outstretched
arms, length of middle finger, left little finger, left forearm and left foot, length and
breadth of right ear, and color of left iris (11 such measurements).
 Body marks, such as moles, scars and tattoo marks.
 Photographs of front view and right profile of the head are also taken.

6.) SCARS :

 Definition: It is a fibrous tissue covered by epithelium without hair follicles, sweat

glands or pigment, produced from the healing of a wound. Scar is formed, if injury is
at the level of dermis and below.
 Examination: Good lighting is essential. Description of scars should include number,
site, size and shape, level it bears to the body surface, fixed or free, smoothness or
irregularity of the surface, color, presence or absence of glistening, tenderness,
condition of the ends whether tapering or not
 Characteristic of Scars :
1) Scars from lacerated wounds and infected wounds are firmer, irregular,
prominent and attached to the deeper tissues.
2) Incised wounds produce linear scars.
3) Stab wound due to knife produces oval, elliptical, triangular or irregular scars
which are depressed.
4) Bullet wound causes a circular depressed scar.
5) Scars from scalds have spotted appearance.
6) Vaccination scars are circular or oval, flat or slightly depressed.
 Growth: Scars produced in childhood grow in size, especially if situated on chest or
limbs.
 Medico-legal Importance:
i. Identification of the individual.
ii. Shape of scar may indicate the nature of weapon or agent that caused injury.

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 iii. Age of scar indicates time of infliction of injury which may have value as
circumstantial evidence.
iv. If a person is disfigured by scar due to assault, it constitutes grievous hurt
(Sec. 320 IPC).
v. Striae gravidarum and linea albicantes may indicate previous pregnancy in
females.
vi. To charge an enemy with assault, a person may attribute scar due to disease
as those of wound.
vii. Scars on wrist or throat may indicate previous attempts at suicide.
viii. Linear needle scars indicate an IV drug abuser, and depressed scars a skin
popper.

7.) TATTOO MARKS :

 Definition: Tattoos are designs made in the skin by multiple small puncture wounds
with needles dipped in coloring matter which is attached to an oscillating unit.
 Dyes used: Indigo, cobalt, carbon, vermilion, cadmium, selenium, Prussian blue and
Indian ink.
 Color, design, size and situation should be noted.
 The permanency of tattoo marks depends upon the type of dye used, the depth of
its penetration and the part of body tattooed.
 Tattoos are recognized even in decomposed bodies and bodies recovered from
water when the epidermis is removed.
 Complications: Septic inflammation, abscess, gangrene, syphilis, hepatitis B, AIDS,
leprosy and tuberculosis.
 Erasure of Tattoo:
i. Surgical methods z Dermabrasion using dermabraders [e.g., tannic acid, silver
nitrate (Variot’s method) or trichloroacetic acid (chemical peels)] or ‘salt
abrasion’ wherein salts like zinc chloride are applied.
ii. Complete excision and skin grafting
iii. Production of burns by means of red hot iron
iv. Scarification
v. Using carbon dioxide snow
vi. Electrolysis
vii. Caustic or corrosive substances
 Medico-legal Importance : It helps in knowing
i. Identity of a person
ii. Religion and nationality
iii. Political affiliations

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 iv. Race
v. Profession/occupation
vi. Behavioral characteristics

8.) DACTYLOGRAPHY :

 Definition : Dactylography (dermatoglyphics, Galton system) is the study of

fingerprints as a method of identification.1 A fingerprint match is widely accepted as
most reliable evidence of identification.
 What are fingerprints?
1) The fingers, palms of the hands and soles of the feet of humans (and some other
primates) bear friction ridge skin. On the tip of the fingers, the friction ridge skin
forms a number of basic patterns.
2) Dermal carvings or ridges appear first time from the 12th–16th week of IUL and
their formation gets completed by 24th week and remain constant throughout
embryonic life, birth and the life of the individual.
3) The arrangement and distribution of the patterns are unique to an individual.
4) An individual’s genetic makeup plays a part in determining the basic shapes of
the patterns and ridges, but it is not the only factor as identical twins have
identical genetic makeup, but distinguishably different fingerprints.
 Fingerprint Patterns : There are four basic ridge patterns.
1. Loop (Ulnar/radial) 60–70%
2. Whorl 30–35%
3. Arch 5–10%
4. Composite 2–3%
 Recording of Fingerprints :
Hands are washed, cleaned and dried to ensure clear prints. Print is taken using
printer’s ink on an unglazed white paper.
i. Plain or dab impression is obtained by gently pressing the inked surface of
the tip of finger on paper.
ii. Rolled impression is taken by rolling the inked finger from side to side.
iii. In case of criminals, impressions of all the ten digits of both hands are taken.
iv. It is customary and conventional to take the left thumb impression of male
and right thumb impression of female.
 Types of Evidentiary Fingerprints :
i. Patent (visible) print needs no processing to be clearly recognizable as a
fingerprint. It is often made from grease, dark oil, dirt or blood.
ii. Plastic (impression/indentation) print is a recognizable fingerprint
indentation in a soft surface, such as butter, soap, cheese, paint, putty or tar.

16
 iii. Latent print requires additional processing to be rendered visible and
suitable for comparison.
 Development/Enhancement of Latent prints: Locard’s Principle of Exchange: ‘when
two objects come into contact with each other, there is always some transfer of
material from one to the other’.
1) For non-porous surfaces, e.g. glass, gloss-painted surfaces, metal and plastic
Development techniques- a) Vacuum metal deposition (VMD)
b) Fingerprint powders
c) Superglue fuming
d) Small particle reagent (SPR)
e) Iodine fuming
2) For porous surfaces, e.g. paper, wallpaper, cardboard and matt emulsion painted
surfaces. Development techniques- a) DFO (1,8-diaza-9-fluorenone)
b) Ninhydrin
c) Powders
d) Superglue fuming
e) Physical developer
 Medico-legal Application :
i. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints were found at scene.
ii. Identification of fugitive through fingerprint comparison.
iii. Exchange of criminal identifying information with identification bureau of
foreign countries in cases of mutual interest.
iv. Identification of unknown deceased person, persons suffering from amnesia,
missing persons and unconscious patient.
v. Identification in disaster work.
vi. Identification in case of accidental exchange of newborn infants.
vii. Identification of licensing procedure for automobile, firearm, aircrafts, etc.
viii. Problems of mistaken identity and detection of bank forgeries.
ix. Electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security applications
such as log-in authentication for the identification of computer users.

9.) POROSCOPY :

 Definition : Poroscopy is the term applied to a specialized study of pore structure

found on the papillary ridges of the fingers as a means of identification.
 Ridges on fingers and hands are studded with microscopic pores formed by mouths
of ducts of subepidermal sweat glands.
 Each millimeter of ridge contains 9–18 pores. There are about 550–950 sweat pores
per square centimeter in finger ridges, and less (400) in the palms and soles.

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10.) CHEILOSCOPY :

 Definition : The study of lip prints is called cheiloscopy.

 Lip prints are revealed at the point of direct, physical contact of the individual’s lips
with an object at the scene of crime, e.g. cutlery and crockery items, particularly if a
meal was eaten, or on the surface of windows, plastic bags and cigarette ends.

11.) TRICOLOGY :

 Definition : Examination of hair is called Tricology.

 Medico-legal Application :
1. Identification
2. Establish relationship between offence, offender and the victim. It is an important
clue when similar hair may be detected on the alleged weapon and on the body
of the assailant.
3. Nature of weapon: In head injury, the hair may be crushed or cut depending on
whether blunt or sharp cutting weapon was used.
4. Singeing of hair indicates burns or close range firearm injury.
5. Age and sex can be determined.
6. Cause of death: Poisons such as arsenic, thallium or lead can be determined from
hair.

12.) FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY :

 Definition: It deals with the application of dentistry to aid in the administration of
justice. It includes: a) Identification of unknown bodies through dental records.
b) Identification of bite marks on the victims of attack.
c) Comparison of bite marks with the teeth of a suspect and
presentation of this evidence in the court as an expert witness.
d) Identification of bite marks in other substances such as wood,
leather and foodstuffs.
e) Age estimation of skeletal remains.
 Medico-legal Application:
1. Identification: Age estimation of an individual.
2. Identification of race, sex, occupation or habits (betel nut chewing or smoking) of
an individual.
3. Grievous hurt: Fracture/dislocation of tooth amounts to grievous hurt according
to Sec. 320 IPC.
4. Cause of death: Since, the teeth resist putrefaction, deposition of metals can be
detected after considerable time after death, e.g. lead poisoning, or phossy jaw.

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 5. Dentures (partial or complete) are useful in identification, if they have the
patient’s name or code number in them.
6. Criminals can be identified through bite marks left either on human tissues or
foodstuffs.

13.) MISCELLANEOUS METHODS :

 Clothes and Personal Effects : They are helpful in establishing identity in case of mass
disasters. It is necessary to preserve the clothes along with any articles, such as
driving license, cell phone, watch, spectacles, ornaments and wallet found on a dead
body for the purpose of future identification.
 Occupational Marks : These are helpful in identifying unknown dead bodies, as
certain occupation leave marks by which persons engaged in them may be identified,
e.g. clerks may have callosity on the proximal part of right middle finger where the
pen usually rests, or dyers/photographers may have there fingers stained with dyes
or chemicals.
 Handwriting : Opinion regarding the handwriting is usually given by the expert in this
field, and doctors are seldom asked to testify.
 Speech, Voice, Ticks, Manner and Habit : Sometime, it is possible to identify a living
person from certain peculiarities, like stammering, nasal twang and jerky movement
of muscle of the face or shoulder.

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