STAGE 2 CHEMISTRY

TOPIC 1: MONITORING THE ENVIRONMENT

1.1 – Global Warming and Climate Change
Aaron Tieu
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• You should be able to:

qExplain the Greenhouse Effect

qState and explain the natural/human causes of Enhanced

Greenhouse Effect, and its consequences

qPerform pH calculations of acid and base solutions

qExplain the cause of ocean acidification, with the aid of equations,

and its consequences
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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Some gases in the atmosphere, called ‘greenhouse gases’, keep the
Earth’s atmosphere warmer than it would be without these gases. This
is known as the ‘greenhouse effect’.
q Describe the action of the common greenhouse gases, carbon
dioxide and methane, to maintain a steady temperature in the
Earth’s atmosphere.
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CLASS BRAINSTORM
• What is Greenhouse Effect?

• Why is it important?

• Without it, what are some of the consequences?

• What is the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

• Causes?

• Consequences?

• Solutions?
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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Maintains the Earth’s surface temperature at an average of 15 ° C,
approximately 32°C warmer than without it.

Mean surface temperature (°C)

-17
(Without the greenhouse effect)
Mean surface temperature (°C)
15
(With the greenhouse effect)
Greenhouse Warming
32
(Enhanced Greenhouse Effect)
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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Greenhouse gases absorb heat in the infrared region and re-emit it
in all directions, trapping some within the Earth’s atmosphere.

• Greenhouse gases:
* Greenhouse gases come
Water vapour (H2O) Methane (CH4) from natural and
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrous oxide (N2O) anthropogenic (human)
Ozone (O3) sources.
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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
1. Sun’s short wavelength radiation (visible light) passes through
Earth’s atmosphere.

2. Surface absorbs solar radiation and is warmed.

3. Emits long wavelength infrared (IR) radiation – heat.

4. Some IR radiation absorbed by greenhouse gases.

5. Greenhouse gases re-emit some IR radiation back towards surface.

6. Process continues to trap heat in the atmosphere.

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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases disrupt the thermal
balance of the atmosphere.
q Explain the warming associated with the global climate change
and its consequences for the environment.
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ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• Results in more thermal energy being retained in the Earth’s
atmosphere (thermal imbalance).

• Leads to global warming, i.e. increase in global temperatures.

• Mainly caused by anthropogenic (human) influences – increasing

concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
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NATURAL CAUSES
GREENHOUSE GAS NATURAL SOURCES

• Ocean-atmosphere exchange
• Plant and animal respiration
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Aerobic decomposition
• Volcanic eruption

Methane (CH4) • Methane-producing microbes (anaerobic decomposition)

• Nitrous oxide-producing microbes (soil and oceans)

Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Chemical reactions in the atmosphere
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ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES
GREENHOUSE GAS ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES

• Combustion of fossil fuels (electrical

energy/transportation)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Deforestation
• Cement production and industry
• Fossil fuel production
Methane (CH4) • Methane-producing microbes for livestock
• Landfill and waste
• Agricultural practices (nitrogen fertilisers)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Combustion of fossil fuels
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STATISTICS – GAS EMISSIONS

GREENHOUSE GAS NATURAL CAUSES (%) ANTHROPOGENIC (%)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) >95 <5

Methane (CH4) 35 65

Nitrous oxide (N2O) 60 40

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CONSEQUENCES
• Global feedback mechanism
• Declining artic sea ice, shrinking ice sheets, and retreating
glaciers (i.e. melting of land and sea ice)

• Rising sea levels

• Climate change and extreme weather events
• Warming of oceans
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GLOBAL FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Higher temperature results in more water vapour due to more
evaporation.
• Increase water vapour = increase greenhouse gases = more
absorption and re-emitting of energy.
• Further increase in global temperature
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GLOBAL FEEDBACK MECHANISM

Enhanced greenhouse (Earth’s) Surface

effect temperature increases

Positive Feedback Cycle

More water vapour

(greenhouse gas) in Increased evaporation
atmosphere from the oceans
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DECLINING OF ENVIRONMENTAL ICE

• High temperature = melts land and sea ice.

• Cause rise in sea level and altering salinity (hence density).
Affects global ocean currents
Ø Impact upon weather and hence climate

• Loss of reflectivity (land and sea ice is highly reflective)

• Loss of breeding and hunting grounds

• Thawing of permafrost releases stored methane

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RISING SEA LEVELS
• Ocean temperature increases
• Water in oceans undergo thermal expansion increasing in volume
• Additionally, sea level rises further as land ice melts

• Can increase the vulnerability of coastal areas to severe storms

and floods – displacing homes and costs of billion of dollars in
repairs
CLIMATE CHANGE AND EXTREME 20

WEATHER EVENTS
• Affects global crop production and alter distribution of natural
vegetation.
• As landscapes and habitats are altered, plant and animals
must adapt or risk of extinction.
• Climate change has led to extinction of susceptible species –
result in permanent changes to biodiversity in ecosystem.
• Frequent occurrences of bushfire, drought and flooding
CLIMATE CHANGE AND EXTREME 21

WEATHER EVENTS
CLIMATE CHANGE AND EXTREME 22

WEATHER EVENTS
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WARMING OF OCEANS
• Majority of additional heat generated by enhanced greenhouse
effect, as well as a large portion of CO2, is absorbed by world’s
ocean.
• Threatens ocean ecosystems through coral bleaching and ocean
acidification.

• E.g. Great Barrier Reef

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OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
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Your Turn!
• Complete practice questions worksheet
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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Ocean acidification is caused by the ocean absorbing higher levels of
dioxide from the atmosphere.
q Calculate the pH of solutions given the concentration of H+ or OH -
and vice versa. – covered in Stage 1 Chemistry (Subtopic 5.3)
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pH SCALE
• Recall Stage 1 Chemistry Subtopic 5.3: The pH Scale:
Ø pH is the relative measure of the concentration of hydrogen (or hydronium)
ions in solution.
pH = -log [H+]
pH = -log [H3O+]

Note: [H+] = [H3O+]

Note: For a strong monoprotic acid the concentration of hydronium ions is equal to the
concentration of the acid.
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pH SCALE
Ø pOH is the relative measure of the concentration of hydroxide
ions in solution.
pOH = -log [OH -]

Note: pH and pOH are completely different!

Be careful what solution is being used à acid or base
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pH SCALE
• Recall:
Ø In pure water, there are small and equal concentrations of H+
(H3O+) and OH - due to the self-ionisation of water.

2H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH - (aq)

Or
H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH - (aq)
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pH SCALE
[H3O+] / [H+] = [OH -] = 10 -7 M

pH = -log [H+] pOH = -log [OH -]

pH = -log (10 -7) pOH = -log (10 -7)
pH = 7 pOH = 7

In pure water:

pH + pOH = 14
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pH SCALE
• Given the pH of a solution, the concentration of H+ can be
determined.
* The above
• By rearranging the formula for pH,
relationships can be
[H+] = 10 -pH
used to solve for
• Also, by rearranging the formula for pOH, pH, pOH, [H+], or
[OH -] = 10 -pOH [OH -]
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FORMULA SUMMARY
Acidic Solutions Basic Solutions

(Containing Hydroxides)

pH = -log [H+ / H3O+] pOH = -log [OH -]

[H+] = 10 -pH [OH -] = 10 -pOH

Important Formula
pH + pOH = 14
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EXAMPLE 1
• Nitric acid is generated in the atmosphere from nitrogen dioxide
present in exhaust emissions. This can lead to the formation of acid
rain. In one sample of acid rain, the concentration of nitric acid was
determined to be 6.31 × 10 -5 M.
Ø Calculate the pH of the sample.
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EXAMPLE 1
STEP 1: Nitric acid is a strong monoprotic
[H3O+] = [HNO3]
acid, therefore the concentration of
hydronium ions is equal to the concentration ∴ [H3O+] = 6.31 × 10 -5 mol L-1
of the acid.

STEP 2: The value is substituted into the pH = -log [H3O+]

expression for pH.
pH = -log (6.31 × 10 -5)

NOTE: [H+/H3O+] depends on the protic pH = 4.2

nature of the acid
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EXAMPLE 2
• Acid rain in some industralised cities has been recorded at pH
values as low as 2.4.
Ø Calculate the concentration of hydronium ions at this pH.
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EXAMPLE 2
STEP 1: The pH value is substituted into the [H3O+] = 10 -pH
formula.
[H3O+] = 10 -2.4

STEP 2: Concentration units are applied to ∴ [H3O+] = 3.98 × 10 -3 M

the value.
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EXAMPLE 3
• Flue Gas Desulfurisation (FGD) is a process used to neutralise sulfur
dioxide emissions formed during the generation of electricity in
coal-fired power stations. Sulfur dioxide is passed over a wet slurry
of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a concentration of 0.0100M and
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) at a concentration of 0.0203M.
Ø Calculate the pH of NaOH and CaOH2 in the solution.
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EXAMPLE 3 - NaOH
STEP 1: Sodium hydroxide is a strong base [OH -] = [NaOH]
therefore the concentration of hydroxide
ions is equal to the concentration of the
∴ [OH -] = 0.0100M
formula unit.

STEP 2: The value is substituted into the pOH = -log [OH -]

formula for pOH.
∴ pOH = -log (0.0100)

∴ pOH = 2.00
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EXAMPLE 3 - NaOH
STEP 3: The equation linking pH to pOH is pH + pOH = 14
rearranged and the value for pOH
subtracted from 14.
pH = 14 – pOH

∴ pH = 14 – 2.00

∴ pH = 12.0
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EXAMPLE 3 – Ca(OH)2
STEP 1: Calcium hydroxide is a strong base [OH -] = 2 × [Ca(OH)2]
therefore the concentration of hydroxide
ions is double the concentration of the
∴ [OH -] = 2 × 0.0203
formula unit. ∴ [OH -] = 0.0406M

STEP 2: The value is substituted into the pOH = -log [OH -]

formula for pOH.
pOH = -log (0.0406)

pOH = 1.49
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EXAMPLE 3 – Ca(OH)2
STEP 3: The equation linking pH to pOH is pH + pOH = 14
rearranged and the value for pOH
subtracted from 14.
pH = 14 – pOH

pH = 14 – 1.49

pH = 12.5
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Your Turn!
• Complete worksheets on pH, pOH and concentration calculations
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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Ocean acidification is caused by the ocean absorbing higher levels of
dioxide from the atmosphere.
q Describe and write equations to show how carbon dioxide lowers
the pH of the oceans.
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OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
• Carbon dioxide is a non-metal oxide

• Non-metal oxides are acidic oxides

• Acidic oxides reacts with water to produce an oxyacid.

• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid:

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ⇋ H2CO3 (aq)

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OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
• Carbonic acid can partially ionise:

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

HCO3- (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ CO3

2-
(aq) + H3O+
(aq)

• Ionisation of carbonic acid produces hydronium ions (H3O+), resulting

in a decrease in pH.

Note: Be careful with wording à Increase acidity = decrease pH

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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
The exoskeletons and shells of many marine organisms are made of
calcium carbonate and are vulnerable to dissolution at low pH
q Explain, using equilibrium principles, the impact of altering ocean
pH on the formation of carbonates
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IRREVERSIBLE REACTION
• Are reactions that can only move forward (a single direction)
Ø i.e. Favours the forward reactions
Ø Move left to right of the reaction.

Represented by a forward arrow (⟶)

E.g. phosphorous (P) reacts irreversibly with bromine (Br2) to form
phosphorous tribromide

2P(s) + 3Br2 ⟶ 2PBr3(s)

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REVERSIBLE REACTION
• The reaction can occur forward or backwards.
Ø Reactants collide to form products, but also the products can
collide to form reactants.

• Reactant to products = Forward reactions

• Products to reactants = Backward reactions

• Represented by reversible arrows (⇌)

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REVERSIBLE REACTION
Examples:

• Concentration of nitrogen dioxide to dinitrogen tetroxide

NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)

• Partial ionization of a weak acid

CH3COOH(I) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

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DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
Consider the scenario:

• As reactants A and B are added, they form product C

A+B⇌C

• Rate of forward reaction is initially high as [A] and [B] are high.

• Rate decreases over time

Ø A and B being used up, [A] and [B] decreasing.

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DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
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DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
• Dynamic: reactions do not stop occurring.

• Concentrations of reactants and products eventually become

constant

• Reactants are being consumed at the same rate they are being
produced

• Products are being consumed at the same rate they are being
produced
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DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
• Summary:

For reversible reactions that occur in a closed system at constant

temperature, dynamic equilibrium is reached when

Rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction

• Closed system: reactants and products cannot be lost to, or gained

from, the surroundings.
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EQUILIBRIUM POSITION
• Equilibrium position to the side of the reaction arrow with the
higher concentration of particles at equilibrium.

• To the left: concentration of reactant > product

• To the right: concentration of reactant < product

• Equilibrium favours either forward or back reaction

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EQUILIBRIUM POSITION

Equilibrium favours the products Equilibrium favours the reactants

Equilibrium lies to the right Equilibrium lies to the left
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LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE
• Henry Louis Le Châtelier, a French chemist

• In 1884, proposed that equilibrium systems tend to compensate for

the effects of stresses placed on them

• Le Châtelier’s principle:

Ø If a stress (change in pressure, temperature or concentration) is

applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to
counteract the stress
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CONCENTRATION CHANGES
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

HCO3- (aq) + H2 O (l) ⇋ CO32- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

• If [H3O+(aq)] increases,

• Equilibrium will shift to relieve the stress by decreasing [H3O+(aq)]

• Equilibrium will shift to the left and favour the backward reaction.

• [CO32-(aq)] ↓

• This reduces the the availability of carbonate ions for the construction of shells

and skeletons
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SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
The exoskeletons and shells of many marine organisms are made of
calcium carbonate and are vulnerable to dissolution at low pH
q Write equations for carbonates reacting in acidic conditions
REACTION OF ACIDS AND 59

CARBONATES
• Recall:
Acids react with carbonates (or hydrogen carbonates) to produce carbon dioxide,
water and salt.
Acid + carbonate ⟶ carbon dioxide + water + salt

• Seawater is concentrated with calcium carbonate.

• Marine calcifying organisms use calcium carbonate to construct their shell

and exoskeletons.
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𝐶𝑎("#) + 𝐶𝑂'%(("#) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂'())
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OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
• Can weaken the structures of calcifying organisms.

• Full equation:

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ⟶ CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaSO4(aq)

• Ionic equation:

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) ⟶ CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Ca2+(aq)

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION 61

CONSEQUENCE
• Calcareous plankton are photosynthetic microorganisms that form
the basis of oceanic food web.

• Reduction in population size destabilises the food web

• This reduces population size of higher organisms

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION 62

CONSEQUENCE
• Corals build skeletons from calcium carbonate.

• Coral reef are habitats for 25% of marine life

• Marine life will be disturbed if more corals are dissolved

Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxPwbhFeZSw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZimEBFw1Q7c