STAGE 2 CHEMISTRY

TOPIC 1: MONITORING THE ENVIRONMENT

1.3 – Volumetric Analysis
Aaron Tieu
 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• You should be able to:

qCalculate different mass concentrations and convert between units

qPerform stoichiometric calculations, including excess and limiting

reagent

qPrepare and carry out a titration correctly

qDetermine the concentration of a solution using different types of

titration
 3
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
• What is volumetric analysis?

• Quantitative analysis involving measurement of volumes of reacting

solutions.

• Used to determine the amount or concentration of particular

substances.

• A titration is a laboratory technique used to carry out volumetric

analysis.
 4
REVIEW OF QUANTITIES
Quantity Symbol Definition Unit

Mass m A measure of the amount of matter g

Volume V The space that a substance occupies L (dm3)

Density 𝜌 The mass per unit volume kg L-1

Avogadro’s NA The number of fundamental particles contained

constant in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 is 6.022 × 1023, this
number represents Avogadro’s constant
 5
REVIEW OF QUANTITIES
Quantity Symbol Definition Unit

Mole n Measure of the amount of fundamental particles Mol

(atoms, ions, molecules, formula units) in a given
mass of material
Molar Mass Mr The mass of one mole of a substance g mol-1
 6
MASS AND MOLE
• Equations for both mass and moles can be derived from the unit of
molar mass.

• Molar mass Rearrangements:

m
g m m
Mr = = n n= Mass (g)
•
mol Mr

n Mr
Molar Mass
m = n x Mr Mole (mol) (g/mol)
 7
REVIEW QUESTION
• Determine the number of moles (n) for the following:
a) 7.05 g of Br2
b) 76 g of C4H10
m
c) 35.4 g of Li2CO3 Mass (g)

n Mr
Molar Mass
Mole (mol) (g/mol)
 8
REVIEW QUESTION
• Determine the mass (m) of the following:
a) 0.15 mol of Na
b) 0.594 mol of S
m
c) 38 mol of Na2SO3 Mass (g)

n Mr
Molar Mass
Mole (mol) (g/mol)
 9
SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Concentrations can be described by using a number of standard
conventions.
q Calculate concentration and interconvert units, including mol L-1,
g L-1, %w/v, ppm, and ppb.
q Apply SI prefix conventions to quantities.
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SI PREFIXES
• Measurements and calculations often consists of values that are
extremely large or small.

• Using SI prefixes and scientific notation simplifies the

representation of values.

• E.g. 1.27 x 102 Gigalitres (GL)

= 127,000,000,000 Litres (L)
 11
SI PREFIXES
Unit prefix Unit prefix symbol Multiplying factor

Tera T 1 000 000 000 000 1012

Giga G 1 000 000 000 109
Mega M 1 000 000 106
Kilo k 1 000 103
- - 1 100
 12
SI PREFIXES
Unit prefix Unit prefix symbol Multiplying factor

- - 1 100
Milli m 0.001 10 -3
Micro 𝜇 0.000 001 10 -6

Nano n 0.000 000 001 10 -9

Pico p 0.000 000 000 001 10 -12
 13
CONCENTRATION
• Recall Stage 1 Chemistry Subtopic 4.3 Quantities in Reactions:
Ø The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute (mass,
moles) in a given volume of solution (mL, L).

Ø Can be expressed as a mass or molar concentration.

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MOLAR CONCENTRATION
• Molar concentration of a solution represents the amount of
solute, measured in moles, dissolved in 1.00 litre of solution
𝑛
number of moles 𝑐=
• Molar concentration =
volume 𝑉
n
• Units: Mole (mol)

n in mol c V
Concentration Volume (L)
V in L (mol/L)

c in mol/L or mol. L-1 or M (Molar)

 15
REVIEW QUESTION
A saline solution contains 0.90 mol of NaCl per 100.0 mL of solution.
Calculate its molar concentration.

n
Mole (mol)

c V
Concentration Volume (L)
(mol/L)
 16
REVIEW QUESTION
Calculate the mass of glucose, C6H12O6, needed to prepare a 250.0 mL
solution of concentration 5.50 M.

n
Mole (mol)

c V
Concentration Volume (L)
(mol/L)
 17
MASS CONCENTRATION
• Mass concentration of a solution represents the mass of solute,
measured in grams, dissolved in 1.00 litre of solution

mass 𝑚
• Mass concentration =
volume 𝜌=
m
𝑉
• Units Mass (g)

m in g
𝜌 V
Concentration Volume (L)
V in L (g/L)

𝜌 in g/L or g. L-1
 19
REVIEW QUESTION
A coffee drink consists of 57.5grams of sucrose
dissolved in 600mL of solution.

Determine the mass concentration of sucrose in the

coffee drink m
Mass (g)

𝜌 V
Concentration Volume (L)
(g/L)
 20
EXAMPLE
A bottle of vinegar contains ethanoic acid in a concentration of 600gL-1.

Determine the mass of ethanoic acid in 250mL of vinegar

 21
EXAMPLE
A popular brand of drain cleaner contains sodium hydroxide in a
concentration of 50gL-1.

Determine the mass of sodium hydroxide in a 600ml volume of drain

cleaner.
 22
OTHER MASS CONCENTRATION
• Mass concentration is represented in different ways, often depending
on how concentrated or dilute the solution is.

• Other representations:

Ø Percent weight per volume (%w/v)

Ø Parts per million (ppm)

Ø Parts per billion (ppb)

PERCENTAGE WEIGHT PER 23

VOLUME (%W/V)
• Commonly used in pharmaceutical industry and commercial products.

• Number of grams of solute per 100 mL of solution

• Formula:

mass of solute (g)

%w/v = × 100
volume of solution (mL)
E.g. 0.2%w/v
• Common units are g/100 mL = 0.2 g / 100 mL
 25
EXAMPLE
A 75 ml tube of whitening toothpaste contains sodium fluoride 0.017g
of sodium fluoride.

Determine the %w/v of sodium fluoride in the tube of toothpaste.

 26
EXAMPLE
A bottle of white wine contains ethanol in a concentration of 11% w/v.
Determine the mass of ethanol in a 750mL of white wine.
 27
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
• Units used to measure very low concentrations.

• Mass of a solute, in milligrams, present in 1 kilogram of solution

(mg/kg or mg.kg-1).
Units: ppm or mg L-1, or
• 1 kilogram = 1,000,000 milligrams mg kg-1
• For dilute aqueous solutions, it can be assumed 1 mL = 1 g of
solution, i.e. 1 L = 1 kg
 28
EXAMPLE
A 10L volume of seawater contains 3.8g of calcium ions.

Calculate the mass concentration of calcium in ppm

 29
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
• Units used to measure extremely low concentrations.

• Mass of a solute, in micrograms, present in 1 kilogram of solution

(𝜇g/kg or 𝜇g.kg-1).
Units: ppb or 𝜇g L-1, or
• 1 kilogram = 1,000,000,000 micrograms 𝜇g kg-1

• For dilute aqueous solutions, it can be assumed 1 mL = 1 g of

solution, i.e. 1 L = 1 kg
 30
EXAMPLE
A 20L volume of air contains 0.0054g of nitrous oxide.

Calculate the mass concentration of nitrous oxide in ppb.

PERCENTAGE WEIGHT PER 31

WEIGHT (%W/W)
• Commonly used in pharmaceutical and food nutrition labels

• Mass of a solute, in 100 g of a solution

• Formula:

mass of solute (g)

%w/w = × 100
mass of mixture (g)
E.g. 0.2%w/w
• Common units are g/100 g
= 0.2 g / 100 g
PERCENTAGE VOLUME PER 35

VOLUME (%V/V)
• Commonly used in alcoholic beverages

• Volume of a solute, in mL, in 100 mL of solution

• Formula:

volume of solute (mL)

%v/v = × 100
volume of solution (mL)
E.g. 0.2%v/v
• Common units are mL/100 mL = 0.2 mL / 100 mL
 37
UNIT CONVERSION CHART

x Mr x 1000 x 1000

mol L-1 g L-1 ppm ppb

÷ Mr ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

x 10 ÷ 10

%w/v
 38
EXAMPLE
A sample of human blood has a glucose

(Mr = 180.156 g.mol-1) concentration of 6.1 x 10 -3 mol.L-1 .

Convert the molar concentration of glucose to a mass concentration in

units g.L-1 , %w/v, ppm, and ppb.
 39
Your Turn!
• Complete practice questions worksheet on concentration and
conversion.
 40
SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
Knowledge of the mole ratios of reactants can be used in quantitative
calculations.
q Perform stoichiometric calculations when given the reaction
equation and the necessary data.
- Covered in Stage 1 Chemistry
Ø Subtopic 2.3 (Quantities in molecules and ions)

Ø Subtopic 4.3 (Quantities in reactions)

Ø Topic 5 Acids and Bases (Titrations)
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RULES- SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. All non-zero digits are significant.

2. Zeros that are between two non-zero digits are significant (eg 404 is precise to 3sf)

3. Leading zeros (zeros before non-zero numbers) are not significant (eg 0.012 is
precise to 2sf)

4. Trailing zeros (zeros after non-zero numbers) are not significant (eg 500 is precise
to 1sf)

5. BUT, if a number containing trailing zeros has a decimal point, they are significant
(eg 50.60 is precise to 4sf)
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
How many significant figures are in these numbers?

a) 13.2509 6 s.f

b) 0.00458 3 s.f

c) 436 3 s.f

d) 253.00 5 s.f

e) 1234000 4 s.f
 45
STOICHIOMETRY
• The moles are determined from the mass or concentration of a known
species. A stoichiometric (mole) ratio is applied to the unknown
species and then the mass/concentration of unknown is determined.

• Important Note:
ØDuring calculation never ever round off your answers.
ØRound off your final answers (take note of minimum sf in given
data)
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STEPS TO FOLLOW
Remember: mole ratio of reactants and products is essential!

Make sure chemical equation is balanced!

1. Record all information provided

2. Determine nknown using formula n = n/M or n = c x V

3. Use mole ratio to determine nunknown nunknown

(by looking at the coefficient of the equation) nknown

4. Calculate the information required.

Note: keep all answers in calculator and ONLY round the FINAL answer.
 Mass of Mass of
known n = m nunknown m=nxM unknown
M nknown

moles of mole ratio moles of

known unknown

n = c xV Concentration
Concentration and volume of
and volume of c=n unknown
known solution V solution
 48
EXAMPLE
Calcium carbonate is reacted with 50mL of 0.50molL-1 hydrochloric acid
solution. Determine the maximum mass of carbon dioxide produced in
the reaction.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

 49
Step 1: Record all the information provided

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

known unknown
C = 0.50mol L-1 m=?
V = 50mL Mr = 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1
n=? n=?
 50
Step 2: Determine nknown

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

known unknown
C = 0.50mol L-1 m=?
V = 50mL Mr = 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1
n=? n=?

n
c=
V

nHCl = c x V

nHCl = 0.50 x 0.050

nHCl = 0.025 mol

 51
Step 3: Use mole ratio to determine nunknown

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 1CO2 + H2O

known unknown
C = 0.50mol L-1 m=?
V = 50mL Mr = 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1
n=? n=?

n nunknown 1 1
c= nCO = x nHCl = x 0.025
V nknown 2 2 2

nHCl = c x V nCO nCO = 0.0125 mol

2 = 1 2
nHCl 2
nHCl = 0.50 x 0.050

nHCl = 0.025 mol

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Step 4: Calculate the information required.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 1CO2 + H2O

known unknown
C = 0.50mol L-1 m=?
V = 50mL Mr = 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01 g mol-1
n=? n=?

n nunknown 1 1 m
c= nCO = x nHCl = x 0.025 n=
V nknown 2 2 2 Mr

nHCl = c x V nCO nCO = 0.0125 mol m = n x Mr

2 = 1 2
nHCl 2
nHCl = 0.50 x 0.050 m = 0.0125 x 44.01
m = 0.55 g
nHCl = 0.025 mol
 53
EXAMPLE
45.0 mL of 2.00 M Fe(NO3)3 solution was completely reacted with an
excess of NaOH solution. The equation for the reaction is given below.

Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaNO3(aq)

Determine the mass of Fe(OH)3 precipitate that is produced from this

reaction.
 54
EXAMPLE
Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaNO3(aq)
 55
EXAMPLE
3.788 g of aluminium carbonate was formed from a precipitation
reaction between solutions of aluminium nitrate and ammonium
carbonate. The equation for the reaction is given below.

2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3(NH4)2CO3(aq) → Al2(CO3)3(s) + 6NH4NO3(aq)

Determine the mass of aluminium nitrate required to produce this.

 56
EXAMPLE
2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3(NH4)2CO3(aq) → Al2(CO3)3(s) + 6NH4NO3(aq)
 57
Your Turn!
• Complete practice questions worksheet on Stoichiometry
 58
EXCESS AND LIMITING REAGENT
• When too much (or too little) of one reagent is added, such that all
reagents are not used up in a chemical reaction.

• Excess reagent: Not all used up.

• Limiting reagent: Completely used up.

Ø Limits the number of mole of product formed.

 59
STEPS TO FOLLOW
1. Calculate the moles of BOTH reactants present.

2. Calculate the moles of a product using EACH reactants.

3. Determine which reactant produces more moles of product.

Ø Reactant that produces more moles of product is in excess.

Ø Reactant that produces less moles of product is limiting

reagent.
 60
EXAMPLE
100mL of 0.10molL-1 CuSO4 solution is mixed with 50mL of 0.40molL-1
NaOH solution.

The following reaction takes place:

CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

(a) Determine if there is an excess of one of the reactants and if so,

by how many moles.

(b) Determine the mass of Cu(OH)2 formed.

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Step 1: Calculate the moles of BOTH reactants
present.

Part (a) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

n(CuSO4) = c x V
= 0.10 M x 0.1000L
= 0.010 mol

n(NaOH) = c x V
= 0.80 M x 0.0500 L
= 0.040 mol
 62
Step 2: Calculate the moles of a product using
EACH reactants.

Part (a) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

nCu(OH)
n(CuSO4) = c x V 2= 1
= 0.10 M x 0.1000L nCuSO 1
4
= 0.010 mol nCu(OH) = 0.010 mol
2
nCu(OH)
n(NaOH) = c x V 2= 1
nNaOH 2
= 0.80 M x 0.0500 L
= 0.040 mol nNaOH = 0.020 mol
 63
Step 3: Determine which reactant produces more
moles of product.

Part (a) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

nCu(OH)
n(CuSO4) = c x V 2= 1
= 0.10 M x 0.1000L nCuSO 1
4
Therefore, NaOH is in excess,
= 0.010 mol nCu(OH) = 0.010 mol
2 and thus CuSO4 is the limiting

nCu(OH) reagent.
n(NaOH) = c x V 2= 1
nNaOH 2
= 0.80 M x 0.0500 L
= 0.040 mol nNaOH = 0.020 mol
 Limiting Reagent
64
Always use limiting reagent! Excess

Part (a) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

n(CuSO4) = c x V Given that CuSO4 reacts completely (limiting

= 0.10 M x 0.1000L reagent),
= 0.010 mol n(NaOH) reacted = 2/1 x n(CuSO4)
= 2 x 0.010
n(NaOH) = c x V = 0.020 mol
= 0.80 M x 0.0500 L n(NaOH) excess = 0.040 – 0.020
= 0.040 mol = 0.020 mol
 65
(b) Determine the mass of Cu(OH)2 formed.

Part (b) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

nCu(OH) The mole of the product Cu(OH)2 was
n(CuSO4) = c x V 2= 1
nCuSO 1 already found in previous question (part a).
= 0.10 M x 0.1000L 4
= 0.010 mol nCu(OH) = 0.010 mol
nCu(OH) = 0.010 mol 2
2
MrCu(OH) = 97.566 g mol-1
nCu(OH) 2
n(NaOH) = c x V 2= 1
nNaOH 2 mCu(OH) = n x M
= 0.80 M x 0.0500 L 2
= 0.040 mol nNaOH = 0.020 mol = 0.010 x 97.566
= 0.98 g (2 s.f)
 66
Your Turn!
• Complete practice questions worksheet on Excess and Limiting
Reagent
 67
DILUTIONS
• Allows solutions of higher concentrations to be accurately made up
to lower concentrations.
Ø Important in volumetric analysis

• Number of moles of solute remains unchanged.

You must know how to
• Formula:
c1 x V1 = c2 x V2 rearrange formula!

Where, c1 and V1 is the original concentration and volume,

c2 and V2 is the concentration and volume we want
 68
EXAMPLE
Determine the volume required to dilute 0.200 L of a 15.0 M NaOH
solution to obtain a 3.00 M NaOH solution.
 69
EXAMPLE
Determine the volume of a 2.00 M stock solution of NaCl required to
prepare 250.0 mL of 0.500 M NaCl.
 70
SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
A titration can be used to determine the concentration of a solution of
a reactant in a chemical reaction.
q Describe and explain the procedure involved in carrying out a
titration, particularly rinsing glassware and determining the end-
point.
 71
TITRATION
• A method of quantitative chemical analysis where a solution of
known concentration is used to determine the concentration of an
unknown solution.

• Types of titration:
ØAcid-base (neutralisation reaction)
ØRedox
 72
TITRATION
Three parts:

1. Preparation of standard solutions to be used in the titration

2. Preparation/rinsing of glassware

3. Carrying out the titration, including the recording of burette

readings
1. PREPARING A STANDARD 73

SOLUTION
• A solution of accurately known
concentration is called a standard
solution.
HOW TO PREPARE A STANDARD 74

SOLUTION : 2 WAYS
1. Dissolving a known amount of solute (primary standard) in sufficient
water to make an accurately known volume of solution

Or

2. May be prepared by accurate dilution of a more concentrated

standard solution referred to as stock solution.

Both procedures use volumetric Flask

 75
VOLUMETRIC FLASK
• Designed to obtain a definite volume of liquid.

• Used to prepare standard solution ( accurately known concentration)

• Common sizes are 200ml and 250ml

• Designed to have a solute added to it, followed by sufficient solvent to dissolve this
solute. Resulting solution is then made up to the calibration mark with additional
solvent. Thus a known volume of solution is obtained.

• Always rinse with distilled water before use.

• After preparation label with your name, solution, concentration and date prepared.
 76
VOLUMETRIC FLASK
IMPORTANT NOTES:

• To measure exact 250ml or 200ml of solution we always use

volumetric flask
PREPARING A STANDARD 77

SOLUTION
Formative Practical

• Groups of 2-3

• Refer to handout

• Teacher Demonstration
 78
EXAMPLE – METHOD 1
Calculate the mass in (g) of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, required to
make 200ml of sodium carbonate solution of concentration 0.050molL-1
 79
EXAMPLE – METHOD 2
Calculate the volume (in mL) of 2.00 molL-1 HCl that must be diluted to
make 200 mL of 0.050 molL-1 HCl.
 80
DILUTIONS
• Allows solutions of higher concentrations to be accurately made up
to lower concentrations.
Ø Important in volumetric analysis

• Number of moles of solute remains unchanged.

You must know how to
• Formula:
c1 x V1 = c2 x V2 rearrange formula!

Where, c1 and V1 is the original concentration and volume,

c2 and V2 is the concentration and volume we want
 81
DILUTIONS
 82
2. RINSING OF GLASSWARE
• Key glassware items are:
ØVolumetric pipette
ØBurette

ØConical flask( contain solution being analysed)

• All glassware items must be firstly washed in detergent solution,

then rinsed with distilled water before finally rinsing as follows:
 83
2. RINSING OF GLASSWARE
Final rinsing:

Pipette - is with the solution to be transferred in the pipette

Burette - with the solution to be delivered from the burette

Conical flask - with distilled water

 Pipette Bulb
Burette

Volumetric
Pipette

Conical flask
STEPS IN USING VOLUMETRIC 85

PIPETTE
When rinsing:

1 Hold the pipette horizontally and rotate it through at least 360, then drain

2 Repeat this rinsing process twice.

When filling:

1 Fill the rinsed pipette to above the calibration mark using a pipette filler
(pipette bulb).

2 With coordinated movement place the index finger over the top of the
pipette and then remove the pipette from the solution
STEPS IN USING VOLUMETRIC 86

PIPETTE
When filling (continued):

3 Wipe off any liquid on the outside of

the pipette.

4 Carefully adjust the level of the

pipette so that the bottom of the meniscus
is aligned with the mark when the pipette is
held vertically and at eye level.

5 Make sure there is no air bubbles

STEPS IN USING VOLUMETRIC 87

PIPETTE
When delivering:

Holding the pipette vertically and the conical flask (pre-rinsed with
distilled water) on an angle, touch the pipette tip on the wall of the
flask and allow it to drain.

Remember:

This is a very important process when using the pipette. This process
ensures that the pipette measure out the exact required volume.
STEPS IN USING VOLUMETRIC 88

PIPETTE
When delivering (continued):

Hold the tip of the pipette against the wall of the flask for 10 seconds
(draining time) to ensure that the required volume has drained out.

Note: never ever blow it out!!!!!!!

Burette

Graduated
Cylinder
zero

zero
 Apparatus

Burette Retort Stand

Conical flask
 92
STEPS IN USING BURETTE
When rinsing:

1 Hold the burette horizontally and rotate it through at least 360, then drain

2 Repeat this rinsing process twice.

Note:

• Make sure the tap is closed!

• Make sure the burette tap (bottom section) is also rinsed

• Rinse with distilled water first, then with solution it is going to hold
 93
STEPS IN USING BURETTE
When filling:

1 Ensure the tap is closed (it will be perpendicular to the burette)

2 Have a waste beaker at the bottom (just in case)

3 Add a funnel and pour the solution (you may need to lift the funnel up
slightly to allow the solution to flow freely into burette)

4 Open tap to let some (1-2mL) of solution to run through

5 Ensure there is no air bubble present

 94
STEPS IN USING BURETTE
When reading the burette:
This burette
1. Hold a burette reading card behind the burette. reads
2. Move the card until you can easily see the meniscus. 4.85 mL.
3. Read the burette from top to bottom.

Note:
Determine the volume using all certain digits plus one
uncertain digit. Certain digits are determined from
the calibration marks on the cylinder. The uncertain
digit, the last digit of the volume, is then estimated.
Viewing the Meniscus

Viewing the meniscus from an angle can lead to

false readings of the volume.
pH Scale
pH Curve
 98
PHENOLPHTHALEIN INDICATOR
• Equivalence point/End-point is the interval at which the acid and
base neutralises each other.

Ø The more pale the colour change, the better!

Now, add a few drops of indicator before starting the

titration.
Note: Use a sheet of white paper under the flask to
improve visibility of color change.
 99
PHENOLPHTHALEIN INDICATOR
At the start of the titration
one can add a few mL of
NaOH solution at a time and
the pink color that appears
where the NaOH hits will fade
quickly as the flask is swirled.
 100
PHENOLPHTHALEIN INDICATOR
You have reached the endpoint of
the titration when addition of one
drop or less of solution causes the
solution in the flask to turn pink
and stay pink for 30 seconds or
longer.
Note: The more pale, the better!
 101
TITRATION
• We want to achieve concordant values (within 0.1 mL of each other).

• Average all the concordant values and this will be your titre value
(the volume of solution transferred from the burette).

• Always do a rough trial to estimate the titre when it starts changing

colour.

• Always record the initial volume and final volume to calculate the titre
value.
 102
TITRATION
Volume (mL) Rough Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Final

Initial

Actual

Note: Actual = Final - Initial

 103
CARRYING OUT A TITRATION

Formative Practical

• Groups of 2-3

• Refer to handout

• Teacher Demonstration

• Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w
 104

SCIENCE UNDERSTANDING
A titration can be used to determine the concentration of a solution of
a reactant in a chemical reaction.
q Determine the concentration of a reactant in a chemical reaction
by using the results of a titration.
 105
DIRECT TITRATION
• Basic titration that involves determining the concentration of an
unknown solution by reacting with a solution of known
concentration.

• Commonly used in acid-base titration

• Formative and summative practical

 106
INDIRECT TITRATION
• A two-stage analytical technique whereby the product from an
initial reaction undergoes a secondary reaction with a different
reagent (known).
 107
INDIRECT TITRATION
• Step 1:

A(unknown) + excess X ⟶ B

• Step 2:

B + Y(known) undergoes a titration

• nB determined from step 2, mole ratios used to determine nA

 108
EXAMPLE
Concentration of sodium hypochlorite in bleaching gel can be determined by indirect titration.

A 10.0 mL volume of commercial bleaching gel was diluted to 100.0 mL using distilled water.

A 20.0 mL volume of the diluted bleach was reacted with excess potassium iodide solution.

Reaction 1: ClO- + 2H+ + 2I- ⟶ Cl- + H2O + I2

The number of moles of iodine (I2) produced in Reaction 1 was determined by titration with 0.05
mol L-1 sodium thiosulfate solution.

Reaction 2: I2 + 2S2O32- ⟶ 2I- + S4O62-

The average titre was 24.5 mL.

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BACK TITRATION
• A two-stage analytical technique, where a known amount of an
excess of one reagent is added to a reagent of unknown
concentration. The remaining excess reagent undergoes a secondary
reaction with a differing reagent (known).
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BACK TITRATION
A back titration is useful if the endpoint of the reverse titration is
easier to identify than the endpoint of the normal titration, as with
precipitation reactions. Back titrations are also useful if the reaction
between the analyte and the titrant is very slow, or when the analyte
is in a non-soluble solid.
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BACK TITRATION
• Step 1:

A (unknown) + excess X ⟶ leftover X

• Step 2:

Leftover X + B (known) undergoes a titration

• Leftover nx determined from step 2, determine nx reacted in Step 1,

mole ratios used to determine nA
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EXAMPLE
The mass of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) in an oyster shell can be determined by back
titration.

0.5g of oyster shell was dissolved in 30.0ml of 1.5 molL-1 hydrochloric acid solution. The
reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is described in the equation below:

Reaction 1: CaCO3 + 2HCl ⟶ CaCl2 + CO2 + H2 O

The HCl solution was in excess from the reaction 1. The excess HCl was then titrated
with 2.0 molL-1 sodium hydroxide and the average titre was 16.5 ml.

Reaction 2: HCl + NaOH ⟶ NaCl + H2O

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Your Turn!
• Complete practice questions worksheet on Indirect and Back
Titration