Cell Theory

(def) Theory: A unified explanation for natural phenomena based on evidence from the natural world
Cell Theory states the following:
a. Cells care the smallest unit of life that can survive independently
b. All living things consist of at least on cell
c. All cells must come from pre-existing cells by divisions; new cells cannot arise from non-living

Evidences for Cell Theory

● Nothing smaller than a cell has been seen to exhibit all properties of life
○ Including organelles and viruses

○
● Living tissues and organisms have been seen to consist of cells, using the microscope
○ Cell membranes and nuclei were visible under the earliest light microscopes

○
● Robert Hooke - The first person to use the word “cell” for structures of living organisms
○ His examinations of cork and other parts of plants in 1665

○
New Measuring Unit
The development of microscopy lef to new ways of denoting measurement units of living things:
𝑡ℎ −2
● 1 centimeter (cm): 100 of a meter (10 m)
𝑡ℎ −3
● 1 millimeter (mm): 1000 of a meter (10 m)
○ Some large plant cells
𝑡ℎ −6
● 1 micrometer (µ𝑚): 1000 of a millimeter (10 m)
○ Mitochondria
○ Bacteria
𝑡ℎ −9
● 1 nanometer (nm): 1000 of a micrometer (10 m)
○ A Glucose molecue

Measuring Magnification
Steps to find the Magnification level of an microscopic image:
1. Convert the units
a. Match the given specimen’s measurements and scale bar label’s measurements units
2. Use the formula
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Magnification = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙

Example:
Specimen’s Measurement: 30 mm
Scale Bar label: 2 µ𝑚
1. Convert the units (match them as micrometers)
a. 30 mm = 30,000 µ𝑚
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 30,000 µ𝑚 30,000
2. 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙
= 2 µ𝑚
= 2
= 15, 000

∴ Magnification: 15,000 ×
Measuring Actual Size
Finding the Actual size of a specimen with given Measurement length + Magnification
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Actual Size = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example:
Specimen’s measurement: 450 mm
Magnification: 15,000×
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 450 𝑚𝑚
Actual Size = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 15,000×
= 0. 03 𝑚𝑚 = 30 µ𝑚

Functions of Life
Organisms consisting of cells carry out all these functions of life:
● Nutrition: A way to obtain the energy for growth
● Metabolism: Chemical rxns within the cell for energy processing
● Growth: Increase of cell’s size
● Response: Adaptations to the changes in surrounding environments
● Excretion: Removal of the waste productions of metabolism
● Homeostasis: Keeping inside conditions within tolerable limits
● Reproduction: Producing offsprings through division or exchanges of
genetic information

Remember these 7 functions with: MR SHENG

Why are Cells Small?

● Cell size is limited by the Surface Area : Volume ratio
● Volume: The direct function of the rate at which the cells consume resources and produce waste
● Surface Area: The direct function of the rate at which the cells exchange heat and materials with their
environment
● Ultimately, cells need to have a HIGH Surface Area : Volume ratio in order to maintain the appropriate
balance between metabolism and exchange
○ Cells must remain small to function effectively
○ Therefore, large cells aren’t needed by organisms
Multicellular Life
● Single celled organisms can only do so much. Multicellular organisms have Emergent Properties
● (def) Emergent Properties: Properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components
● Multicellularity conveys some advantages beyond those of a single cell
○ The whole is greater than the sum of the parts

Example: In multicellular Organisms:

● Cells may be grouped together to form tissues
● Organs are formed from the functional grouping of multiple tissues
● Organs may interact to form organ systems, which are capable of carrying out specific body functions
● Organ systems collectively carry out the life functions of the entire organism

Differentiation
● Muticellular organisms have different types of cells that perform different functions, and different cell
structures allow the cells to perform specialized functions
● Cells differentiate, or become different in structure and function by expressing certain portions of the
genetic code, and “turning off” other portions
● Differentiation, ultimately, is the process during development of a newly formed cells becoming more
specialized and distinct from one another
○ All cells of an organism share an identical genome; each cell that arise in an organism contain the
entire set of genetic instructions for that organism
○ The chemical signals within the cell’s genetic instructions causes the differentiation
Stem Cells
● (def) Stem Cells: Cells that have not been differentiated
● Stem cells are “generic cells” that can divide and differentiate into any type of cell

Therapeutic Uses of Stem Cells

● Due to their abilities to divide quickly and become any type of cell in an organism, stem cells have
enormous potential in the regeneration of tissue and organs
● It is theoretically possible to take stem cells and use them to regenerate cells, tissues, or the entire organs by
selectively “turning on” certain genes
● This could significantly benefit people with many diseases and conditions such as mutiple scleroiss,
Parkinsons’s, Huntington’s, and Alzheimer’s diseases
○ In addition: Spinal cord injury, storke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid
arthritis, and more…

Types of Stem Cells

Definition Example

Totipotent Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embroynic tissue Zygote

Pluripotent Can form any cell type Embryonic Stem Cells

Mutipotent Can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types Haematopoeitic Adult Stem Cells

Unipotnet Can not differentiate, but are capable of self renewal Progenitor Cells, Muscle Stem Cells
(def) Self Renewal: They can continuously divide and replicate
(def) Potency: The ability or the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types