1.

Describe the organisation of nervous system in humans

The nervous system is divided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system. The central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The
somatic nervous system controls voluntary actions, such as walking, running and reading.
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions, such as peristalsis, breathing
and blinking. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic nervous system
and parasympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nervous system controls organs in times
of stress. The parasympathetic nervous system controls organs when body is at rest.

2. Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

For sympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic neurone is shorter and the
postganglionic neurone is longer. For parasympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic
neurone is longer and the postganglionic neurone is shorter.

3. Describe the passage and development of sperms from the testis to the oviduct for
fertilisation

The sperms are produced in the testis. The sperms are then matured in the
epididymis. The sperms travels to the vas deferens to the penis through the urethra. The
sperms are ejaculated through the urethra. When the penis inserts into the vagina, the
sperms travel to the cervix. From the cervix, the sperms travels/propels to the uterus. Then,
the sperms swim to the oviduct to be fertilised with an ovum.

4. Describe the process of fertilisation

Sperms approach the corona radiata cells and bind with zona pellucida. Hydrolytic
enzyme is released by the acrosome to digest the zona pellucida. This is called exocytosis.
The membrane of the sperm and the egg are fused together and allowing the head of the
sperms enters. The head of the sperm will fuse with the egg in the cytoplasm. The cortical
granule released enzyme to harden the zona pellucida to prevent polyspermy.

5. Describe the process of implantation

Trophoblast enables blastocyst to invade the endometrium by producing enzymes

that can dissolve tissue. This allows blastocyst to burrow deep to obtain nutrients from
endometrium. The blastocyst is now embedded in the endometrium walls by connecting
blood vessels. Trophoblast will become the chorionic villi which will develop a blood
circulation with maternal blood to form the placenta. The implanted blastocyst will develop
into a foetus that secretes HCG (to prevent corpus luteum from degenerating) to prevent
autolysis of corpus luteum.
 6. Outline the antigen-antibody interactions (precipitation, agglutination,
neutralisation, complement fixation)

Precipitation is crosslinking of soluble antigen molecules (molecules dissolved in

body fluid) by antibodies to form immobile precipitate that are engulfed by macrophage.

Agglutination is a process whereby antibody clump with insoluble antigens creating

a precipitate. This will enhance phagocytosis.

Neutralization – Antigen-antibody reaction that can block the harmful effects of

toxins or viruses. Neutralizing substance is an antibody produced by the host called an
antitoxin. Antitoxin combines with the toxin and the toxin is neutralized.

Complementary fixation can only bind to Ag-Ab complexes. When complement

takes part in antigen-antibody reactions, it is bound or fixed to the Ag-Ab complexes. When
these complexes are on bacteria, RBCs or other cells, the complement brings about lysis of
these cells. Complement cannot bind free antibody.

7. Describe the structure of haemoglobin

Haemoglobin is a complex, quaternary structure. It consists of 2-α and 2-β

polypeptide chains. Haemoglobin consists of 4 haem group containing iron in the middle of
each polypeptide and is a prostatic group. Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein because it is
made up of globular protein and prostatic group. The α and β chains are coiled to form a
nearly spherical shape polypeptide chain.