Chapter 2b:

Electrical Measurement Quantity

Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd Ridzuan Ahmad

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 UTM Skudai, Johor
Malaysia
1

innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Resistance Measurement Technique:
Wheatstone Bridge

• Is a measuring instrument
invented by Samuel Hunter
Christie in 1833 and improved
and popularized by Sir Charles
Wheatstone in 1843.

• It is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes
the unknown component.
• Meter used is a sensitive galvanometer.

www.utm.my 2 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Resistance Measurement Technique:
Wheatstone Bridge
– Proof Rx below if the bridge is balance.

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Resistance Measurement Technique:
Wheatstone Bridge

www.utm.my innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example
Figure below consists of the following parameters. R1= 20 kΩ,
R2= 10 kΩ and R3= 15 kΩ. Find the unknown resistance Rx.

www.utm.my 5 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Unbalance Bridge

VD ≠ VB

www.utm.my 6 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Unbalance Bridge

www.utm.my 7 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

www.utm.my 8 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

www.utm.my 9 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example
i.

www.utm.my 10 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example
ii.

www.utm.my 11 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Resistance Measurement Technique
• Kelvin’s bridge
– A modification of Wheatstone’s bridge that used for measuring
low resistance value (range 0.001 to 25 Ω).
– Ry representing the resistance connecting leads from R3 and Rx.
– When Galvanometer
is connected to point
a, Ry is added to Rx
resulting high
resistance to Rx. Vice
versa.

www.utm.my 12 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Resistance Measurement Technique
• Kelvin’s bridge
– When G is connected to point b and the bridge is balance.
– If G is connected to point b, in between points c and a, the ratio
of the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the
ratio of resistances R1 and R2.
Rcb R
Given = 1 ; Rab + Rcb = Ry
Rab R2
and
(Rx + Rcb ) R1
=
(R3 + Rab ) R2
hence,
RR
Rx = 1 3
R2
www.utm.my 13 innovative • entrepreneurial • global
 Kelvin’s Bridge
Rcb R1 Rcb  Rab  R y

Rab R2 R y R2 R y R1
Rcb  R y -Rab  R y  
by adding 1 to both ratio, R1  R2 R1  R2
Rcb R1 R1
1  1 ( Rx  Rcb )  ( R3  Rab )
Rab R2 R2
R y R1 R y R2
Rcb  Rab R1  R2 ( Rx  )
R1
( R3  )
 R1  R2 R2 R1  R2
Rab R2
R y R1 R1 R3 R y R1
Ry R1  R2 Rx   ( )
 R1  R2 R2 R1  R2
Rab R2
R1 R3
R y R2 Rx 
Rab  R2
R1  R2
14
 Example
Based on Figure 1, if the ratio of Ra to Rb is 1200 Ω, R1 is 10 Ω and
R1 =0.5 R2. What is the value of Rx?

Figure 1

15
Example

16
 Impedance Measurement Technique
• A measure of the overall opposition
of a circuit to current.

• Takes into account the effects of

capacitance and inductance.

• Measured in ohms, symbol.

• More complex than resistance due

to impedance varies with freq.

• The effect of resistance is constant

regardless of frequency.
www.utm.my 17 innovative • entrepreneurial • global
 Impedance Measurement Technique
• The impedance of the circuit is splited into two parts: Resistance R
(the part which is constant regardless of frequency) and Reactance
X (the part which varies with frequency).
• Capacitance & inductance cause a phase shift* between the I & V.
• Must be added as vectors with reactance at right angles to
resistance.

www.utm.my 18 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique
Reactance, X
• A measure of the opposition of capacitance and inductance to
current.
• Varies with the frequency of the electrical signal and measured
in ohms.
• 2 types of reactance:
- Capacitive reactance (Xc)
- Inductive reactance (XL)
• Total reactance (X) is the
difference between the
two: X = XL - Xc

www.utm.my 19 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique

magnitude

phase

www.utm.my 20 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique
Polar, Rectangular Forms:

www.utm.my 21 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique
• The voltage across a capacitor lags the current because
the current must flow to build up the charge and the
voltage is proportional to the charge which is built up
on the capacitor plates.
1
XC =
wC
-j
XC =
wC

www.utm.my 22 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique
• The voltage across an inductor leads the current
because the Lenz’s law behaviour resists the build-up
of the current and it takes a finite time for an
imposed voltage to force the build-up of current to its
maximum.

XL   L
X L  j L

www.utm.my 23 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Impedance Measurement Technique:
AC Bridge
• For this general form of AC bridge
to balance, the impedance ratios
of each branch must be equal:

• Impedance quantities must be

complex, accounting for both
magnitude and phase angle.
• It is insufficient that the
impedance magnitudes alone be
balanced.
www.utm.my 24 innovative • entrepreneurial • global
 AC Bridge

Find the unknown Z4 if the

bridge is balance and:
Z1  200 30 
Z 2  150 0 
Z 3  250   40 

www.utm.my 25 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 AC Bridge: Example

• Find Zx

www.utm.my 26 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 AC Bridge: Example

www.utm.my 27 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 AC Bridge: Example

www.utm.my 28 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Serial-Capacitor type Bridge

www.utm.my 29 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Serial-Capacitor type Bridge: Example

www.utm.my 30 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Parallel-Capacitor type Bridge:

𝐶3

𝑅1

www.utm.my 31 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Parallel-Capacitor type Bridge:

www.utm.my 32 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Maxwell Bridge: (1 < Q < 10 )
Q, ratio of coil reactance to a-c resistance

www.utm.my 33 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Maxwell Bridge: (1 < Q < 10 )

www.utm.my 34 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Maxwell Bridge: Example

www.utm.my 35 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Hay Bridge: (10 < Q < 1000 )

www.utm.my 36 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Hay Bridge: (10 < Q < 1000 )

www.utm.my 37 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Hay Bridge: (10 < Q < 1000 )

www.utm.my 38 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

www.utm.my 39 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

www.utm.my 40 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 ii. Given that the value for the resistor Ra, Rb, Rc are 500 Ω,
200 Ω and 350 Ω, respectively. The inductor Ld and the
capacitor Ce are 20 mH and 0.5 μF, respectively.
Calculate the unknown parameter Zx.

ii. Based on the answer obtained in Q3(c)(ii), identify the

components and determine the value of the components
in Zx.

www.utm.my 41 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE / CRO

• Oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device

- it draws a graph of an electrical signal.
• In most applications the graph shows how signals
change over time.

www.utm.my 42 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• The vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the
horizontal (X) axis represents time.
• The intensity or brightness of the display is
sometimes called the Z axis.

www.utm.my 43 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• Oscilloscope draws a V/t graph, voltage against time.
• Screen of oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the Y
axis, 10 squares on the X axis (~1cm in each direction).
• Can change the Y or X axis, so that you can display a clear
picture of the signal you want to investigate.
• 'Dual trace' oscilloscopes
display two V/t graphs at
the same time, so that
simultaneous signals
from different parts of
an electronic system can
be compared.
www.utm.my 44 innovative • entrepreneurial • global
 OSCILLOSCOPE
• Before turning ‘ON’ oscilloscope, check that all the controls in their
'normal' positions:
- push button switches in the OUT position
- slide switches in the UP position
- rotating controls are CENTRED
- the central TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and the HOLD OFF controls
are in the calibrated, or CAL position
- set both VOLTS/DIV controls to 1 V/DIV and the TIME/DIV
control to 2s/DIV, its slowest setting:

www.utm.my 45 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• The diagram shows a lead with a (Bayonet Neill-
Concelman) BNC plug at one end and crocodile clips at the
other. When the crocodile clip from the red wire is clipped
to the lower metal terminal, a 2 V square wave is
connected to the input of CH 1.

www.utm.my 46 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE

www.utm.my 47 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• The screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube,
similar principles to TV.
• Inside the tube is a vacuum.
• The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear
end of the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more
anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a bright
spot on the phosphorescent screen.

www.utm.my 48 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages
applied to two sets of plates fixed in the tube.
• The horizontal deflection plates, or X-plates produce side
to side movement.
• As you can see, they are linked to a system block called
the time base.

www.utm.my 49 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• This produces a sawtooth waveform.
• During the rising phase of the sawtooth, the spot is driven at a
uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen.
• During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly
from right to left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing
appears on the screen.
• In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

www.utm.my 50 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage
against time.
• The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the
input signal.
• In addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is
frequency which is the number of cycles per second.
• The diagram shows a sine wave.

www.utm.my 51 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE
• Amplitude or peak voltage is the max. voltage reached by
the signal, measured in volts, V.
• Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude).
• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one
cycle, measured in seconds.
• Frequency is the number of cycles per second, measured in
hertz (Hz).

www.utm.my 52 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 OSCILLOSCOPE

Example measurements:

• peak-peak voltage = 8.4V

• amplitude voltage = 4.2V

• time period = 20ms The trace of an AC signal

Y AMPLIFIER/CHANNEL: 2V/cm
• frequency = 50Hz TIMEBASE: 5ms/cm

www.utm.my 53 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Phase Shift

Signal A
(reference)

Signal B

Phase shift = (different between signal A & signal B) x 360 degree

(reference signal in 1 cycle)

www.utm.my 54 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

www.utm.my 55 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example

1 1
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞 = = = 250 𝐻𝑧
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 4𝑚

www.utm.my 56 innovative • entrepreneurial • global

 Example
Sketch the signal of a 50 Hz, 4 Vp-p sine
waveform, with the setting of TIME/DIV and
VOLT/DIV is 10 ms/DIV and 1 V/DIV respectively.

www.utm.my 57 innovative • entrepreneurial • global