Mosaddek Sir’s Lecture

Storage of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Prepared by
Md Mosaddek Hossen
Dept. of ACCE, BSMRSTU

Contents
❖ Characterization of bulk solids ................................................................................................ 2
❖ Types of storage of solids ........................................................................................................ 5
a) Bulk/ Outdoor storage ............................................................................................................. 5
b) Confined storage ..................................................................................................................... 5
Silos ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Bin Storage .............................................................................................................................. 9
Hopper ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Pressures in bins and silos ..................................................................................................... 10
Flow Modes in a Bin ............................................................................................................. 10
❖ Types of storages for liquids ................................................................................................. 13
a) Industrial Fuel Storage Tanks ............................................................................................ 13
b) Industrial Chemical Storage Tanks .................................................................................... 16
c) Industrial Oil Storage Tanks .............................................................................................. 17
d) Industrial Hot Water Storage Tanks .................................................................................. 21
e) Industrial Water and Liquid Storage Tanks ....................................................................... 22
f) Industrial Plastic Storage Tanks......................................................................................... 25
g) Waste water or slurry tanks................................................................................................ 26
❖ Industrial Gas Storage Tanks ................................................................................................. 28
• Internal Floating Roof ........................................................................................................ 28
• Bullet Tanks ....................................................................................................................... 29
• LNG Storage Tank ............................................................................................................. 29

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❖ Characterization of bulk solids

A bulk solid consists essentially of many particles or granules of different sizes (and possibly
different chemical compositions and densities) randomly grouped together to form of a bulk. The
'nature' of such a material that is, its appearance, its 'feel', the way it behaves in various
circumstances, and so on is thus dependent upon many factors, but principally upon the size, shape
and density of the constituent particles.
The nature of a bulk solid, described in terms of appropriate characteristics, is an essential
consideration when designing or selecting equipment for its handling or storage. There are
innumerable examples in industry of problems that have been attributable to insufficient attention
being paid to the properties of the bulk solid involved. Failure of a material to discharge from a
storage hopper, blockage of a pneumatic conveying line and uncontrollable flushing of material
through a weigh-feeder are typical of such problems.
When attempting to describe a bulk solid it is important to understand that the characterization can
be on two levels:
(i) By means of features descriptive of the behavior of the material in its normal bulk form; for
example, the way in which it compacts, its flow properties, the influence of moisture and
electrostatic charging
(ii) By means of features of the constituent particles such as their size, density, hardness, shape
and surface texture.
Bulk materials are characterized by:
• granulation or dustiness, • crushing sensitivity,
• particle shape • change of properties due to vibrations,
• voidage, temperature, water or humidity,
• density, • adhesion,
• natural angle of repose, • plasticity,
• internal friction, • shear strength,
• static and kinetic friction, • moisture content,
• hardness, • explosiveness,
• attrition, • electrostatic properties.

Granulation is a numerical definition of material particles according to their size. The size of a
single particle is defined by the maximum value of dimension measured by diagonal of cuboid as
a contour of the particle. Transported material is:
sorted, when:

unsorted, when:

According to particle size classification is as follows:

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• massive a* > 300 mm

• lumpy 160 < a* < 300 mm
• middling lumpy 60 < a*< 160 mm
• fine lumpy 10 < a*< 60 mm
• grained 2 < a*< 10 mm
• fine grained 0.5 < a*< 2 mm
• powdery 0.05 < a*< 0.5 mm
• dusty a*< 0.05 mm

Voidage: The shape of particles constituting a bulk solid obviously depends upon the manner of
their production but, irrespective of whether they are of regular or irregular shape, when they are
packed together in random orientation there will be a certain amount of free space between them.
Thus, a bulk solid is really a combination of particles and space, the percentage of the total volume
not occupied by the particles usually being referred to as the 'voidage' or 'void fraction'.
Thus

and, in a bed of material having unit volume, the actual volume of solid particles, or 'fractional
solids content', is (1 - Ꜫ). Sometimes the term 'porosity' is applied to bulk solids to mean the same
as 'voidage'. Porosity of particle is the ratio of the volume of pores within a particle to the volume
of the particle (inclusive of pores).

Bulk density can be defined as the mass of the material divided by its total volume (particles and
voids).

Thus,

The angle of repose can be defined as the limiting natural

slope of the free surface of a bulk solid observed during a
specified test procedure. The angle of repose of a material
is the acute angle which the surface of a normal, freely
formed pile makes to the horizontal. It is reasonable to
regard the angle of repose of a bulk solid as crude evidence
of its likely flow behavior, as follows:

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Some examples:

The angle of surcharge of a material is the angle to the horizontal which the surface of the material
assumes while the material is at rest on a moving conveyor belt. This angle usually is 5 degrees to
15 degrees less than the angle of repose, though in some materials it may be as much as 20 degrees
less.

Effective angle of internal friction - angle between the abscissa and the tangent of the curve
representing the relationship of shearing resistance to normal stress.

Static angle of internal friction - the angle at which the bulk solid will begin to slide on itself
when subjected to stress acting onto the shearing surface.

Moisture content: In addition to causing effects such as chemical change, deterioration of quality
and so on, moisture can have a dramatic influence on the flow behavior of bulk solids, and
therefore moisture analysis is one of the most frequently performed tasks in their characterization.
It is usual to express the moisture content in terms of the percentage of water to dry solids.

Thus,
It should be noted that water may be present in a bulk solid in two forms:
(i) 'Surface moisture', which is present only on the surfaces of the particles
(ii) 'Inherent moisture', which exists as water of crystallization within the structure of the particles.

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❖ Types of storage of solids

Storages of solids may be classified into two types.
a) Bulk/ Outdoor storage
b) Confined storage

a) Bulk/ Outdoor storage

Coarse solids like gravel and coal are stored outside in large piles, unprotected from the weather.
When hundreds or thousands of tons of material are involved, this is the most economical method.
The solids are removed from the pile by dragline or tractor shovel and delivered to a conveyor or
to the process. Outdoor storage can lead to environmental problems such as dusting or leaching of
soluble material from the pile. Dusting may necessitate a protective cover of some kind for the
stored solid; leaching can be controlled by covering the pile or by locating it in a shallow basin
with an impervious floor from which the runoff may be safely withdrawn.

b) Confined storage
Solids that are valuable and soluble, or can be affected by the environment in outdoor piles are
stored in Bins, Hoppers and Silos. These are cylindrical or rectangular vessels of concrete or metal.

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Silos
• Silo is a storage structure for storing bulk materials like storage of grain, coal, cement, food
products etc.|
• Silo is tall and relatively small in diameter which is used for bin storage.

Types of silos
1) Cement storage silos
2) Tower silo
3) Bag silos
4) Low-oxygen tower silos

1) Cement storage silos

• There are different types of cement silos such as the low-level mobile silo and the static
upright cement silo.
• The low-level silos are fully mobile with capacities from 10 to 75 tons.
• The static upright silos have capacities from 20 to 80 tons.
• These are considered a low-maintenance option.

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2) Tower silo
• Tower silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft in diameter and 30 to 275 ft in
height.
• Silos can be loaded and unloaded by using rail cars or conveyors.
• Silos storing grain, cement and woodchips.

3) Bag silos
• Bag silos are heavy plastic tubes, usually around 8 to 12 ft in diameter, and of variable
length as required for the amount of material to be stored.
• They can be used as a temporary measure when growth or harvest conditions require more
space.

4) Low-oxygen tower silos

• Low-oxygen silos are designed to keep the contents in a low-oxygen atmosphere at all
times, to keep the fermented contents in a high-quality state, and to prevent mold and decay.
• Low-oxygen silos are only opened directly to the atmosphere during the loading.

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Bin Storage

• A bin is typically much shorter than a silo, and is typically used for holding dry matter such
as concrete or grain.
• Bins may be round or square,
• Round bins tend to empty more easily due to lake of corners,
• The stored material may be powdered, as seed Kernels, or as cob corn.

Hopper
• Hopper is small vessel with a sloping bottom for a temporary storage before feeding solids
to a process.
• It is filled at the top and Discharge is from the base,
• Hopper can be vibrated externally to encourage flow.
• Angle of sloping sides ≥ angle of repose.

Intermediate Bulk Container

• An IBC is a mobile hopper moved by pallet/fork truck
• Volume usually about 1m°, stainless steel
• Can store material that is waiting for further processing
• Filled at top and placed on an IBC discharge station for emptying.

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Pressures in bins and silos

When granular solids are placed in a bin or silo, the lateral pressure exerted on the walls at any
point is less than predicted from the head of material above that point. Furthermore, there usually
is friction between the wall and the solid grains, and because of the interlocking of the particles,
the effect of this friction is felt throughout the mass. The frictional force at the wall tends to offset
the weight of the solid and reduces the pressure exerted by the mass on the floor of the container.
The vertical pressure on the vessel floor or the packing support is much smaller than that exerted
by a column of liquid of the same density and height. The actual pressure from the solids depends
on the value of K’ for the solids, the coefficient of friction between the solids and the vessel wall,
and the way the solids are placed in the vessel. In general, when the height of the solids column is
greater than about three times the diameter of the container, additional solids have no effect on the
pressure at the base. The total mass, of course, increases if more solids are added, but the additional
mass is carried by the walls and foundation, not by the floor of the vessel.
In granular solids a high pressure does not always increase the tendency of the material to flow, as
it does in a liquid; instead, increased pressure often packs the grains more tightly together and
makes flow more difficult. In extreme cases the combination of gravitational and frictional forces
at some point in the container causes the solids to arch or bridge, so that they do not fall even when
the material below them is removed. Nearly all large bins contain an arch-breaker, an upward-
pointing shallow metal cone set near the bottom to keep the solids at the discharge opening from
becoming tightly packed. Granular solids, especially with angular particles, must be loose in order
to flow.

Flow Modes in a Bin

Solids tend to flow out of any opening near the bottom of a bin but are best discharged through an
opening in the floor. Flow through a side opening tends to be uncertain and increases the lateral
pressure on the other side of the bin while the solids are flowing. A bottom outlet is less likely to
clog and does not induce abnormally high pressures on the wall at any point.
Except in very small bins it is not feasible to open the entire bottom for discharge. Commonly a
conical or pyramidal hopper-like section is set at the bottom of the bin, leading to a fairly small
outlet that can be closed with a valve.

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When the outlet at the bottom of a bin containing free-flowing solids is opened, the material
immediately above the opening begins to flow. One of two flow patterns will develop, depending
on the steepness of the walls in the bottom section of the bin and on the coefficient of friction
between the solids and the bin walls.
1) Mass Flow: Mass flow occurs in cone-bottomed bins with a tall, steep cone; all the material
moves downward uniformly from the top of the bin. All the material is in motion, but not
necessarily at the same velocity

2) Tunnel Flow: Tunnel flow develops in bins with a centrally moving core, dead or non-
moving annular region, or a shallow cone angle or with vertical walls and a central opening
in the floor. Here a vertical column of solids above the opening moves downward without
disturbing the material at the sides. Eventually lateral flow begins, first from the topmost
layer of solids. A conical depression is formed in the surface of the mass.
The solids at the bin floor, at or near the walls, are the last to leave. The material slides laterally
into the central column at an angle approximating the angle of internal friction of the solids. If
additional material is added at the top of the bin at the same rate as material is flowing out the
bottom, the solids near the bin walls remain stagnant and do not discharge no matter how long
flow persists.
During flow, the pressure in the solids increases from zero (atmospheric) at the top surface to a
maximum at the top of the hopper section, then drops to zero at the discharge. Arching is especially
likely to occur in the hopper section. The rate of flow of granular solids by gravity through a
circular opening in the bottom of a bin depends on the diameter of the opening and on the properties
of the solid. Within wide limits it does not depend on the height of the bed of solids. With free-
flowing particles the rate of solids flow, m, varies with 𝐷𝑜𝑛 , where D, is the diameter of the
discharge opening. Exponent ‘n’ varies from about 2.8 for angular particles to about 3.1 for
spheres.
With cohesive solids it is often hard to start flow. Once flow does start, however, it again begins
in the material directly above the discharge opening. Frequently the column of solids above the
outlet moves out as a plug, leaving a “rathole” with nearly vertical sides. Sticky solids and even
some dry powders adhere strongly to vertical surfaces and have enough shear strength to support
a plug of considerable diameter above an open discharge. Thus to get flow started and to keep the

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material moving, vibrators on the bin walls, internal plows near the bin floor, or jets of air in the
discharge opening are often needed.
The discharge opening should be small enough to be readily closed when solids are flowing yet
not so small that it will clog. It is best to make the opening large enough to pass the full desired
flow when half open. It can then be opened further to clear a partial choke. If the opening is too
large, however, the shutoff valve may be hard to close and control of the flow rate will be poor.

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❖ Types of storages for liquids

Industrial storage tanks are containers used for storage of gas, oil, water, and petrochemical
products, employed for industrial uses. Industrial storage tanks come in different sizes and shapes.
They can be underground, horizontal, and vertical, and be made from concrete, stone, fiberglass,
steel or plastic.
Industrial storage tanks can be categorized into several types based on the substance they hold and
some other factors.

Let’s discuss different types of tanks according to their application.

a) Industrial Fuel Storage Tanks
Industrial fuel storage tanks, known as petroleum tanks also, can store various fluids. In general,
they are used for storing non-organic and organic liquids. They can also hold vapor as well as
different flammable fluids. Fuel storage tanks are manufactured in various designs and sizes. They
are designed to store a variety of fuels, vapor, and industrial liquids.

Types of Industrial Fuel Storage Tanks

There are two main types of fuel storage tanks – Aboveground tanks and Underground tanks.
• Aboveground Fuel Tanks
Aboveground fuel tanks (AST) are quite popular because of their lower long-term maintenance
and upfront costs. These tanks are more cost-effective to install compared to underground tanks
since you don’t need to spend for backfilling, deep excavation, and pavement of more involved
piping.

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Aboveground fuel tanks offer greater ease of maintenance compared to the below ground tanks.
You can check them easily for leaks and access for repairs. This is the reason aboveground fuel
storage tanks are preferred for storing fuels and chemicals.

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• Underground Storage Tanks

In Underground storage tank (UST), at least 10% of the tank’s stored volume is buried
underground. Such tanks that are used for storing hazardous materials or fuels are regulated, and
must have registration with the EPA.
These tanks are suitable for people wanting to maximize the space and/or value of their property.
Underground storage tanks can be put beneath lawns and driveways, where they are not visible.
Arguably, these types of tanks are safer as the chance of explosion is very little. However, the
chance of leaks as well as that of generating pollution is increased in case of these tanks as they
cannot be inspected often.

Advantages of Using Fuel Storage Tanks

If your business requires safe storage of fuel and other inflammable liquids, then it’s important to
use an industrial fuel storage tank. Industrial fuel storage tanks are standards certified containers
which provide safe storage of chemicals, solvents, oil, petrol, diesel, and other hazardous and
flammable liquids. Fuel storage tanks restrict evaporative emissions as well as prevent any leakage
of the substance contained in it.
These storage tanks are manufactured and designed for meeting industry standards, which makes
them an efficient and reliable option for addressing your storage needs of hazardous substances.
Using industrial fuel storage tanks offers several advantages, which are listed below:
(i) Cost Efficient
Using fuel storage tank is cost efficient since your staff need not leave the business facility for
getting equipment or vehicles refueled. This saves both money and time that’s otherwise spent to
refuel off your business premises. These tanks have a storage capacity lying between 1,000 and
110,000 liters, allowing you to store petrol and fuel according to the amount required on a weekly
or daily basis.
(ii) Variety
There are various types of fuel storage tanks you can choose from. The chief types are – above
ground fuel storage tanks and underground fuel storage tanks. These types have already been
discussed above.
Another type of industrial fuel storage tank is – self bunded tank. This type of tank is employed
widely because of its durability. Having double steel walls, the self-bunded storage tank prevents
spillage of the substance contained in it. The capacity of storage of the self-bunded tanks and above
ground tanks usually lay between 1,000 and 150,000 liters.
If your storage requirements are small, you may choose the minor storage wrap-tank. This type of
fuel storage tank has a storage capacity between 1,000 and 1,450 liters. Similar to self-bunded
tank, minor storage wrap-tank has no need for any complex bunding requirements as well as
provides maximum versatility and effectiveness.
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(iii) Versatility
An industrial fuel storage tank has the ability to hold a variety of inflammable liquids. If your
storage needs are very specific, inform your manufacturer about them since they may customize
or adjust tank specifications and models so as to fulfill your special requirements. Moreover,
industrial fuel storage tanks are installed easily. Some of the models are portable too to allow easy
relocation when necessary.
b) Industrial Chemical Storage Tanks
Industrial chemical storage tanks are employed for storing fertilizers, propane, liquefied natural
gas, petroleum products (gasoline, diesel), crude oil, and other chemicals. Industrial chemical
storage tanks are available in various shapes and sizes. These storage tanks are used for mixing,
processing, static storage, and transport of finished chemical products as well as raw materials.
Types of Industrial Chemical Storage Tanks
According to the material, there are three chief types of industrial chemical storage tanks available
–
• Stainless steel tanks
• Polyethylene tanks
• Fiberglass (FRP) tanks
• Stainless steel storage tanks are effective and durable; however, they are not suitable for
many acids as well as are the most expensive option.
• Fiberglass tanks are suitable for some applications. However, they have seams that may
leak, need increased maintenance, more prone to human error as they are handcrafted, and
are susceptible to certain chemicals such as hydrofluorosilicic acid – a chemical which
etches glass (FRP’s structural component).
• Polyethylene storage tanks come in cross-linked as well as linear polyethylene, and make
the most versatile industrial storage tanks in the market.

Consider the Chemical to be Stored

When planning an industrial chemical storage tank unit, the most important factor to consider first
is the chemical to be stored. It’s wrong to believe that if a storage tank can hold water, it can hold
a chemical too. While a water storage tank might hold a chemical for some time, remember that
the tank has not been designed specifically to store the chemical. Several factors may degrade the
tank, causing leaks and leading to other hazards.
Fortunately, polyethylene industrial storage tanks can handle any chemical type that you want to
store. Polyethylene chemical storage tanks are affordable, sturdy, and strong. Polyethylene storage
tanks are made in a mold that rules out the likelihood of human error. Moreover, these tanks are
available in various options which help in protecting your storage environment, the chemical, and
your employees.

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The chief types of polyethylene materials used for chemical storage tanks are – Linear
Polyethylene and Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE).

Safety Concerns for Chemical Tanks

A failed or damaged chemical tank can lead to serious property damage and environmental
contamination. If chemical storage tanks spill or leak, the chemicals stored may flow into streams
and lakes, contaminate groundwater and drinking water, or catch fire. Chemical fire can lead to
contamination of water and soil as well as pose threats to human health.
Failure of chemical storage tanks may occur due to deterioration or corrosion, construction flaws,
poor maintenance, spills during transfers, overfills, and lack of or improper containment for leaks.

c) Industrial Oil Storage Tanks

Oil storage tanks are reservoirs or containers that hold oil temporarily during the different phases
of processing into oil products of various types, or before it’s consumed or used. The materials
and structure of industrial oil storage tanks are based on their application as well as the safety,
environmental, and legal requirements of other kinds in the storage area.

Oil tanks are ideal containers used to store crude oil or other kind of oil, they are widely used in
refinery, oil field, oil tank farm, or other industrial production. Oil tanks play a very important role
in the process of oil and gas storage and transportation. What’s more, oil tanks come in various of
sizes and types according to different classification standards so that there are some differences in
their installation to some extent.
Oil storage tanks in different sizes, shapes, materials, and types are employed from crude oil’s
initial production to the distribution and refining of different petroleum oil products.
Modern industrial oil storage tanks come in the materials – carbon steel, stainless steel, reinforced
concrete, and plastic. They are also carved on rock salt deposits that are mostly impermeable, for
underground storage of oil. Various oil storage tank types have been built over time.

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steel oil tanks concrete oil tanks plastic oil tanks

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Types of oil tanks by structures

According to the structure, oil tanks can be divided into crude oil tanks, fuel tanks, lubricating oil
tanks, edible oil tanks, etc. According to the characteristics of the stored oil, they can be divided
into heavy oil tank and light oil tank. According to the depth of burying, they can be divided into
aboveground oil tanks, underground oil tanks, and semi underground oil tanks.

Types of Industrial Oil Storage Tanks

Steel oil tanks can be divided into vertical oil tank (including fixed roof tank and floating roof
tank), spherical oil tanks and horizontal oil tank (cylinder tank).
Vertical fixed roof oil tanks, which are composed of fixed tank roof and vertical cylindrical tank
wall, are mainly used for storage of nonvolatile oil, such as diesel oil and the similar oil. The most
commonly used volume of fixed roof oil tanks right from 1,000m³ to 10,000m³. Floating roof oil
tanks, which are composed of a floating roof that floats on the oil surface and a vertical cylindrical
tank wall, are suitable to store volatile oil, like gasoline and the similar medium, and the volume
of floating roof oil tanks are generally larger. The floating roof of oil tanks can increase or decrease
following with the increase and decrease of the stored oil production in the oil tanks, a ring seal is
installed between the outer edge of floating roof and tank wall. What’s more, the medium in the
oil tanks is always covered by the internal floating roof directly, in order to reduce the evaporation
of medium.
• Vertical cylinder floating roof steel oil tanks
As the name suggests, the floating roof tank consists of a floating roof which falls or rises
according to the level of oil in the tank. To prevent the build-up of vapor inside the tank, the
floating roof in this type of tanks has been incorporated as a safety feature.

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Floating roof steel oil tanks are equipped with double floating deck roofs or singe deck floating
roof which can float up and down, the double deck floating roof can reduce the heat radiation
effect, therefore, the oil evaporation loss is small. But when the capacity is larger (more than
10,000 m³), it is generally preferred a single deck floating roof in order to reduce the cost. This
kind of oil tanks should be paid more attention on choosing of reasonable sealing device, which
required excellent sealing performance, convenient installation and maintenance.
• Vertical cylinder fixed roof oil tanks
In the fixed roof tank, the oil stored is not The capacity of this kind of oil tanks is
exposed. This tank type is employed for generally less than 10,000m³, the tank wall
holding oil products in lower volumes than in adopts sleeve connection method (fillet
case of tanks having floating roofs. weld). Jacking method is the most used
erection method for vertical cylinder fixed
roof oil tanks, that is erecting the tank start
from the tank top and install the tank wall
from top to bottom layer by layer, with the
help of jacking system to raise the tank.
Compared with the traditional method, which
is erecting the tank start from the tank bottom
shell, then erecting the tank wall from top to
bottom layer by layer, jacking method is safer
as it reduces the risk of aerial work.

• Vertical cylinder internal floating roof steel oil tanks

This kind of oil tanks consist of both doom
roof and internal floating roof, internal
floating roof can float up and down upon the
liquid level. In addition to the characteristics
of external floating roof tank, internal
floating roof tank can also ensure the
cleanliness of the stored oil.

• Spherical steel oil tanks

This kind of oil tanks can withstand the
working pressure ranging from 0.45MPa to
3MPa, the capacity is generally between
50m³ and 2,000m³.Spherical steel oil tanks
are generally used to store liquid petroleum
gas.

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• Horizontal steel oil tanks

The capacity of horizontal steel oil tanks is generally less than 50m³, it can store gasoline and
volatile oil products.

• Bunded Tank
Bunded tanks are enclosed by one more tank or have a containment dike surrounding the tank. The
containment dike or outer tank acts as a catch system for preventing leakages, oil spills, or other
types of oil contamination from being spread to the surroundings.
• Single Skin & Double Skin Tanks
Single skin tank has one layer and double skin tank has two layers of plastic or steel. Double skin
tanks are also known as twin-walled tanks.
• Open Top Tank
This type of industrial oil storage tank was used earlier. Its use is limited now due to evaporation
losses as well as the risk of oil catching fire.

d) Industrial Hot Water Storage Tanks

Industrial hot water storage tanks are ASME certified built to be used in industrial applications in
which a constant hot water supply is required. During low demand periods, water is heated and

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stored inside the water storage tank, which will be available to be used in times of high hot water
demand. This enables efficient energy use while offering hot eater whenever required.
Water makes a good medium of heat storage due to its high specific heat capacity. Water can store
greater heat per unit weight in comparison with other substances. Moreover, water is low cost and
non-toxic.
An industrial hot water storage tank that’s insulated efficiently has the ability to retain the stored
heat for many days, thus reducing the fuel costs. These storage tanks in industries may consist of
an inbuilt oil or gas burner system, and electric immersion heaters. Hot water tanks of certain types
utilize external heat exchanger, like a central heating system. Alternatively, these tanks types may
use heated water from a different energy source.

Insulation of Hot Water Storage Tanks

Hot water storage tanks typically have heat insulation for lowering energy consumption,
quickening the heating process as well as maintaining desired operating temperature. Standby heat
loss is reduced by thicker thermal insulation. Water heaters come in varied insulation ratings;
however, extra layers of insulation can be added outside the water heater for reducing heat loss. In
case of extreme conditions, a water heater may be fully enclosed within an insulated space that’s
specially constructed.
Fiberglass makes the most common type of insulation for water heaters. It’s fixed in place using
straps or tape or with the water heater’s outer jacket. In cases where burner is used, the combustion
gas outflow or air flow should not be blocked by insulation.
Most of the modern water heaters comprise insulation of applied polyurethane foam (PUF). In
cases where it’s crucial to access the inner tank (where particularly aggressive oxygen levels or
minerals are present in local water supply), PUF insulation is used in an encapsulated form. This
allows the insulation layer to be removed to conduct regular integrity checks as well as repairs to
the tank (if needed).

Safety Concerns
Hot water can lead to dangerous and painful scalding injuries, in the elderly and children
especially. Water temperature at the outlet must not be greater than 49 degrees Celsius. Whereas,
water stored below the temperature of 60 degrees Celsius may allow bacteria growth (the bacteria
causing Legionnaire’s disease).

e) Industrial Water and Liquid Storage Tanks

Water and liquid storage tanks are used to store a variety of liquids like kerosene, jet A, diesel,
gasoline, waste oil, and for underground burial and pressurized applications. Liquid storage tanks
come in different types, each type having its own specific applications.

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• Standby Water Storage

The storage tanks are perfect for temporary and long-term storage of water. The mobile storage
tanks have attached axles that makes the tanker easily transportable and feature a V-sloped main
floor for easy cleaning. The tanks may be built with unique valve components that provides easy
access and safe operation when filling or draining water.

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Types of Water and Liquid Storage Tanks

• Onion Tanks
Onion tanks are a great option to store water quickly during emergency events. These tanks are
self-rising having fittings that are easy to access. Moreover, these tanks can be moved as well as
set up within minutes.
• Pillow (Bladder) Tanks
Collapsible tanks – referred to as blivet, bladder, or pillow tanks also – are an effective re-usable
temporary storage solution.
• Poly Tanks
Poly tanks have domestic uses too. They are used for various applications including rainwater
collection and drinking water storage. Poly tanks are available in different types that include
wastewater tanks, mobile tanks, above ground tanks, and more.
• Fiberglass Tanks
Fiberglass liquid storage tanks are durable as well as they don’t corrode or rust easily. These tanks
have a high level of temperature resistance. They come with different coatings so as to offer
optimum performance with various liquid storage needs.

• Welded Steel Tanks

Welded steel tanks make a reliable solution for storage over long term. They come in various
shapes and sizes to fit different types of applications.
• Corrugated Steel Tanks
Corrugated steel liquid storage tanks are versatile, durable, economical, and have a good longevity.
They are made using galvanized corrugated steel. These tanks are available in various sizes as well
as can be customized for meeting specific project needs. Corrugated steel tanks are used for
rainwater collection, industrial process water, or fire suppression.

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f) Industrial Plastic Storage Tanks

Water storage is important for domestic, residential, industrial, and commercial purposes. Plastic
water storage tanks are one among the best ways for water storage conventionally. Plastic tanks
are light-weight, highly durable, and occupy less area compared to cement and concrete tanks.
Moreover, plastic tanks have greater flexibility compared to conventional storage tanks. Such
advantages of plastic water tanks have made them a popular option.

Materials Used to Make Plastic Water Storage Tanks

Plastic water tanks are made with different materials like linear low-density polyethylene, fiber
glass materials or polypropylene.

Applications of Plastic Water Storage Tanks

Plastic water storage tanks are seeing increased applications in food processing, wastewater
containers, chemical manufacturing, suppression valves, and agriculture and irrigation.
Plastic tanks are built on the basis of the liquid type to be stored. The storage capacity of these
tanks lay between 1.5 and 1.9 specific gravity. Plastic used in a storage tank usually allows the
liquid level to be visible easily.
Plastic storage tanks are employed widely to store liquids that include brine, waste vegetable oil,
soaps, cleaning agents, industrial chemicals, agriculture and farm chemicals, diesel exhaust fluid
(DEF), liquid fertilizers, potable water, and non-potable water.

Classification of Plastic Water Storage Tanks

Plastic water storage tanks can be classified into various types based on polymer type, plastic type,
size, shape, and application.
• On the basis of polymer type, plastic tanks can be classified into – polyethylene, fiberglass, and
others.
• Based on plastic type, plastic tanks can be spilt into – fresh and recycled.
• According to shape, plastic water storage tanks can be split into – rectangular, cylindrical, and
others.
• Based on size, these tanks can be classified into – large (greater than 5000 liters), medium
(from 1000 liters to 5000 liters), and small (less than 1000 liters).
• Based on application, these storage tanks can be split into – industrial, municipal, residential,
and commercial.
Cylindrical water tanks of medium size are usually made with recycled polymers that are
polyethylene based.

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g) Waste water or slurry tanks

• Drilling Slurry Storage
Drilling slurry, also known as drilling mud is a liquid waste that is commonly used to assist large
drilling operations. The chemical fluid is a mixture of slurry, oil drilling fluids, bentonite and other
collected waste products.
Drilling slurry can become a major problem and potentially hazardous on site and during projects.
This tank is purposely built with watertight locks to ensure that the drilling fluids are securely
contained. This avoids delays, increases productivity and ensures there are no spillages on site.

• Liquid Waste Storage Tank

The reinforced steel tanks can be installed with spill containers that can be used in environmentally
sensitive areas to contain and prevent spillages. Built with roof mounted manways that allow
overhead access and decreases the chances of potential leaks from the sides of the tank. The
extendable staircase provides full protection for operational workers when they are checking the
level of fluids.

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❖ Industrial Gas Storage Tanks

Most materials which are in gaseous state at ambient pressure and temperature are supplied in the
form of compressed gas. The gas is compressed into pressure vessels for storage (like tube trailers,
gas cylinders, or gas canisters) using a gas compressor through piping systems. Gas cylinders are
most commonly used for gas storage, with large numbers being produced at “cylinder fill”
facilities.
However, all of the industrial gases are not supplied in gaseous phase. Some gases are vapors,
liquification for which can be done under pressure alone at ambient temperature, so these gases
can be supplied in the form of a liquid too in a suitable container. These gases are useful in the
form of ambient refrigerants owing to this phase change. The well-known industrial gases having
this property are – sulfur dioxide, butane, propane, and ammonia.

Delivery of Gas
The important industrial gases are bulk produced and delivered by pipeline to customers. However,
they can be packaged and then transported too.
Most of the gases are sold inside gas cylinders and a few gases are sold in the form of liquid inside
suitable containers or in the form of bulk liquid that’s delivered by truck. Originally, the industry
supplied gases within cylinders to prevent any necessity for generation of gas locally. However,
for large customers like oil refineries or steelworks, a large-sized gas production plant can be built
nearby (known as “on-site” facility) for avoiding the use of cylinders in large numbers manifolded
together.

Types of Industrial Gas Storage Tanks

There are different types of storage tanks in industries available. The type of industrial gas storage
tank required by a plant depends on several factors including the holding capacity, measurement,
and shape of the container.
The most common types of industrial tanks are as follows:
• Internal Floating Roof
Internal floating roof storage tank, popularly known as IFR, is employed for liquids having lower
melting points like Gasoline and Ethanol. These tanks have a cone shape with a floating roof
within, hence its name is floating roof tank. The roof suspended within the storage tank moves
along the level of the fluid, i.e., with the increase of the liquid, the roof moves up and with the
lowering of the liquid, the roof goes down. If the tank has no liquid, the roof of the tank is held by
the legs on which it is placed.

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• Bullet Tanks
Bullet tanks are sphere and flat-shaped industrial storage tanks used mostly in large plants. These
types of tanks are usually preferred over the other types to store liquefied gases like Butane and
Ammonia for which the melting point is very low.
Its name derived from the tank’s long cylindrical form, the tank stores these liquids at a
temperature below -148 degrees Fahrenheit. These types of tanks mostly have the ability to hold
huge amounts of gases that range from 5,000 to 30,000 gallons. Additionally, they can be installed
horizontally as well as vertically. A unique characteristic of bullet tanks is that they have the ability
to hold fuel as well as other additives required for the operation of the plant.
• LNG Storage Tank
LNG storage tank or liquefied natural gas storage tank is specially used to store Liquefied Natural
Gas. These types of storage tanks in industries are available in LNG carriers, in ground, or above
ground. LNG storage tanks have the special characteristic of being able to hold LNG at the
extremely low temperature -162 °C. These tanks consist of double containers – the inner container
holds LNG whereas the outer one holds insulation materials. The full containment storage tank
makes the most common type of tank. Roughly, the diameter of such a tank is 75 m and the height
is 55 m (180 ft.).
If the LNG vapors aren’t released in such tanks, the temperature and pressure inside the tank would
keep on rising. Being a cryogen, Liquefied Natural Gas is stored in its liquid form at extremely
low temperatures. The temperature inside these tanks would stay constant in case the pressure is
maintained as constant by releasing the boil off gas from the tank. Such phenomenon is referred
to as auto-refrigeration.

Difference between Compressed Natural Gas & Liquefied Natural Gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) are often confused with each
other. Both are natural gas in stored form. The chief difference between the two is that Compressed
Natural Gas is stored at high pressure and ambient temperature, whereas Liquefied Natural Gas is
stored at ambient pressure and low temperature. Under their respective conditions of storage, CNG
is supercritical fluid and LNG is liquid.
The cost of storage and production is lower for CNG than LNG since it doesn’t need cryogenic
tanks and a costly cooling process. However, for CNG, much larger volume is required for storing
an energy equivalent of petrol or gasoline as well as extremely high pressures (205 to 275 bar, or
3000 to 4000 psi). Due to this, Liquefied Natural Gas is often employed for the transportation of
natural gas over long distances, in pipelines, trains, or ships, where conversion of the gas into CNG
is done before distributing to end user.

Safety Measures to Prevent Tank Failures

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Several catastrophic storage tank failures have occurred in the past, one of them being the failure
that happened on January 14, 1919 at Boston in Massachusetts. This Boston molasses disaster
occurred due to poor construction and design. The wall was too thin to withstand loads repeatedly
from the contents. Testing of the tank had not been done before use by water fill up. The tank was
poorly riveted also.
Several other accidents have been caused by tanks, often resulting from sub-standard steel or faulty
welding. Some more common problems around the seal of tanks have been resolved to some extent
by new inventions. However, when empty, another problem is presented by storage tanks. If the
tanks have been used for holding oil products or oil, like gasoline, the tank atmosphere may
become highly explosive since the space is filled up with hydrocarbons. In such a situation, if
welding operations are carried out, the contents can easily get ignited by the sparks, leading to
catastrophic results for welders. This problem is quite like that of the empty bunkers over tanker
ships, which now need to use inert gas blanket for preventing the building up of explosive
atmospheres from the residues.
So, industrial storage tank of any type should be efficiently designed and constructed, adhering to
all safety standards, and following all safety rules and regulations. They should also be maintained
well, with quality and safety checks and inspections being conducted at regular intervals.

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