Basic knowledge

Hydrogeology Ground water and

soil moisture
- characteristics of ground water -
Zone of aeration
•Classification of ground formation
??
-unsaturated Vadose zone Vadose
Zone of saturation Ground
-saturated above water able. water water
Water table
(Capillary zone, u<0) P1
P2 bottom
-saturated below water table (u>0)

Ground water
p47
hydrology Normal water table
2019/6/18 GeoEnv_Eng. Dr. Jiro Takemura 1 Water table
during draught

Demonstration of capillary rise Vertical zones of subsurface water

Sand used: Silica sand No.6 (D50=0.32mm, D10=0.30mm, D60=0.39mm)

t=0s t=30s t=1m 45s t=3m 47s t=6m 32s

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 Ground water and capillary water,
volumetric moisture water content Basic properties of soil
a well Volumetric moisture Rock ＝> Soil
content: 
Weathering => transportation => deposition

Capillary Vw Basic properties of soil grain：

Unsaturated  (100%)
water V • grain size( D)
zone
• density (s), or specific gravity :Gs=s/w)
Capillary fringe
Depth

0.005 0.075 0.25 0.8 2.0 4.75 10 75 300 (mm)

Ground water Water fine mid coarse fine mid coarse cobble boulder
clay silt
Saturated table sand gravel stone
Zone Classification of soil grain（JGS)
100% saturation
=n
Vv Soils in a ground ; aggregate with variety of grain sizes
2019/6/18 porosity n (100%) 5

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GeoEnv_Eng. Dr. Jiro Takemura

State of soils and parameters Composition of soil Volume of pore

Void
•Void size： Mass Volume void ratio： e  Vv
- void ratio(e ): Vs
volume of pore / volume of soil grains
Ma=0 Gas phase Va porosity： n  Vv
- porosity(n ): Vv V
Soil grains m Mw Liquid P. Vｗ
 4.4  10 (1 / MPa)
volume of pore / volume of soil
4
v
Mass of water
M V
•Content of pore water： drymoistsaturated Mw
pore Soil grains moisture content： w  100(%)
(liquid+gass) - moisture content (w) : Ms (Solid P.) V Ms
mass of water / mass of soil grains s
volumetric V
- volumetric moisture content() : moisture content：  w 100(%)
volume of water / total volume of soil V
Vw
Degree of saturation: S R   100 (%)
- degree of saturation (Sr) : Vv Sr=100% => n=
volume of water / volume of pore •saturated soils: Vv=Vw (Va=0)
•unsaturated soils: Vv≠Vw (Va≠0)
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2019/6/18 GeoEnv_Eng. Dr. Jiro Takemura
Volume and mass composition of soils, their relation
Typical soil-moisture and suction relationship
Mass Volume

Negative water pressure above WT: us

Ma=0 Gas phase Va
Vv=eVs

Mw=e(Sr/100)Vsw Liquid phase Vｗ=e(Sr/100)Vs

Porosity
M V=(1+e)Vs n Vadose
Ms=sVs=GswVs Soil grains Vs zone

saturated density: M s  M w ( S r  100%) Vs  s  Vv  w  s  e w

 sat   
V (1  e)Vs 1 e Capillary zone
S S
Vs  s  r Vv  w  s  r e w
M  M w ( S r  100%) 100 100
bulk density: t  s   Volumetric moisture content: θ
V (1  e)Vs 1 e
M s  M w ( S r  0%) Vs  s 
dry density: d    s  2019/6/18 GeoEnv_Eng. Dr. Jiro Takemura 10
V (1  e)Vs 1  e 9
2019/6/18
GeoEnv Eng. Dr. Jiro Takemura

Capillary rise and suction

T T
atmospheric pressure
pa
Water (15oC)：
r Height of capillary rise in sediments
T=74dyne/cm
pa 
T T：surface tension  2T / r Sediment Grain Pore radius Capillary rise
Diameter (mm) (mm) (m)
p：water pressure p
  wz Meniscus and pressure difference Fine silt 0.008 0.002 7.5
hc Vertical equilibrium ：
Coarse silt 0.025 0.005 3
z Very fine sand 0.075 0.015 1
pa Fine sand 0.15 0.03 0.5
pr 2 sin 2   2Tr sin 2  Medium sand 0.3 0.06 0.25
Small tube  par 2 sin 2  Coarse sand 0.5 0.1 0.15
2T Very coarse sand 2 0.4 0.04
capillary rise (capillary) suction  p  pa   0 (1) Fine gravel 5 1 0.015
r
2T “Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Handbook”, Ed. R.K. Rowe, KAP,2001
hc  (2) 0
 wr suction
Radius r ~ grain size => the smaller r, the higher hc
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 Classification of geologic formation Classification of saturated ground formation
-saturated ground formation- P2 top
•Aquifer :
/ permeable geologic unit
•Aquifer （帯水層） / contains a significant amount of water
•Aquiclude（不透水層） / transmits significant quantities of water
•Aquitard（難透水層） under ordinary hydraulic gradient.

Note: definitions of term depends on areas of interest, yields economic quantities

e.g.,geology, water-well industry. of water to well

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Classification of saturated ground formation (contn.) Classification of aquifer (1) P3 top

•Aquiclude P2 top
/ contains water but incapable of transmitting it under
ordinary hydraulic gradient. (in geological sense)
•Aquitard
/ less permeable thin layer in a stratigraphic sequence,
which underlies or overlies aquifers.
/ behaves as a thin semi-permeable membrane through
which leakage can occur, often called “leaky formation”
transmitting water in geological sense, but often assumed
impervious in many practices, e.g., not good for well
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•unconsolidated aquifer（未固結）:
/ uncemented granular materials, e.g., sand, gravel.
/ stores water in the interstitial pore space among the grains.
•consolidated aquifer（固結）:
/ permeable sedimentary rocks, e.g., sandstone, limestone,
heavily fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks.
/ stores water primarily in solution channels, fractures and
joints and also in the interstitial pore spaces in dual
porosity rock systems.
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 Classification of aquifer (2) P2 top Confined aquifer and artesian condition
•unconfined, phreatic or water table aquifer（自由地下水層) “Earth” 6th ed.Tarbuck & Lutgens, Prentice Hall, 1999.
/ water table forming the upper boundary near the ground
surface.
/ water directly recharged from the ground surface.
•confined aquifer（不透水層に挟まれた層)
/ confined between two impervious formations (aquitards)
/ artesian condition(被圧状態)： piezometeric head in the
confined aquifer may reach the level above phreatic surface Recharge area Nonflowing
artesian well pressure surface
of the unconfined aquifer.
flowing artesian well
/ flowing artesian conditions: piezometeric head is above pressure surface

ground level. A well in such an aquifer will flow freely

without pumping.(自噴井戸）
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Physical properties of fluid and porous

media to identify aquifer or aquitard Range in values of total porosity
Other hydrogeologic properties and effective porosity
Basic properties
of geologic formation can be Total and effective porosity of unconsolidated sediments are usually
fluid or water derived from these six basic similar, but they may not be similar in lithified sediments of rocks.
•density(密度） ［M/L3］ properties and representative
dimensions of the formations, Total porosity Effective porosity
•viscosity(粘度):  ［M/LT］ Anhydrite （無水石膏） 5x10-3 - 5x10-2 5x10-4 - 5x10-3
ex)
•compressibility(圧縮性): Chalk 5x10-2 - 4x10-1 5x10-4 - 4x10-2
•hydraulic conductivity: K 0 - 4x10-1 1x 10-3 - 5x10-2
 ［LT2/M］ （透水係数）
Limestone, dolomite
Specific storage Sandstone 5x10-2 - 1.5x10-1 5x10-3 - 1x10-1
media or soils •specific storage:Ss Shale （頁岩） 1x10-2 - 1x10-1 5x10-3 - 5x10-2
•porosity: n or void ratio: e •storativity:S Salt 5x10-3 1x10-3
•intrinsic permeability: k •transmissivity:T Granite （花崗岩） 1x10-3 5x10-6
絶対透水係数 Effective porosity:ne P3 Fractured crystalline rock - 5x10-7 - 1x10-4
•compressibility:  ~ mv (有効間隙率） “Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Handbook”, Ed. R.K. Rowe, KAP,2001

P7 middle
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 Hydraulic conductivity Factors affecting permeability
Hydraulic conductivity [L/T] For k value:
P13
•type of soil and conditions of soil: grain size, void ratio, structure
[cm/s, m/s, gal/day/ft2]
Darcy’s law: v = K i + Chemical properties of fluid??
For K value:
Hydraulic gradient i=-dh/dl •type of permeant or pore fluid (:
kg Variety of the higher the viscosity and the lower the density, the lower
K (1) K is not constant value. the hydraulic conductivity
 range
P4,5 Taylor (1948) using Poiseuille’s law
Specific or intrinsic permeability[L2] g e3 Ds: some effective particle diameter
[darcy, cm2, m2, ft2] K  Ds2 C (2) C: shape factor
 (1  e) k0: factor depending on pore shape and ratio
Definition:1 darcy is defined as k that will lead to v=1cm/s for a fluid Kozey-Carman equation of length of actual flow path to soil
with =1cp under a hydraulic gradient that makes the term 1 g e 3 bed thickness
gdh/dl=1atm/cm. 1 darcy ≒10-8cm2. ← petroleum engineering K (3)
k0 S 2  (1  e) S:specific surface area
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2019/6/18

Range of value of Hydraulic Conductivity and intrinsic permeability Hydraulic conductivity of various types of soils
(Freeze and Cherry, 1979) Practically impermeable Very low Low Medium High
Soils
Rocks

Two trends can be

seen in the figure?

Void ratio, e

Hydraulic conductivity K (cm/sec) “Soil Mechanics”

Lamb& Whitman (1979)

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Effects of e and permeant: intrinsic k of kaolinite Effects of e and permeant: intrinsic k of kaolinite
kaolin sample was prepared
in fluid used as the permeant
Water was used as the

permeability k x 1010cm2
molding fluid and the
permeability k x 1010cm2

initial permeant.
After initial permeability
test, each succeeding
permeant displaced the
previous one.

difference in different
permeant is less significant Void ratio e
e3 than the result shown in Soil fabric is created in sedimentation process;
1+e (“Soil Mechanics”,
Lambe & Whiteman,1979)
one page before. different structure in different permeant
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Relationship between void ratio- permeability

(“Soil Mechanics”,
Lambe & Whiteman,1979) Effects of soil composition
Influence of soil composition on K is of
(“Soil Mechanics”,
Hydraulic conductivity K at 20oC (μm/sec)

little importance with silt, sand gravel,

Lambe & Whiteman,1979)
but of significant importance for clay.
Sodium and Potassium ions give
the lowest permeability.

Void ratio e
Na montmorillonite is one of least
permeable soil minerals:
why??
impermeabilizing additive
sandy soil ion exchange capacity(イオン交換能）:
Montmorillonite>> Attapulgite > Kaolinite

Void ratio function Hydraulic conductivity K at 20oC (μm/sec)

The lower the ion exchange capacity
straight relation in e3/(1+e) - K and e -logK of soil, the lower the effect of
clay and sand P5 Hydraulic conductivity K (cm/sec) exchangeable ion on permeability.
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 (“Soil Mechanics”,

Effect of
Lambe & Whiteman,1979)
Effect of degree of saturation Sr
micro level
structure heterogeneity
The effect of Sr is
high

Hydraulic conductivity K (cm/sec)

dispersion very significant, much
Controlled more than the effects

Hydraulic conductivity K
mixing
of reduction of flow
Dispersant(分散剤） channels available for
increase the repulsion polyphosphate dispersant water flow due to air
between fine particles, Complete bubbles.
mixing Molding water content w (%)

increasing double layer

thickness

decreasing permeability
(“Soil Mechanics”,
Water content w (%) Molding water content w (%)
Degree of saturation Sr (%)
Lambe & Whiteman,1979)
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Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of K

Home work 1
Heterogeneity(不均質性)
K usually shows variations through space in a geologic
Interpret the figures on the factors
formation. heterogeneous (不均質）
influencing permeability
(K: independent of position homogeneous （均質))
(intrinsic permeability & hydraulic conductivity)
What you can see in the figures? Types of heterogeneity:
What are the possible reasons or mechanism for those? •layered heterogeneity: sedimentary rock, P6
lacustrine (湖成)and marine（海成) deposits
•discontinuous heterogeneity: faults, contact on bedrock
•trending heterogeneity: deltas, alluvial fans and
Due: June 21 glacial outwash plains
2-3 orders of magnitude in a few miles
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 Heterogeneity of K Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of K(contn.)
Distribution of K in a geologic formation: Anisotropy(異方性）
(for internal heterogeneity)  K varies with the direction of measurement at a point
log-normal distribution in a geologic formation. Anisotropic（異方）
common standard deviation  of K: independent of the direction isotropic（等方）
log K in homogeneous formation: z Principal directions of anisotropy:
mean log K direction in space at which K attains
0.5-1.5 → internal variation of 1-2 order K()
its max. and min. values. The max and min
Trending heterogeneity = trend of the mean value of K  directions are perpendicular to the other
x and so is intermediate direction(3D) to the others.
Definition of heterogeneity of K
The principal directions → xyz coordinate directions
(= mean value of K in probability distribution)
isotropy: Kx=Ky=Kz anisotropy: Kx≠Ky≠Kz
Condition for K being constant everywhere : uniform
such as test specimen of glass beads of an identical diameter in horizontally bedded sedimentary deposits
Kx=Ky≠Kz :transversely isotropic
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Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of K Relationship between layered

P6 bottom
heterogeneity and anisotropy
P6 middle
four possible systems in 2D d1 K1
Kz
d2 K2
d Kx
•Homogeneous, isotropic : Kx(x,z)=Kz(x,z)=C for all (x,z) z
• Homogeneous, anisotropic : dn Kn x

Kx(x,z)=C1 for all (x,z) , Kz(x,z)=C2 for all (x,z), C1≠C2 From Darcy’s law and continuous cond.
• Heterogeneous, isotropic: Kx(x,z)=Kz(x,z)=C(x,z) d
Kz  n (4)
(ex) K1=104, K2=102 K1=104, K2=1
• Heterogeneous, anisotropic: d
i 1
i / Ki
Kx/Kz=25 Kx/Kz=2500
Kx(x,z)=C1(x,z) , Kz(x,z)=C2 (x,z), C1≠C2
n
K i d i (5) Heterogeneity and anisotropy depend
Kx  
i 1 d on the size of area in consideration
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 Transmissivity and storativity
透水量係数 貯留係数 Transmissivity and storativity (contn.)
Specific storage（被貯留係数） Ss of saturated aquifer: [1/L] in a confined aquifer aquitard
the volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer (VT=1) releases •Transmissivity
from storage under a unit decline in hydraulic head (h=-1). T=K b [L2/T] (9) aquifer b
•Storativity (storage coefficient)
Decrease of decrease in fluid pressure u P7 S=Ss b [ND] (10) aquitard
hydraulic head increase in effective stress  bottom
Efficiency of pumping: rate
ground water cleanup quantity
Water released ①compression of aquifer by Vw1  VT 
T and S are widely used in water well industry in US.
from aquifer with    gh  Vw1  g (6) T > 0.015m2/s : good aquifer for water well exploitation
VT=1 and h=-1 ②expansion of water by u: Vw 2   Vw u S ranges 0.005-0.0005
Vw  nVt , u  gh  Vw 2  ng (7)
: p7 middle T and S are useful for 2D analysis. For 3D, K or Ss better
S s  g (  n ) (8)
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Transmissivity and storativity (contn.) Equation of transient saturate flow

mass rate of flow across a unit cross sectional area
in a unconfined aquifer P7 bottom Equation of continuity: 
v z  vz  
mass conservation z v y  v y 
•Specific yield (unconfined storativity) :Sy(比産出量、比進出量） the rate of fluid mass flow into y
the volume of water that an unconfined aquifer releases from elemental control volume (ECV)
= the rate of fluid mass flow out of ECV v x 
storage per unit surface area per unit decline in the water table. v x  vx 
+ change of mass in unit time x
Sy ranges 0.01-0.30 highly depending on porosity and grain size v y
 ( n) v z

including actual dewatering from pore. t
elemental control volume
  v x   v y    v z    n 
•Specific retention :St (=n - Sy) （比残留量）
the volume of water retained in unit volume under the     (12)
x y z t
influence of gravity
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 Equations on transient saturate flow, cont. Equations on transient saturate flow, cont.
  v x   v y    v z   n 
 v   v   v 
 
y
 S
h
   n  (14)
x z
(13) x y z
s
t
x y z t t
Expanding the left terms by chain rule + vi i   vi  i
mass rate of water produced by mass rate of water produced by
+ Darcy’s law P7 middle:  is 4.4x10-4 m2/MN
an expansion of the water under the compaction of porous medium
a change in its density . as reflected by the change in its Equation of of transient flow through a saturated anisotropic porous medium
porosity n.
  h    h    h  h
controlled by controlled by  K x    K y    K z   S s
x  x  y  y  z  z  t (15)
fluid compressibility  aquifer or soil compressibility 
change in  and n are both caused by a change in hydraulic head h In case of homogeneous and isotropic medium
Mass rate of water produced (time rate of change of fluid mass storage) is  2 h  2 h  2 h S s h
   (16)
S s h t S s  g   n  (8) x 2 y 2 z 2 K t
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Equations on transient saturate flow, cont. Well equations

(16) => “ diffusion equation” Transformation of diffusion equation from Cartesian coordinates
to polar coordinates
 2 h  2 h  2 h g   n  h
   (17) y
x 2 y 2 z 2 K t  2 h  2 h  2 h 1 h 1  2 h S h
     (19) r
To obtain the solution h(x,y,x,t),the three basic hydrogeological x 2 y 2 r 2 r r r 2  2 T t 
x
parameters: K,,n and three fluid parameters: ， and  are
needed. kg In case of well, radial flow can be assumed, where h is the function
K of r only.
 h  h
2

For the special case of a horizontal confined aquifer (2D) of thickness b,  0 => eq.(19)
  2
S=Ssb and T=Kb, the three dimensional form eq.(17) becomes
 2 h  2 h S h  2 h 1 h S h
  (18) S,T: input parameter   (20)
x 2 y 2 T t r 2 r r T t
for solution
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 Radial flow toward a well in confined aquifer
Hydraulic Groundwater flow
head in aquifer Q

h1
h2
impermeable
Ground water flow in water balance on Earth
hw 2rw Datum
r1
b r2

impermeable

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Earth water balance

Major influences on groundwater flow
Meteorology
（気象学）
• Precipitation: infiltrating ground and recharging aquifers
• Gravity: causing flow and eventually discharging to
springs, rivers and oceans
• Topology: controlling the surface flow,etc.
Hydrology P8 top
（水文学） • Climate: evapotranspiration, melts of snow
Oceanography
（海洋学） In mid-latitude region,
groundwater recharge is the most likely to occur in spring.
snow melts, high precipitation and low evapotranspiration
Hydrogeology P9 top
（水文地質学） In summer, evapotranspiration and
“Earth” 6th ed. Tarbuck & Lutgens, Prentice Hall, 1999 soil moisture requirements use all infiltrating water.
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 Groundwater flow system Effects of pumping on flow
•Local flow: nearby discharge area, •Pump and treat system:
P8 bottom
e.g., ponds and streams one of the common remediation techniques
•Regional flow: travelling greater distance and discharging Pumping groundwater causes
into oceans, large lakes and rivers complex perturbations in flow
even at a site with relatively simple hydrogeology.
Typical watershed, recharge area,
is grater than the discharge area， Placement of the wells (relative to the direction of ground
5-30 % of the watershed. water flow) is critical in determining the flow from recharge
well to discharge well.
P9 bottom

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Geochemistry
Flow net around recharge (R) and discharge (D) wells
Contaminants entering subsurface are subject to control
not only by the aquifer’s physical properties,
but also by geochemical actions.
•Dissolution(溶解) - Precipitation（沈殿） p10 top
•Oxidation（酸化） - Reduction（還元) Redox p11 top
D R D R
•Sorption (吸着） - Desorption （脱着）
concentration in
•Ion exchange（イオン交換） chemical equilibrium
•Complexation（化学合成)

Influence on the operation various form of toxic chemicals

Contaminated area Direction of natural p10 bottom
of aquifer clean-up systems
ground water flow
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 Chemical equilibrium
Geochemistry(contn.)
bB  cC 
 dD  eE (21)
reactants products
Back ground values：（もともとの値）
where b,c,d and e are the number of moles of the chemical
(original values of chemical composition of the site) are constituents B,C,D and E
important in any assessment and treatment of ground water The law of mass action express the relation between the reactants
system. and the products when the reaction is at equilibrium,
• Classification of ground water:
K
D  E 
d e
(22) [ ]: thermodynamically effective
• Dissociation(解離) reactions from soil minerals to simple ions Bb C c concentration of the constituent: activity

p11 top mi:molality

• Chemistry of precipitation.
p11 bottom
activity ai  mi i (23) i:activity coefficient =f(I)
（降雨、降雪) 1 p12
Ionic strength : I 
2
 mi zi
valence
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Concentration units Ground water classification based on

Molality: the number of moles of solute dissolved in a 1-kg mass of
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
solution. (mol/kg) one mole <= one molecular weight category TDS (mg/l or g/m3)
Molarity: the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1m3 of units of
solution. (mol/m3) 1mol/ m3=1mmol/l Fresh water 0-1,000 concentration
Mass concentration: the mass of solute dissolved in a specified unit
volume of solution. (kg/m3, g/l) Brackish water 1,000-10,000
Equivalents per liter: the number of moles of solute multiplied by Saline water 10,000-100,000
the valence of the solute species in liter of solution (epl)
Equivalents per million: the number of moles of solute multiplied Brine water more than 100,000
by the valence of the solute species in 106g of solution (epm)
Parts per million: the number of grams of solute per million grams The TDS of sea water: 35,000mg/l
of solution (ppm). Six major inorganic ions in ground water:
Mole fraction: the ratio of the number of moles of a given solute Na+, Mg+, Ca+, Cl-, HCO3-, SO42-
species to the total number of moles of all components in the normally more than 90% of TDS
solutions. p12 top left
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Various environmental problems associated with
open excavation with retaining wall Environmental Assessment
Long term after construction: on underground construction works
cutoff of ground water flow Settlement due
Settlement due to to wall
consolidation
（rising G.W.T.）
Deep well
deflection and
consolidation （lowering G.W.T.） • Effects of UGC on ground water
Well
struts
flow pattern, wells,
• Excavated soils => wastes??
Wall
lowering
groundwater Alluvial clay (soils, industrial waste, hazardous soils)
Heaving

1st Aquifer sand • Impacts of construction works on the

G.W.F. Pleistocene clay surrounding environments
2nd Aquifer Gravel impacts?? crucial conditions for them??
Earth pressures
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Map of Tokyo Ground water flow at the route of circuit highway

Effects of long large UGS
Highly populated area Gaikan
(Outer ring)
Saitama Prefecture Saitama Prefecture

Flow of phreatic aquifer

No space for highway
construction above
ground

Tunnel with large

cross section is only Flow of
feasible way for confined aquifer
Large tunnel dia. >14m
completion of ring Highway route Highway route
highway
Kanagawa Pre. Kanagawa Pre.

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Effect of underground structure on ground water flows Plane and cross section at a under pass tunnel
Flow Interruption（地下水流動阻害） construction site: after Sugimoto
Ground Old river portion
Map of Tokyo water flow

Rising water table

Under pass Kanpachi
construction.
tunnel Draw down

Kanpachi(環八） railway Observational wells

Soil Mixing Wall
impervious tunnel

1st aquifer
2nd aquifer
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Countermeasures against ground water Change of ground water level:1

lowering After construction of After operation of
Before construction:1989.2
SMW: 1993.6 base pipe : 1994.11

Kanpachi

US DS

tunnel

Countermeasure in design Countermeasure added

Rising at US
Water pipe at base slab in construction stage Continuous change of G.W.L. Small lowering at US
Water pipe above tunnel Lowering at DS and rising of W.L.at DS
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 Change of ground water level:2
After removal of After operation of
SMW : 1997.2 base pipe : 1998.2

Rising of W.L. but still some gap between up and down stream
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