Hydrology: MR Wan Afnizan Bin Wan Mohamed

HYDROLOGY
(BFC 3092)
By:-
MR WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Wan Afnizan b Wanafnizan@uthm.edu.my
e-mail: Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
CHAPTER 8
GROUNDWATER
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

KAP ; FKAAS
CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION
 MAIN PRINCIPLE OF GROUNDWATER FLOW
 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER STORAGE
 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
 ONE DIMENSIONAL GROUNDWATER

FLOW IN STEADY CONDITION
 STEADY STATE FLOW EQUATION
 CONFINED FLOW TO A WELL
 UNCONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

KAP ; FKAAS
CONTENT
... Cont ‘
 PUMPING TEST
 CONFINED AQUIFER PUMPING TESTS
 UNCONFINED AQUIFER PUMPING TESTS
 RECHARGE WELLS
 APPLICATION OF GROUNDWATER
FLOW

KAP ; FKAAS
INTRODUCTION
 Factors influenced amount of groundwater :-
 Type of land surface.

- Porous  40 to 50 % water seep
- Less porous  5 to 20 % water seep
 Season.

KAP ; FKAAS
INTRODUCTION
GROUNDWATER CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
Table 8.1 : Groundwater classification

Soil water zone Soil water
Intermediate Intermediate
Zone of aeration zone zone water
Zone of
fissured Capillary
Capillary zone
rocks water Water in
Groundwater voids in
Zone of rocks
(phreatic
saturation (pore,
water)
fissure,
cavern
water)
Zone of rock flowage Deep water

KAP ; FKAAS
INTRODUCTION

KAP ; FKAAS
Figure 8.1: Groundwater classification
INTRODUCTION
Figure 8.2: Groundwater sources

KAP ; FKAAS
?
MAIN PRINCIPLE OF
GROUNDWATER FLOW
What
is
Aquifer

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Aquifer  Water-bearing soil / rock formation  capable

yielding water.
 Mix clay, sand gravel & fine particles   water.
 Coarse-grain   water.
 Two categories :-
 Confined / Artesian Aquifer
 Unconfined / Water Table Aquifer

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
Figure 8.3 : Aquifer

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
CONFINED AQUIFER
Figure 8.4 : Confined aquifer

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
CONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Confined aquifer  groundwater trapped under

impermeable soil / rock  pressure exist !!
 If water rise above aquifer level  ‘Artesian well’

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Figure 8.5
Wan : Unconfined
Afnizan aquifer
b Wan Mohamed ;J
KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Unconfined aquifer  not confined under pressure.
 Water level inside well = outside well.
 Zone  3 parts :-
 Saturated
 Unsaturated
 Water Table

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
1. SATURATED ZONE
 Pores filled with water.

 Typically includes numerous water-filled  crevices (upper
layer of bedrock)

Figure 8.6
KAP : Saturated zone
; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
2. UNSATURATED ZONE
 Between water level & land surface  pores partially

filled with water.
 Cannot provide water for well.

Figure 8.7
KAP : Unsaturated zone
; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
2. UNSATURATED ZONE

Figure 8.8 : KAP ; FKAASzone (enlarged)
Unsaturated
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE
 At top of saturated zone.
 Rise & fall  according to the season.

KAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE

Figure 8.9 :KAP
Water table (normal & drought)
; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE
Figure 8.10 : Illustration of water table

(normalKAP
& ;drought)
FKAAS
GROUNDWATER PARAMETERS
STORAGE
 Four important parameters for groundwater storage :-
 Porosity, n
 Specific Retention, Sr
 Specific Yield, Sy
 Storage Coefficient, S

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. POROSITY, 
 Capacity of soil / rock to hold water.
 Clay  not good water resource (small size openings)

Figure 8.11KAP
: Porosity
; FKAAS at various type of layers
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. POROSITY, 
which :-
Vv Vv
 e
Vt Vs
OR
d 
1 e
s 1

Figure 8.12 : Three phase diagram
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. POROSITY, 
which ;
 = Porosity
e = Void ratio
Vt = Total soil volume
Vs = Dry soil volume
d = Dry (bulk) density
s = Grain density

KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 8.1
A sample of sandy soil is collected from an aquifer.

The sample with a volume of 50 cm3 is filled with the
soil. When the soil is poured into a graduated
cylinder, it displaces 30.5 cm3 of water. What are
the porosity and the void ratio of the sand ?
Given :
Vt = 50 cm3
Vs = 30.5 cm3
 ??? e ???
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
Known that ;
Vv

Vt
 Find Vv first ;
Vv = Vt – Vs
Vv = 50 – 30.5
Vv = 19.5 cm3
Thus ;
Vv

Vt
19.5
 Wan
 Afnizan
 0.39 orMohamed
b Wan 39% ; J
KAP50
; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Cont ‘
Known that ;

e
1 
0.39
e
1  0.39
e  0.64

KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 8.2
A soil sample occupies 0.132 ft3. When dried,

it weights 15.8 lb. If the specific gravity of
soil solids is 2.65, calculate the bulk density
of the soil and the porosity of the soil ?
Given :
Vt = 0.132 ft3
Ws = 15.8 Ib
Gs = 2.65
s ???  ???
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
Bulk density of soil, s ;
b
s 
g
 Find b first ;
b  Gs w
 b  ( 2.65)(62.4)
 b  165.36 Ib/ft 3
165.36
Thus ; s 
32.2
Wan
 5 . 14
Afnizan b Wan 2
Ib/ft Mohamed ; J
s ; FKAAS
KAP
Soil porosity,  ;
d
  1 Ws
s d 
V
 Find d first ; 15.8
d 
0.132
d
d   d  119 .7 Ib/ft 3
g
d
d 
g
119 .7
d 
32.2
2
 d  3
Wan Afnizan . 72 Ib/ft
b Wan Mohamed ; J
KAP ; FKAAS
Soil porosity,  ;
Thus ;
3.72
 1
5.14
  0.276 or 27.6%

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
2. SPECIFIC RETENTION, Sr
 Volume of water retained against gravity force compared to
the total volume of soil.
 Formula :-
Wr
Sr  ……. 9.1
V
Where ;
Wr = Volume of water retained

V = Total of water volume

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Capillary pressure, Pc
Specific retention
Volumetric-moisture content, 
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Ground level
Height above water table

For level-1
For level-2
Amount of water
Level-1 drained off
Level-1
Level-2
Level-2
Volumetric-moisture content (%)

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
3. SPECIFIC YIELD, Sy
 Volume of water released from storage in a water table
aquifer per unit horizontal area of aquifer with unit decline
of water table.
 Formula :-
1 dv
Sy  . or S y  n  S r ……. 9.2
Where ;
A dh
Sy = Specific yield
Sr = Specific retention
A = Area of soil formation
dv = Volume of water drained
dh = Change in bwater
Wan Afnizan table ; J
Wan Mohamed
 = Porosity
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Specific Yield
Material
(%)
Gravel, coarse …………………. …………….. 23

Gravel, medium ……………….. ……………. 24
Gravel, fine …………………….. …………….. 25
Sand, coarse …………………… …………….. 27
Sand, medium …………………. …………….. 28
Sand, fine ………………………. …………….. 23
Silt ………………………………. …………….. 8
Clay …………………………….. ……………. 3
Sandstone, fine-grained ………. ……………. 21
Sandstone, medium-grained …. ……………. 27
Limstone ………………………... ……………. 14
Dune sand ……………………… ……………. 38
Loess ……………………………. ……………. 18
Peat ……………………………... ……………. 44
Schist …………………………… ……………. 26
Sillstone ………………………… …………….. 12
Till, predominantly silt …………. ……………. 6
Till, predominantly sand ………. ……………. 16
Till, predominantly gravel ……... ……………. 16
Tuff Wan Afnizan b Wan……………..
Mohamed ; J 21
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Figure 8.10 : Specific yield for various materials

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

(For confined aquifer)
 Volume of water that is released or taken into storage per

unit head fluctuate.
 1 1 
S   w b   
E w E s 
Storage Coefficient
S  gb    
S Specific Storage
Ss  (Jacob)
b
S s   w Wan
1 Afnizan
 b   (DeWeist)
Wan Mohamed ;J
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

(For confined aquifer)
S = Storage coefficient
b = Thickness of aquifer
 = Porosity
w = Specific gravity of water
Ew = Bulk modulus of elasticity of water
(3105 psi at ordinary temperature)
Es = Bulk modulus of elasticity of soil solids
 = Aquifer compressibility (1/Es)
 = Water compressibility (1/Ew)
Ss = Specific storage

KAP ; FKAAS
MOVEMENT
 Three important parameters for groundwater storage :-
 Hydraulic Conductivity, K
 Transmissivity, T
 Coefficient of Leakage, Le

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, K
 Rate of water flow through opening soil / rock.
  K  less water seeps.
 Unit : m/day or m/year.

K k OR q = Ki

K = hydraulic conductivity
k = intrinsic permeability (refer Table 8.2)
 = specific weight of fluid
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid
q = specific discharge
i = hydraulic gradient = h/L
KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, K
Parameter Unit Unit Conversion

(multiply by)
Intrinsic Darcy cm2 ft2
permeability
1 Darcy 0.987  10-8 1.062  10-11
Hydraulic Meinzer or
ft/day m/day
conductivity gpd/ft2
1 Meinzer 0.134 0.041
Transmissivity gpd/ft ft2/day m2/day
1 gpd/ft 0.134 0.0124

KAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
2. TRANSMISSIVITY, T
 Capability of water passes through media (in aquifer).
 Unit : m2/day or m2/year or m2/sec.
 Formula :-
T  bK ……. 9.3
Where ;
b = Aquifer thickness (m/s)

K = Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 9.1
Permeability, K, of the confined aquifer

system at Pekan Nenas, Pahang is 240 m/day
and transmissivity, T is 1200 m2/day.
Calculate the thickness, b of confined aquifer.
Given :
K = 240 m/day
T = 1200 m2/day
b ???

KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
T  Kb
1200  ( 240)(b )
b  5m

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
DISCHARGE POINTS
 Enter at recharge area  leave at discharge point.
 Discharge points ???  as seepage into wetlands / lakes /

stream.
 Example visible discharge point  springs !!!
 Growing season  water table close to land surface 

absorb by plant.

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
... Cont ‘ DISCHARGE POINTS
Discharge point
Figure 8.11 : Groundwater discharge points

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
FLOW RATES
 Moves very slow to discharge points.
 Long distance  movement may take years / decades /

centuries.
 Faster in large rock openings / crevices.
 Moves in parallel & slow   turbulence occur 

important factor to trace contaminants.

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
FLOW RATES
... Cont ‘
Figure 8.12 : Groundwater flow rates

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
GAINING STREAMS
 Gaining stream ??  receive groundwater discharge.
 Stream water level  influence by water table level

(aquifer)
 Why lakes / wetlands still wet during dry season ???

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
GAINING STREAMS
... Cont ‘
Figure 8.13 : Gaining stream

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
WELLS : CONE OF DEPRESSION
 Pumping  Water table become  near well.
 Area of influence  Land surface overlying cone of

depression.

Figure
KAP8.14 : Cone of depression
; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
WELLS : INDUCED RECHARGE
 Pumping  Extent cone of depression to nearby stream.
 What will happen ???  lower stream water level

(recharge point)  effect = stream dried up.

Figure
KAP8.15 : Induced recharge
; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
WELLS : CONTRIBUTION ZONE
 Recharge area  source of water  contribution zone.
 Pumping  extend area of influence beyond the

contribution zone  no water inside well.

Figure
KAP8.16 : Contribution zone
; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
DRAINAGE AREA
 Groundwater (unconfined aquifer)  will be drained into

stream.
 Groundwater (confined aquifer)  not correspond with

surface drainage.

Figure
KAP ; 8.17
FKAAS: Drainage area
GROUNDWATER THEORY
GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
 Interpolate water table between measurement points.

KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 9.2
Figure below shows groundwater movement

between 2 points. The hydraulic conductivity is
10-4 m/s and the porosity is 0.3. Assuming the
material is homogeneous (spatially the same),
calculate the groundwater velocity.
Given :
K = 1  10-4 m/s
n = 0.3
v ???
KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 9.2
... Cont ‘
140
m
100 m
130
m

KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
Flow within pores of soil :-
Q  nAv ……. (i)

Where;
n = Porosity
A = Area of flow
V = Velocity of flow
According Darcy law, flow can be calculated

using this formula :-
h
QK .A ……. (ii)
Wan Afnizan  L Mohamed ; J
b Wan
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
... Cont ‘
Where;
K = Permeability
h = Height difference
L = Length difference
Equally both equation (i) & (ii) :-

h
nAv  K A
L
K h
v .
n L
(1  10 4 ) (140  130)

v .
0.3 100
Wan Afnizan b 
Wan
5 Mohamed ; J
v  3.3  10 m / s
KAP ; FKAAS
Let’s take a break!!!

KAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER FLOW ANALYSIS
ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Datum
Figure 8.18 : Simple column

KAP ; FKAAS

... Cont ‘
 Flow rate, Q can be calculated using :-
h
Q  KA
L ……. 9.4
Where ;

A = Flow area perpendicular to L (m2)
h = Hydraulic head difference (m)
L = Flow path length (m)
KAP ; FKAAS

... Cont ‘
 The hydraulic head, h can be calculated using ;
P
h z
g ……. 9.5
Where ;
P = Water pressure (N/m2)

 = Water density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration of gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
z = Elevation (m)
KAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
 Darcy’s equation  derive simple mathematical expression for

flow regime in the ground.
 Assume two-dimensional radial flow.
 Condition in well & ground  equilibrium (discharge

constant, drawdown & radius of influence stabilized).
 Condition is divided into two (at steady state) :-
 Steady UNCONFINED radial flow toward a well

 Steady CONFINED radial flow toward a well

KAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
... Cont ‘
 Condition at unsteady state :-
 Unsteady UNCONFINED radial flow toward a well

 Unsteady CONFINED radial flow toward a well

KAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
... Cont ‘
1. STEADY UNCONFINED FLOW
 Assumptions made :-
 Flow is radial
 Original water table is horizontal
 Well is fully penetrated
 At steady state conditions.

KAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t WELL HYDRAULIC
r2
r1
Ground
Observation
Original water table wells
S dx
dy
Cone of depression b
Drawdown
hw y h1 h2 h0
Pumped well
Impervious x
stratum
Figure 8.19
KAP ; :FKAAS
Well in an unconfined aquifer

 Formula to calculate flow rate :-
K ( h 2 2  h12 )
Q
r 
ln  2 
 r1  ……. 9.6
Where;

h1 = Hydraulic head at observation well 1 (m)
r1 = Radial distance from observation well 1 to pumped well (m)
KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 9.3
A 24 cm well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer

of 35 m depth. Two observation wells located 30 m
and 80 m from the pumped well are known to have
drawdown of 8 m and 7.5 m, respectively. If the
flow is steady and K = 200 m/day, find the discharge
from the well.
Given :
r1 = 30 m S1 = 8 m
r2 = 80 m S2 = 7.5 m
K = 200 m/day b = 35 m
KAP ; FKAAS
Q ???
SOLUTION
Using steady confined aquifer flow formula ;
K ( h 2 2  h12 )
Q
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Find h2 & h1 ;
h1 = b – S1
h1 = 35 – 8 = 27 m
h2 = b – S2
h2 = 35 – 7.5 = 27.5 m
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
... Con’t
Therefore ;
(  )( 200) ( 27.5 2  27 2 )
Q
 80 
ln  
 30 
Q  17,456 m 3 /day OR
m3 1 day
Q  17,456 
day 24  60  60 s
Q  0.202 m 3 /sec

KAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
2. STEADY CONFINED FLOW

r2
Observation
r1 wells
Ground
Original
S1 S2 piezometric
Pumped well surface
x
Piezometric surface
y h1 h2 h0
Aquifer
Impervious
thickness
strata

FigureKAP
8.20 : Well in an confined
; FKAAS aquifer
2. STEADY CONFINED FLOW
 Formula to calculate flow rate :-

( h 2  h1 )
Q  2Kb
r 
ln 2 
 r1  ……. 9.7
Where;

b = Aquifer thickness (m)
Wan
r2 = Radial distance Afnizan
from b Wan Mohamed
observation well; J2 to pumped well (m)
KAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 9.4
Find the permeability of an artesian aquifer being

pumped by a fully penetrating well. The aquifer is 33
m thick and composed of medium sand. The steady-
state pumping rate is 0.07 m3/s. The drawdown at an
observation well 18 m away is 3.5 m; in a second
observation well 180 m away, it is 0.5 m.
Given :
r1 = 18 m S1 = 3.5 m
r2 = 180 m S2 = 0.5 m
Q = 0.07 m 3
/s b = 33 m
KAP ; FKAAS
K ???
SOLUTION
Using steady confined aquifer flow formula ;
( h 2  h1 )
Q  2Kb
r 
ln 2 
 r1 
Find h2 & h1 ;
h1 = b – S1
h1 = 33 – 3.5 = 29.5 m
h2 = b – S2
h2 = 33 – 0.5 = 32.5 m
KAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
... Con’t
Therefore ;
( 2)(  )(K ) (33)( 32.5  29.5)
0.07 
 180 
ln  
 18 
K  2.59  10  4 m/s OR
m 24  60  60 s
K  2.59  10  4 
s 1 day
K  22.38 m/day

KAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
3. UNSTEADY CONFINED FLOW (Theis formula)
 Formula to drawdown :-
Q
s W (u )
4T ……. 9.8
 W (u) formula can be determined through :-

2
r S
u
4Tt ……. 9.9
hence ;
u2 u3
W(u )  0.5772  ln(u )  u 
  ... …. 9.10
KAP ; FKAAS 2( 2! ) 3( 3! )
3. UNSTEADY CONFINED FLOW
S  S sb …. 9.11
Where;
s = Drawdown (m/s)
Q = Pumping rate (m3/s)
T = Transmissivity (m2/s)
W(u) = Well function
u = Dimensionless time parameter
r = Radial distance from observation well to pumped well (m)
S = Storativity
t = Time since pumping began (seconds)
Ss = Specific storage
KAP ; FKAAS
b = = Aquifer thickness (m)
PUMPING TEST
 Objective  capability of aquifer to provide water.
 How ???  measure hydraulic CONDUCTIVITY &

TRANSMISSIVITY.
 Then ???  Plot drawdown (S) vs time.

KAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t PUMPING TEST
Wan Afnizan b Wan

Figure 8.21 : Measurement of Mohamed
Q during; J pumping test
KAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t PUMPING TEST
(m) 4
3 s2 = 3.1 m
Susutan (m)
Drawdown
s
2
s1 = 1.37 m
1
1 cycle
log to = - 0.76
0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Logtime
Log masa (jam)
(hour)
Figure 8.22 : Step to get K value from
KAP ; FKAAS pumping test
DRAWDOWN CONES IN IDEAL AQUIFERS

Figure 8.23KAP
: Drawdown
; FKAAS cones in ideal aquifer
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT
SCALE OF AQUIFER, WELL POINT

MEASUREMENT AQUITARD
SYSTEM
Tests Pumping Test Single well Lab

response tests Permeameter
tests
Covered Area Complex, Aquifer specific Point

intergrates over 0.1-1 m radius measurement
100-10000 m3 0.001 m3
Typical Use Water Supply Contaminant Contaminant

Hydrology Hydrogeology Hydrogeology

KAP ; FKAAS
RECHARGE WELLS
Construction includes :-
 Construct the holes
 Installations
 Pumping tests (Quantity)
 Pre-development well
 Chemical tests (Quality)

KAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t RECHARGE WELLS

FigureKAP
8.24 : The ideal recharge
; FKAAS well
Figure 8.25 :bJetting

Wan Afnizan technique
Wan Mohamed ;J
KAP ; FKAAS
Figure 8.26 : Rotary wash boring method

KAP ; FKAAS
Figure 8.27 : Groundwater

Wan Afnizan b Wanfrom confined
Mohamed ;J aquifer
KAP ; FKAAS
TIME’S UP …
THANK YOU
KAP ; FKAAS

Hydrology: MR Wan Afnizan Bin Wan Mohamed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydrology: MR Wan Afnizan Bin Wan Mohamed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HYDROLOGY

MR WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

 ONE DIMENSIONAL GROUNDWATER

 CONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

 UNCONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Factors influenced amount of groundwater :-

 Type of land surface.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Table 8.1 : Groundwater classification

Zone of rock flowage Deep water

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 8.2: Groundwater sources

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Aquifer  Water-bearing soil / rock formation  capable

 Mix clay, sand gravel & fine particles   water.

 Confined / Artesian Aquifer

 Unconfined / Water Table Aquifer

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 8.3 : Aquifer

Figure 8.4 : Confined aquifer

 Confined aquifer  groundwater trapped under

 If water rise above aquifer level  ‘Artesian well’

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Unconfined aquifer  not confined under pressure.

 Water level inside well = outside well.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Pores filled with water.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Between water level & land surface  pores partially

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 At top of saturated zone.

 Rise & fall  according to the season.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Figure 8.10 : Illustration of water table

 Four important parameters for groundwater storage :-

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

 Capacity of soil / rock to hold water.

 Clay  not good water resource (small size openings)

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

A sample of sandy soil is collected from an aquifer.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

A soil sample occupies 0.132 ft3. When dried,

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Wr = Volume of water retained

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Height above water table

Volumetric-moisture content (%)

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J

Gravel, coarse …………………. …………….. 23

Figure 8.10 : Specific yield for various materials

4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

 Volume of water that is released or taken into storage per

4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ; J