FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION
Carrier Deviation
Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM) – A sine wave carrier
can be modified for the purpose of transmitting
information from one place to another by varying
its frequency.
- The carrier amplitude remains constant and
the carrier frequency is change by the
modulating signal.
- As the modulating signal increases, the
carrier frequency increases.
- Resting Frequency – with no modulation, the
carrier is at its normal center.
Frequency Deviation (fd) – is the amount of change
in carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal.
Frequency Deviation Rate – is how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above or
below its center frequency.
- The frequency of the modulating signal
determines the frequency deviation rate.
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) – is used in transmission
of binary data in digital cellphones and low speed
computer modems.
Principles of Phase Modulation
Phase-Modulation Signal (PM) – when the amount
of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is
varied in accordance with a modulating signal, the
resulting output is a PM signal.
- Phase modulators produce a phase shift
which is a time separation between two sine
waves of the same frequency.
- The greater the amplitude of the modulating
signal, the greater the phase shift.
- The maximum frequency deviation
produced by a phase modulator occur
during the time that the modulating signal is
changing at its rapid rate.
Relationship between the Modulating Signal and
- In FM & PM, the frequency deviation is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
- In PM, the maximum amount of leading or
lagging phase shift occurs at the peak
amplitudes of the modulating signal.
- In PM, the carrier deviation is proportional to
both the modulating frequency and the
amplitude.
Converting PM into FM
- In order to make PM compatible with FM,
the deviation produced by frequency
variations in the modulating signal must be
compensated for.
- This compensation can be accomplished by
passing the intelligence signal through a low-
pass RC network.
- This RC low-pass filter is called as Frequency-
Correcting Network/ Predistorter/ or 1/f Filter
and causes the higher modulating
frequencies to be attenuated.
- Indirect FM - the FM produced by a phase
modulator.
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) or Binary Phase-Shift Keying
(BPSK) – The process of phase modulating a carrier
with binary data.
- The PSK Signal has a constant frequency, but
the phase of the signal from some reference
changes as the binary modulating signal
occurs.
 Modulation Index and Sidebands

- Any modulation process produces

sidebands.
- When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies
are produced.
- Side frequencies are the sum and difference
of the carrier and modulating frequency.
- The bandwidth of an FM Signal is usually
much wider than that of an AM Signal with
the same modulating signal.

Modulation Index - The symbol ! means factorial.

Modulation Index (mf) – The ratio of the frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency.
- In most communication systems using FM,
maximum limits are put on both the
frequency deviation and the modulating
frequency.
- In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum
permitted deviation is 75 kHz and the
minimum permitted modulating frequency is
15 kHz.
- The modulation index for standard FM
broadcasting is therefore 5.
Basic Functions
Bessel Functions – The equation that expresses the
phase angle in terms of the sine wave modulating
signal is solved with a complex mathematical
process.
Narrowband FM (NBFM) – is any FM system in which
the modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57 or mf <
π/2.
- NBFM is widely used in communication. It
conserves spectrum space at the expense of
the signal-to-noise ratio.
FM Signal Bandwidth
- The higher the modulation index in FM, the
greater the number of significant sidebands
and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.
- When spectrum conservation is necessary,
the bandwidth of an FM Signal can be
restricted by putting an upper limit on the
modulation index.

- Bessel coefficient are widely available and it

is not necessary to memorize or calculate
them.

Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Noise – is interference generated by lightning,

motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line
switching that produces transient signals.

- Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage

with high frequencies.
- Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
 - Some noise completely obliterates signal during transmission so that they will be
information. stronger and not masked by noise.
- FM signals have a constant modulated
carrier amplitude.
- FM receivers contain limiter circuits that
deliberately restrict the amplitude of the
received signal.
- Any amplitude variations occurring on the
FM Signal are effectively clipped by limiter
circuits.
- This amplitude clipping does not affect the
information content of the FM Signal since, it
is contained solely within the frequency
variations of the carrier. Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
Preemphasis Advantages of FM
- Noise can interfere with an FM and - FM typically offers some significant benefits
particularly with the high-frequency over AM.
components of the modulating signal. - FM has superior immunity to noise, made
- Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and possible by clipper limiter circuits in the
contains a lot of harmonics and other high receiver.
frequency components. - Capture Effect - In FM, interfering signals on
Preemphasis – A technique known is used to the same frequency are rejected.
overcome high frequency noise. - FM Signals have a constant amplitude and
there is no need to use linear amplifiers to
- A simple high-pass filter can serve as a increase power levels. This increases
transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit. transmitter efficiency.
- Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of
only high frequency components. Disadvantages of FM

- FM uses considerably more frequency

spectrum space.
- FM has used more complex circuitry for
modulation and demodulation.
- In the past, the circuits used for frequency
modulation and demodulation involved
were complex. With the proliferation of ICs,
complex circuitry used in FM has all but
disappeared.
- ICs are inexpensive are easy to use.
- FM and PM have become the most widely
used modulation method in electronic
communication today.
Deemphasis

- A simple low-pass filter can operate as a

deemphasis circuit in a receiver.
- A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency
response to its normal flat level.
- The combined effect of preemphasis and
deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio for the high frequency components
 FM CIRCUITS

Frequency Modulators

2 types of Frequency Modulator Circuits:

- Direct Circuits
- Phase Modulation Circuits

Frequency Modulator – is a circuit that varies carrier

frequency in accordance with the modulating
signal.

- The carrier is generated by LC or crystal

oscillator circuits.
- In LC oscillator, the carrier frequency can be
changed by varying either the inductance
or capacitance.
- The idea is to find a circuit or component
that converts a modulating voltage to a
corresponding change in capacitance or
inductance.
- In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by Varactor Modulator
the crystal.
- Varactor – is a variable capacitance diode - In Figure 6-4, the capacitance of varactor
used to change oscillator frequencies. diode D1 and L1 form the parallel tuned
circuit of the oscillator.
Varactor Operation - The value of C1 is made very large so its
reactance is very low.
- A junction diode is created when P- and N-
- C1 connects the tuned circuit to oscillator
Type semiconductors are formed during the
and blocks the dc bias on the base of Q1
manufacturing process.
from being shorted to ground through L1
- Depletion Region – where there are no free
- The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier
carriers, holes, or electrons, is formed in the
frequency.
process.
- The modulating signal varies the effective
- This region (depletion) acts like a thin
voltage applied to D1 and its capacitance
insulator that prevents current from flowing
varies.
through the device.
- Most LC oscillator are not stable enough to
- Forward Bias – will cause the diode to
provide a carrier signal.
conduct.
- The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
- Reverse Bias – will prevent current flow.
temperature changes, variations in circuit
- A reversed biased diode acts like a small
voltage, and other factors.
capacitor.
- As a result, crystal oscillators are normally
- The P- and N-Type materials act as the two
used to set carrier frequency.
plates of the capacitor.
- The depletion region acts as the dielectric Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
material.
- The width of the depletion layer determines - Crystal oscillator provide highly accurate
the width of the dielectric and, therefore the carrier frequencies and their stability is
amount of capacitance. superior to LC oscillators.
- All diode exhibits variable capacitance. - The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be
- Varactors are designed to optimize this varied by changing the value of
characteristic. capacitance in series or parallel with the
crystal.
- By making the series capacitance a Reactance Modulator
varactor diode, frequency modulation can
- Reactance Modulator – is a circuit that uses
be achieved.
a transistor amplifier that acts like either a
- The modulating signal is applied to the
variable capacitor or an inductor.
varactor diode which changes the oscillator
- When the circuit is connected across the
frequency.
tuned circuit of an oscillator, the oscillator
frequency can be varied by applying the
modulating signal to the amplifier.
- Reactance modulators can produce
frequency deviation over a wide range.
- Reactance modulators are highly linear, so
distortion is minimal.

- Varactors are made with a wide range of

capacitance values, most units having a
nominal capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF
range.
- Frequency Multiplier Circuit – is one whose Phase Modulators
output frequency is some integer multiple of
the input frequency. Most modern FM transmitters use some form of
- Doubler – a frequency multiplier that Phase Modulation (PM) to produce indirect FM.
multiplies a frequency by two.
- In PM, the carrier oscillator can be optimized
- Tripler – a frequency multiplier that multiplies
for frequency accuracy and stability.
a frequency by three.
- Crystal oscillators or crystal-controlled
- Frequency Multiplier can also be cascaded.
frequency synthesizers can be used to set
the carrier frequency accurately and
maintain stability.
- The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a
phase modulator where the phase shift is
made to vary in accordance with the
modulating signal.
- Simple phase shifters do not produce a linear
response over a large range of phase shift.
- To compensate for this, restrict the total
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators allowable phase shift to maximize linearity.
- Multipliers must also be used to achieve the
- Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) - desired deviation.
oscillators whose frequencies are controlled
by an external input voltage.
- VXOs – voltage-controlled crystal oscillators.
- VCOs are primarily used in FM.
- VCOs are also used in voltage-to-frequency
conversion applications.

Varactor Phase Modulators
- A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a
phase modulator if the resistance or
capacitance can be made to vary with the
modulating signal.
- A varactor can be used to vary
capacitance and achieve phase shift
modulation.
Transistor Phase Modulator
- A transistor can be used as a variable resistor
to create a phase modulator.
- A standard common emitter class A amplifier
biased into the linear region is used in PM.
- The transistor from collector to ground acts
like a resistor.
- The transistor’s resistance forms part of the
phase shifting circuit.
Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators
- Most phase modulators are capable of
producing a small amount of phase shift. The
limited phase shift, therefore, produces a
limited frequency shift.
- Phase and frequency shift can be increased
by using a parallel tuned circuit.
- At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts
like a large resistor.
- Off resonance, the circuit acts inductively or
capacitively and produces a phase shift.
- Phase modulators are easy to implement,
but they have 2 main disadvantages:
1. The amount of phase-shift they
produce and the resulting frequency
deviation are relatively low,
2. All the phase-shift circuits produce
amplitude variations as well as phase
changes.
- Any circuit that will convert a frequency
variation in the carrier back into a
proportional voltage variation can be used
to demodulate or detect FM signals.
- Circuits used to recover the original
modulating signal from an FM transmission
are called:
• Demodulators
• Detectors
• Discriminators
Slope Detector
- The slope detector makes use of a tuned
circuit and a diode detector to convert
frequency variations into voltage variations.
- The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in
tuning them.

Pulse-Averaging Discriminators
- Pulse-Averaging Discriminators – uses a zero
crossing detector, a one shot multivibrator
and a low-pass filter in order to recover the
original modulating signal.
- The pulse-averaging discriminator is a very
high-quality frequency demodulator.
- Originally, this discriminator was limited to
expensive telemetry and industrial control
applications.
- With availability of low-cost ICs, this
discriminator is used in many electronic
products.
Quadrature Detector
- Quadrature Detector – is probably the single
most widely used FM demodulator.
- The quadrature detector is primarily used in
TV demodulation.
- This detector is used in some FM stations.
- The quadrature detector uses a phase-shift
circuit to produce a phase shift of 90
degrees at the unmodulated carrier
frequency.
Phase-Locked Loops
- Phase-Locked Loops (PLL) –is a frequency- or
phase-sensitive feedback control circuit
used in frequency demodulation, frequency
synthesizers, and various filtering and signal-
detection applications. PLLs have three
basic elements:
1. Phase detector
2. Low-pass filter
3. Voltage-controlled oscillator
- The primary job of the phase detector is to
compare the two input signals and generate
an output signal that, when filtered will
control the VCO.
- If there is a phase or frequency difference
between the FM input and VCO signals, the
phase detector output varies in proportion to
the difference.
- The filtered output adjusts the VCO
frequency in an attempt to correct for the
original frequency or phase difference.
- This DC Control Voltage, called the Error
Signal, is also the feedback in this circuit.
- When no input signal is applied, the phase
detector and low-pass filter outputs are zero.
- The VCO the operates at what is called the
Free-Running Frequency, its normal
operating frequency as determined by
internal frequency-determining components.
 COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS
Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
- In radio communication systems, the
transmitted signal is very weak when it
reaches the receiver, particularly when it has
traveled over a long distance.
- The signal has also picked up noise of various
kinds.
- Receivers must provide the sensitivity and
selectivity that permit full recovery of the
original signal.
- The radio receiver best suited to this task is
known as the superheterodyne receiver.
- Selectivity – a communication receiver must
be able to identify and
- select a desired signal from the thousands of
others present in the frequency spectrum.
- Sensitivity – to provide sufficient amplification
to recover the modulating signal.
- A receiver with good selectivity will isolate
the desired signal and greatly attenuate
other signals.
- A receiver with good sensitivity involves high
circuit gain.
Selectivity: Q and Bandwidth
- Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using
tuned circuits and/or filters.
- LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
- Filters provide additional selectivity.
- By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit, you
can set the desired selectivity.
- The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide
enough to pass the signal and its sidebands
but narrow enough to eliminate signals on
adjacent frequencies.
Selectivity: Shape Factor
- The sides of a tuned circuit response curve
are known as skirts.
- The steepness of the skirts, or the skirt
selectivity, of a receiver is expressed as the
shape factor, the ratio of the 60-dB down
bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth.
- The lower the shape factor, the steeper the
skirts and the better the selectivity.
Sensitivity
- A communication receiver’s sensitivity, or
ability to pick
- up weak signals, is a function of overall gain,
the factor by which an input signal is
multiplied to produce the output signal.
- The higher the gain of a receiver, the better
its sensitivity.
- The more gain that a receiver has, the
smaller the input signal necessary to
produce a desired level of output.
- High gain in receivers is obtained by using
multiple amplification stages.
- Another factor that affects the sensitivity of a
receiver is the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio
(SNR).
- One method of expressing the sensitivity of a
receiver is to establish the minimum
discernible signal (MDS).
- The MDS is the input signal level that is
approximately equal to the average
internally generated noise value.
- This noise value is called the noise floor of the
receiver.
- MDS is the amount of signal that would
produce the same audio power output as
the noise floor signal.
Basic Receiver Configuration
- The simplest radio receiver is a crystal set
consisting of a tuned circuit, a diode (crystal)
detector, and earphones.
- The tuned circuit provides the selectivity.
- The diode and a capacitor serve as an AM
demodulator.
- The earphones reproduce the recovered
audio signal.

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
- In the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver
sensitivity is improved by adding a number of
stages of RF amplification between the
antenna and detector, followed by stages
of audio amplification.
- The RF amplifier stages increase the gain
before it is applied to the detector.
- The recovered signal is amplified further by
audio amplifiers, which provide sufficient
gain to operate a loudspeaker.
- Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned
circuits.
- Whenever resonant LC circuits tuned to the
same frequency are cascaded, overall
selectivity is improved.
- The greater the number of tuned stages
cascaded, the narrower the bandwidth and
the steeper the skirts.
- The main problem with TRF receivers is
tracking the
- tuned circuits.
- In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be
made variable so that they can be set to the
frequency of the desired signal.
- Another problem with TRF receivers is that
selectivity varies with frequency.
- Superheterodyne receivers convert all
incoming signals to a lower frequency,
known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at
which a single set of amplifiers is used to
provide a fixed level of sensitivity and
selectivity.
- Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF
amplifiers.
- The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a
simple amplitude modulator to produce sum
and difference frequencies.
- The incoming signal is mixed with a local
oscillator signal.
Superheterodyne Receivers
RF Amplifier
- The antenna picks up the weak radio signal
and feeds it to the RF amplifier, also called a
low-noise amplifier (LNA).
- RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and
selectivity and are sometimes called
preselectors.
- Tuned circuits help select the frequency
range in which the signal resides.
- RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.
- Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF
amplifiers.
Mixers and Local Oscillators
- The output of the RF amplifier is applied to
the input of the mixer.
- The mixer also receives an input from a local
oscillator or frequency synthesizer.
- The mixer output is the input signal, the local
oscillator signal, and the sum and difference
frequencies of these signals.
- A tuned circuit at the output of the mixer
selects the difference frequency, or
intermediate frequency (IF).
- The local oscillator is made tunable so that its
frequency can be adjusted over a relatively
wide range.
IF Amplifiers
- The output of the mixer is an IF signal
containing the same modulation that
appeared on the input RF signal.
- The signal is amplified by one or more IF
amplifier stages, and most of the gain is
obtained in these stages.
- Selective tuned circuits provide fixed
selectivity.
- Since the intermediate frequency is usually
lower than the input frequency, IF amplifiers
are easier to design and good selectivity is
easier to obtain.
Demodulators
- The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied
to the demodulator, which recovers the
original modulating information.
- The demodulator may be a diode detector
(for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM), or
a product detector (for SSB).
- modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or
- The output of the demodulator is then usually
fed to an audio amplifier.
Automatic Gain Control
- The output of a demodulator is usually the
original modulating signal, the amplitude of
which is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the received signal.
- The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is
rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by a
circuit known as the automatic gain control
(AGC) circuit.
- This dc voltage is fed back to the IF
amplifiers, and sometimes the RF amplifier, to
control receiver gain.
- AGC circuits help maintain a constant
output level over a wide range of RF input
signal levels.
- The amplitude of the RF signal at the
antenna of a receiver can range from a
fraction of a microvolt to thousands of
microvolts; this wide signal range is known as
the dynamic range.
- Typically, receivers are designed with very
high gain so that weak signals can be
reliably received.
- However, applying a very high-amplitude
signal to a receiver causes the circuits to be
overdriven, producing distortion and
reducing intelligibility.
- With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is
automatically adjusted depending on the
input signal level.
Frequency Conversion
- Frequency conversion is the process of
translating a modulated signal to a higher or
lower frequency while retaining all the
originally transmitted information.
- In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are
converted to a lower, intermediate
frequency. This is called down conversion.
- In satellite communications, the original
signal is generated at a lower frequency and
then converted to a higher frequency. This is
called up conversion.
Mixing Principles
- Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude
converter.
- The function performed by the mixer is called
heterodyning.
- Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be
translated to another frequency is applied to
one input, and the sine wave from a local
oscillator is applied to the other input.
- Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer
essentially performs a mathematical
multiplication of its two input signals.
- The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to
be translated is the modulating signal.
- The output contains not only the carrier
signal but also sidebands formed when the
local oscillator and input signal are mixed.
 Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer
- The primary characteristic of mixer circuits is
nonlinearity.
- Any device or circuit whose output does not
vary linearly with the input can be used as a
mixer.
- One of the most widely used types of mixers
is the simple diode modulator.
- The input signal is applied to the primary
winding of the transformer.
- The signal is coupled to the secondary
winding and applied to the diode mixer, and
the local oscillator signal is coupled to the
diode by way of a capacitor.
- The input and local oscillator signals are
linearly added and applied to the diode,
which produces the sum and difference
frequencies.
- The output signals are developed across the
tuned circuit which selects the difference
frequency.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
- Singly balanced mixer: A popular mixer
circuit using two diodes.
- Doubly balanced mixer: This version of the
diode balanced modulator is probably the
single best mixer available, especially for
VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies.
- FET Mixers: FETs make good mixers because
they provide gain, have low noise, and offer
a nearly perfect square-low response.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: IC Mixer
- The NE602, a typical IC mixer, is also known
as a Gilbert transconductance cell or Gilbert
cell.
- It consists of a double balanced mixer circuit
made up of two cross-connected differential
amplifiers.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: Image Reject Mixer
- An image reject mixer is a special type of
mixer used in designs in which images
cannot be tolerated.
- It uses Gilbert cell mixers in a configuration
like that used in a phasing-type SSB
generator.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers
- The local oscillator signal for the mixer comes
from either a conventional LC tuned
oscillator or a frequency synthesizer.
- The simpler continuously tuned receivers use
an LC oscillator.
- Channelized receivers use frequency
synthesizers.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers:
LC Oscillator
- A local oscillator is sometimes referred to as
a variable-frequency oscillator, or VFO.
- An amplifier (e.g., FET) is connected as a
Colpitts oscillator.
- Feedback is developed by a voltage divider
made up of capacitors.
- The frequency is set by a parallel tuned
circuit.
- The output is taken across an RFC and it is
buffered by a direct-coupled emitter
follower.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers:
Frequency Synthesizer
- Most new receiver designs incorporate
frequency synthesizers for the local oscillator,
which provides some important benefits over
simple VFO designs.
- The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked
loop
- (PLL) design and the output is locked to a
crystal oscillator reference which provides
high stability.
- Tuning is accomplished by changing the
frequency division factor in the PLL, resulting
in incremental rather than continuous
frequency changes.

Solving the Image Problem

- To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned

circuits should be used ahead of the mixer or
RF amplifier.
- The IF is made as high as possible for
effective elimination of the image problem,
yet low enough to prevent design problems.
- In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to
the frequencies that must be covered.
Intermediate Frequency and Images

- The primary objective in the design of an IF

stage is to obtain good selectivity.
- Narrow-band selectivity is best obtained at
lower frequencies.
- At low frequencies, circuits are more stable
with high gain.
- At low frequencies, image interference is
possible. An image is an RF signal two times
the IF above or below the incoming
frequency.
- At higher frequencies, circuit layouts must
take into account stray inductances and Dual-Conversion Receivers
capacitances. - Another way to obtain selectivity while
- At higher frequencies, there is a need for eliminating the image problem is to use a
shielding. dual-conversion superheterodyne receiver.
- A typical receiver uses two mixers and local
oscillators, so it has two IFs.
- The first mixer converts the incoming signal to
a high intermediate frequency to eliminate
the images.
- The second mixer converts that IF down to a
much lower frequency, where good
selectivity is easier to obtain.
 Disadvantages

- In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO

signal can leak through the mixer to the
antenna and radiate.
- An undesired dc offset can develop in the
output.
- The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW,
AM, SSB, or DSB. It cannot recognize phase
or frequency variations.

Direct Conversion Receivers

- A special version of the superheterodyne is
known as the direct conversion (DC) or zero
IF (ZIF) receiver.
- DC receivers convert the incoming signal
directly to baseband without converting to
an IF.
- They perform demodulation as part of the
translation.
- The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts the
signal before the mixer.
- The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to - To demodulate FM and PM modulations in a
the frequency of the incoming signal. zero-IF receiver, two mixers and filters are
- Baseband output is passed via a low-pass needed.
filter (LPF). - There must be a 90° phase shift between the
LO signals to produce I and Q signals for the
DSP demodulation.

Software-Defined Radio

- A software-defined radio (SDR) is a receiver

in which most of the functions are performed
by a digital signal processor (DSP).
- The benefits of SDRs are improved
performance and flexibility.
- The receiver characteristics (type of
modulation, selectivity, etc.) can be easily
changed by running a different program.
Direct Conversion Receivers
Typical Receiver Circuits
Advantages
- Typical receiver circuits include:
- No separate IF filter is needed. • RF amplifiers
- No separate detector circuit is needed. • IF amplifiers
- In transceivers that use half duplex and in • AGC
which the • AFC
- transmitter and receiver are on the same • Special circuits
frequency, only one PLL frequency
synthesizer voltage-controlled oscillator is
needed.
- There is no image problem.
 RF Input Amplifier
- The RF amplifier, also called a low-noise
amplifier (LNA), processes the very weak
input signals, increasing their amplitude prior
to mixing.
- Low-noise components are used to ensure a
sufficiently high S/N ratio.
- Selectivity should be such that it effectively
eliminates images.
- The RF amplifier is typically a class A circuit
that can be configured with bipolar or field-
effect transistors.
IF Amplifier
- Most of the gain and selectivity in a
superheterodyne receiver are obtained in
the IF amplifier.
- If amplifiers are tuned class A circuits
capable of providing gain in the 10- to 30-dB
range.
- Usually, two or more IF amplifiers are used to
provide adequate receiver gain.
- Ferrite-core transformers are used for
coupling between stages.
- Selectivity is provided by tuned circuits.
Traditional IF Amplifier Circuits: Coupled Circuit
Selectivity
- Changing the amount of coupling between
the primary and secondary windings allows
the desired amount of bandwidth to be
obtained. At some particular degree of
coupling, known as critical coupling, the
output reaches a peak value.
- In FM receivers, one or more of the IF
amplifier stages is used as a limiter, to
remove any amplitude variations on the FM
signal before the signal is applied to the
demodulator.
- Most modern receivers do not use LC tuned
filters but instead use crystal, ceramic,
mechanical, SAW or DSP filters.
Automatic Gain Control Circuits
- Receiver gain is typically far greater than
required for adequate reception. Excessive
gain usually causes the received signal to be
distorted and the transmitted information to
be less intelligible.
- Manual gain control can be achieved by
using a potentiometer in RF and IF stages.
- Receivers include volume controls in audio
circuits.
- AGC circuits are more effective in handling
large signals and give the receiver a very
wide dynamic range.
Automatic Gain Control Circuits: Controlling Circuit
Gain
- The gain of a bipolar transistor amplifier is
proportional to the amount of collector
current flowing.
- Two methods of applying AGC are as
follows:
1. The gain can be decreased by
decreasing the collector current. This
is called reverse AGC.
2. The gain can be reduced by
increasing the collector current. A
stronger signal increases AGC voltage
and base current and, in turn,
increases collector current, reducing
the gain. This method of gain control
is known as forward AGC.
 Squelch Circuit
- A squelch circuit, or muting circuit, is found in
most communications receivers.
- The squelch is used to keep the receiver
audio turned off until an RF signal appears at
the receiver input.
- In AM systems such as CB radios, the noise
level is high and can be very annoying.
- Squelch circuits provide a means of keeping
the audio amplifier turned off during the time
that noise is received in the background and
enabling it when an RF signal appears at the
input.
SSB and Continuous-Wave Reception
- Communication receivers designed for
receiving SSB or continuous-wave signals
have a built-in oscillator that permits
recovery of the transmitted information.
- A circuit called the beat frequency oscillator
(BFO) is usually designed to operate near the
IF.
- The BFO signal is applied to the demodulator
along with the IF signal containing the
modulation.
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers
- In new designs, virtually all receiver circuits
are ICs.
- A complete receiver usually consists of three
or four ICs, plus coils, transformers,
capacitors, and filters.
- Most modern receivers are contained on a
single IC.
- IC receivers are typically broken down into
three major sections:
1. The tuner, with RF amplifier, mixer, and
local oscillator
2. The IF section, with amplifiers,
demodulator, and AGC and muting
circuits
3. The audio power amplifier.
- The second and third sections are entirely
implemented with ICs. The tuner may or may
not be, for often the LNA is separate.
Receivers and Transceivers
VHF Aircraft Communication Circuit
- A typical VHF receiver is designed to receive
two-way aircraft communication between
planes and airport controllers.
- They have a typical frequency range of 118
to 135 MHz
- Amplitude modulation is typical with these
receivers.
- VHF receivers are designed to use a
combination of discrete components and
ICs.
Single-IC FM Receiver
- The Motorola MC3363 FM receiver IC chip
contains all receiver circuits except for the
audio power amplifier (a separate chip).
- It is designed to operate at frequencies up
to about 200 MHz
- It is widely used in cordless telephones,
paging receivers, and other portable
applications.
- This dual-conversion receiver contains two
mixers, two local oscillators, a limiter, a
quadrature detector, and squelch circuits.
- The first local oscillator has a built-in varactor
that allows it to be controlled by an external
frequency synthesizer.
Transceiver
- Most two-way radio communication
equipment is packaged so that both
transmitter and receiver are in a unit known
as a transceiver.
- Transceivers range from large, high-power
desktop units to small, pocket-sized,
handheld units.
- Transceivers have a common housing and
power supply.
- Transceivers can share circuits, thereby
achieve cost savings, and in some cases are
smaller in size.