STRUCTURAL DESIGN LECTURE

rosaurohernandezjamandrimarchuap
Trinity of Architecture
 Trinity of Architecture
In order for a building to be considered a work of
architecture it must possess all of these:
– Function
– Strength
– Beauty
Ignoring one will not make it a work of Architecture.
 OVERVIEW
Simply put, if you know how to design it, you know
how to build it. But building a structure requires
three elements that will ensure that it is a …well…
structure.
1. STRENGTH
2. STIFFNESS
3. STABILITY
 STRENGTH
• The strength of a material is its ability to withstand
an applied load without failure or plastic
deformation
 STIFFNESS
• Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to
which it resists deformation in response to an
applied force.
• The complementary concept is flexibility or
pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff
it is.
 STABILITY
• Resistance to sudden change, dislodgment, or
overthrow;
 REASONS
WE BUILD STRUCTURES FOR:
1. Longevity (if not permanence)
2. Functions intended
3. Concern to human life
4. Manifestation of technology available
 Review of past Architectural Sciences
1. STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
3. THEORY OF STRUCTURES
4. TIMBER AND STEEL DESIGN
5. ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES (CONCRETE)
 STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
1. Principles of equilibrium
2. Bodies are rigid
3. Forces and moments
4. Resultants and reactions
5. Algebraic and graphical solutions
6. Analysis of structures
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1. Internal forces acting on a body
2. Stresses
3. Strain
4. Torsions
5. Deflection
6. Statically determinate/indeterminate members
 THEORY OF STRUCTURES
1. Shear & moment diagrams
2. Simple beams
3. Specially loaded beams
4. Rigid frames
5. Three – moment equation
6. Moment distribution method
 TIMBER AND STEEL DESIGN
1. Properties of section
2. Steel tables
3. Stress – strain diagrams
4. Beam design for flexure, shear and deflection
5. Analysis of homogeneous materials
 ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES
1. Analysis of concrete
2. Design constraints
3. Singly reinforced beams
4. Doubly reinforced beams
5. Slab design
6. Column design
From antiquity to contemporary…

TYPES OF STRUCTURES - HISTORICAL

 Development of structures
Structures have developed gradually over time but
there were two main factors that affected the
development of structures:-
1. The reasons why man build.
2. Methods of construction and building techniques.
 MASS STRUCTURES
• These are series of piled –
up stones that were built
with or without mortar.
• Mortar is a binding agent
spread in-between masonry
units
 The Corbel
• The main purpose is to
create openings into the
masonry by offsetting
bricks from that below
them and putting out
counterweights.
 The Post and Lintel
• This early form of beam and
column construction was
referred to as post and
lintel or post and beam
structures. This type of post
and beam construction
formed the basis of
Egyptian and Greek
architecture especially in
their temples.
 The Arch
• An arch is a pure compression
form. It can span a large area by
resolving forces into compressive
stresses and, in turn
eliminating tensile stresses. This
is sometimes referred to as arch
action. As the forces in the arch
are carried to the ground, the
arch will push outward at the
base, called thrust.
 The Vault
• In a manner of
speaking, the vault
is an extended arch.
 The Dome
• A dome (from Latin:
domus) is an
architectural element
that resembles the
hollow upper half of
a sphere.
 Flying buttress
• an arched structure that
extends from the upper portion
of a wall to a pier of great mass,
in order to convey to the
ground the lateral forces that
push a wall outwards
 GENERICALLY, WHAT ARE THE
PARTS OF A STRUCTURE?

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 THE PARTS
1. The Foundation
2. The Floor
3. The Column
4. The Beam
5. The Overhead Cover

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 FOUNDATION

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 FLOOR STRUCTURE

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 POST

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 beam

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 TRUSS

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 THE BEAM

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 DEFINITION
• Beams support mainly vertical loads, and are small in cross-
section compared with their span. Engineering diagrams adopt
simple conventions to represent beams, supports and loads.

• A beam is a structural member which spans horizontally

between supports and carries loads which act at right angles
to the length of the beam.

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 TYPES OF BEAM
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
1. Simply – supported structure (SSS)
2. Overhanging beam
3. Cantilever beam

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 SIMPLY SUPPORTED STRUCTURE

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 OVERHANGING BEAM

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 CANTILEVER BEAM

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 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• Any structure is designed for the stress resultants of
bending moment, shear force, deflection, torsional
stresses, and axial stresses. If these moments, shears
and stresses are evaluated at various critical
sections, then based on these, the proportioning can
be done.

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 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
• Evaluation of these stresses, moments and forces
and plotting them for that structural component is
known as analysis. Determination of dimensions for
these components of these stresses and
proportioning is known as design.

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 STATICALLY DETERMINATE
• are analysed just by the use of basic equilibrium
equations. By this analysis, the unknown reactions
are found for the further determination of stresses.

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 TYPES OF BEAM
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
1. Propped beam
2. Beams with 3+ supports

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 PROPPED BEAM

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 BEAM WITH 3 SUPPORTS

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 BEAM WITH 4+ SUPPORTS

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 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
• Redundant or indeterminate structures are not
capable of being analyzed by mere use of basic
equilibrium equations. Along with the basic
equilibrium equations, some extra conditions are
required to be used like compatibility conditions of
deformations etc to get the unknown reactions for
drawing bending moment and shear force diagrams.

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 Equilibrium equations

∑FV = 0 ↑+
(SUMMATION OF VERTICAL FORCES IS EQUAL TO ZERO;UPWARD POSITIVE)

∑FH = 0 →+
(SUMMATION OF HORIZONTAL FORCES IS EQUAL TO ZERO;RIGHTWARD POSITIVE)

∑MO = 0 ↑+
(SUMMATION OF MOMENTS AT POINT O IS EQUAL TO ZERO;CLOCKWISE POSITIVE)

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 TYPES OF SUPPORT
• ROLLER
• HINGE
• FIXED – END

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 ROLLER

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 HINGE

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 TYPES OF LOAD

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 FIXED END

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 Types of LOAD

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 SHEAR & MOMENT DIAGRAMS

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 INVENTOR OF THE V & M

CARL CULLMAN

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 PURPOSES OF THE V & M DIAGRAMS
• So for design purpose of beams, analysis of shear force
and bending moment induced are of the at most
importance. The interesting thing is that you can draw
shear force and bending moment distribution along
any beam, by understanding what exactly is shear force
and bending moment.
• Both shear force and bending moment are induced in
beam in order to balance external load acting on it.
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 Shear Force
• Shear force is the internal resistance created in
beam cross sections, in order to balance transverse
external load acting on beam. Consider following
beam, it does not matter from where you take a
section, when you add forces acting on it, it should
be in equilibrium. Shear force is induced exactly for
this purpose, to bring the section to equilibrium in
vertical direction. It acts parallel to cross section.
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 Shear Force

Shear force is induced in a section to balance the external load

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 Bending Moment
• But balance of transverse forces alone does not
guarantee equilibrium of a section. There is another
possibility of beam rotation, if moment acting on it is
not balanced. If this is the case a bending moment
will be induced in cross section of beam, to arrest
this rotation. It will be induced as normal forces
acting on fiber cross section as shown in the next
slide.
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 Bending moment

8/30/2018
Bending moment is
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 PREDICTIVE SUCCESSION OF SHAPES FROM LOAD TO SHEAR
TO MOMENT DIAGRAMS

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 example

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 properties of Shear
and Moment Diagrams
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of
the section is equal to the moment at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the
shear at that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the
load at that point.

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 properties of Shear
and Moment Diagrams
4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears.
This is in reference to property number 2, that when the
shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the
tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram
is concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram
is concave downward.

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 EXAMPLE 1

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 EXAMPLE 2

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 EXAMPLE 3

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TECHNIQUES USED IN ANALYSING STRUCTURES
▪ Macaulay’s Method
▪ Conjugate Beam Method
▪ Virtual Work Method
▪ Unit load Method
▪ Influence line theory
▪ The Three Moment Equation (Clapeyron’s Theorem)
▪ Stiffness & Flexibility Method
▪ Slope Deflection Method
▪ Moment Distribution Method

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 Moment Area Method

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 Three – moment equation

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 Moment distribution method

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From antiquity to contemporary…

TYPES OF STRUCTURES - MODERN

 Framed structures
• These structures resemble
the skeleton of a
vertebrate that intends to
occupy more volume
without increasing density.
These made possible the
building of high – rises and
skyscrapers.
 Curtain wall
• Basically, the envelope is
largely non – load bearing
because all loads are
applied on the building
framework and slabs. This
enabled the cover to be
freely treated and playful.
 Portal frames
• These are basically
‘straight arches’. The
columns and the
rafters form one unit
that enables the
assembly to cover a
significantly large area
of space.
 Shell structures
• When most buildings are
‘decorated structures’,
these can be referred to as
‘structured decorations’
because of their free and
flowing forms.
 THIN - SHELLS

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 Trusses
• Trusses support load much like
beams, but for longer spans.
As the depth and thus dead
weight of beams increases with
span they become increasingly
inefficient, requiring most
capacity to support their own
weight rather than imposed live
load. Trusses replace bulk by
triangulation to reduce dead
weight.
 Space frames
• The space frame acts in a similar
manner to the triangulated
plane frame except for the fact
that the space frame acts in
three dimensional manner.
• Space frames have other uses,
towers and tall masts are usually
built as space frames due to the
fact that they can not be easily
constructed in another way.
 Folded plates
• Folded plates can be seen
as a space version of a rigid
frame. Folded plates are
best formed from
reinforced concrete due to
the fact that they can be
easily cast. Folded plates
can take the form of frames
as seen above or domes.
 Geodesic domes
• Geodesic domes are an example of a
curved space frame. The geodesic
dome is referred to as a braced
dome due to the fact that there are
bracing members present so that the
dome keeps its shape.
• The geodesic dome is made up of a
network of triangles, this results in
the maximum amount of strength
and rigidity being obtained while
using the minimum amount of
materials.
 Suspension roof
• This kind of structure
lets the roof membrane
sag as it kind of
resembles a large tent.
 Hyperbolic paraboloid
• These are highly
geometrical shapes that
exemplify the kind of
technology today’s
designers come to enjoy.
 Funicular structures
The funicular concept can be
best described and visualized
with cables or chains,
suspended from two points,
that adjust their form for any
load in tension.
 Vertical structures
• Vertical systems
• Vertical systems transfer the load of horizontal
systems from roof to foundation, carrying gravity
and/or lateral load. Although they may resist
gravity or lateral load only, most resist both,
gravity load in compression, lateral load in shear.
Walls are usually designed to define spaces and
provide support, an appropriate solution for
apartment and hotel buildings. The four systems
are:
• 1 Shear walls (apartments / hotels)
• 2 Cantilever (Johnson Wax tower by F L Wright)
• 3 Moment frame
• 4 Braced frame
• A Concrete moment resistant joint Column re-
bars penetrate beam and beam re-bars penetrate
column)
• B Steel moment resistant joint (stiffener plates
between column flanges resist beam flange
stress)
Vertical structures
 Shear walls
• As the name implies, shear walls
resist lateral load in shear. Shear
walls may be of wood, concrete
or masonry.
• Framing studs, spaced 16 or 24
inches, support gravity load and
sheathing resists lateral shear. In
seismic areas concrete and
masonry shear walls must be
reinforced with steel bars to
resist lateral shear.
 Cantilevers
• Cantilevers resist lateral load
primarily in bending. They
may consist of single towers or
multiple towers. Single towers
act much like trees and require
large footings like tree roots to
resist overturning. Bending in
cantilevers increases from top
down, justifying tapered form
in response.
 Moment frames
• Moment frames resist gravity and lateral
load in bending and compression. They are
derived from post-and beam portals with
moment resisting beam to column
connections (for convenience referred to as
moment frames and moment joints). The
effect of moment joints is that load applied
to the beam will rotate its ends and in turn
rotate the attached columns. Equally, load
applied to columns will rotate their ends
and in turn rotate the beam. This mutual
interaction makes moment frames effective
to resist lateral load with ductility.
 Braced frames
• Braced frames resist gravity load in
bending and axial compression, and
lateral load in axial compression and
tension by triangulation, much like
trusses. The triangulation results in
greater stiffness, an advantage to resist
wind load, but increases seismic forces,
a disadvantage to resist earthquakes.
Triangulation may take several
configurations, single diagonals, A-
bracing, V-bracing, X-bracing, etc.,
considering both architectural and
structural criteria.
 FORCE & MOMENT
Force is an action on a body that tends to:
• change the shape of an object or
• move an object or
• change the motion of an object
US units: # (pound), k (kip)
SI units: N (Newton), kN (kilo Newton)
Moment is a force acting about a point at a distance called
lever arm
M =P L (Force x lever arm)
The lever arm is measured normal (perpendicular) to the force.
Moments tend to:
• rotate an object or
• bend an object (bending moment)
US units: #’ (pound-feet), k’ (kip-feet), #” (pound-inch), k” (kip-
inch)
SI units: N-m (Newton-meter), kN-m (kilo-Newton-meter)
 Static Equilibrium
• For any body to be in static equilibrium,
all forces and moments acting on it must
be in equilibrium, i.e. their sum must
equal zero. This powerful concept is
used for static analysis and defined by
the following three equation of statics:
– S H = 0 (all horizontal forces must equal
zero)
– S V = 0 (all vertical forces must equal zero)
– S M = 0 (all moments must equal zero)
TYPES OF SUPPORT
 FORCE TYPES
• Forces on structures include
tension, compression, shear,
bending, and torsion. Their
effects and notations are
tabulated below and all
Bending and related shear are
more complex.
 Force vs. stress
• Force and stress refer to the same
phenomena, but with different
meanings. Force is an external
action, measured in absolute units: f=P/A
# (pound), k (kip); or SI units: N where
(Newton), kN (kilo Newton). Stress f = stress
is an internal reaction in relative P = force
units (force/area ), measured in psi A = cross section area
(pound per square inch), ksi (kip per Note: stress can be compared to
square inch); or SI units: Pa (Pascal), allowable stress of a given material.
kPa (kilo Pascal). Axial stress is
computed as: