PHYSICS Vector Subtraction- If 2 vectors are going in opposite

Physics is the study of the physical world including motion, directions, you subtract
energy, light, electricity, magnetism, sound etc.

NOTABLE SCIENTISTS
Aristotle (Greek 4th Century BC)
– Logic
– Studied motion
- Natural and violent motion
- 4 elements: earth, water, air, fire
– Geocentric view Non-Collinear Vectors
Democritus – Greek who devised the first atomic theory. - When 2 vectors are perpendicular, you must use the
Galileo Galilei (1564 AD) Pythagorean theorem
– Father of the scientific method (along with the Englishman
Francis Bacon 1500’s).
– Studied motion.
– Agreed with the Greek Aristarchos and Polish Copernicus
(1473-1543) on heliocentric view point. This led to his house
arrest.
Isaac Newton
– English (1642-1727)
– related force and motion
– studied light.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), – experimented with
electricity KINEMATICS AND MECHANICS
Michael Faraday (1791-1867), English MOTION – Change in position in relation to a reference point.
– with a grammar school education Reference Point - Non-moving point from which motion is
– found that a moving magnet induces electric current to measured
flow. Distance (Scalar) - How far you travel regardless of direction
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Displacement (Vector)
– Relativity: there is no absolute frame of reference that is at - Change in position, expressed using the Greek letter delta
rest. (Δ)
– Photoelectric effect (Light is quantized) (Nobel Prize) - To find the change you always subtract your FINAL and
– Related mass and energy (E = mc2 ) INITIAL positions

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND VECTORS KINEMATICS – a way of describing the motion of objects
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES without describing the causes.
SCALAR QUANTITIES – A scalar quantity is any quantity in You can describe an object’s motion:
physics the has magnitude, but not a direction associated - in words
with it - mathematically
Magnitude – a numerical value with units. - pictorially
Scalar Examples: speed, distance, age, heat - graphically
SPEED (Scalar), s
VECTOR QUANTITIES– A vector quantity is any quantity in – rate of motion
physics that has both magnitude and direction. – rate at which distance changes
Vectors are typically illustrated by drawing an arrow above – distance traveled per unit time
the symbol. The arrow is used to convey direction and
magnitude.

Instantaneous Speed
- a measure of an object’s distance traveled per unit time at a
Vector Examples: velocity, acceleration, force particular point in time.
APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS Average Speed
Vector Addition - If 2 similar vectors point in the SAME
direction, add them

VELOCITY (Vector), v
– speed in a given direction
– can change even when the speed is constant
– the rate at which displacement changes
MAGNITUDE: the speed of the object
DIRECTION: the direction the object is moving
- The size if the arrow conveys magnitude and the way it was
drawn conveys direction
 acceleration is indicated by a curve: changing slope =
changing velocity
UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION
– motion with constant velocity
- straight line
- same direction
ACCELERATION (Vector), a
– the rate of change of velocity
– change in speed or direction

Positive Acceleration
- speeding up
- accelerating
Negative Acceleration
- slowing down
- decelerating
Instantaneous Acceleration
- a measure of an object’s velocity per unit time at a
particular point in time.
UNIFORM ACCELERATED MOTION
– motion with constant acceleration GUIDE TO SOLVING KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
- straight line 1. Draw a labeled vector diagram showing the positive and
- same direction negative direction.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION: 2. Make a list of the given (include signs as needed) and
unknown.
3. Decide what equation(s) you should use.
4. Write the equation(s) and solve for the unknown. Always
include units in your first substitution and in your final
answer.

If an object is in FREE FALL, gravity will CHANGE an objects

velocity by 9.8 m/s every second.
GRAPHS OF MOTION FREE FALL - when an object is influenced only by the force of
1. Position vs Time gravity
PROJECTILE MOTION
PROJECTILE
– Any object which projected by some means or thrown into
the air that continues to move due to
its own inertia (mass).
– Moves in TWO dimensions
– It has 2 components just like a resultant vector.
- Horizontal and Vertical

slope = speed
steeper slope = faster speed
straight line = constant speed
flat line = no motion
HORIZONTAL ―VELOCITY‖ COMPONENT
- Always constant
- Covers equal displacements in equal time periods.
- The initial horizontal velocity equals the final horizontal
velocity
- Gravity DOES NOT work horizontally to increase or decrease
the velocity.
VERTICAL ―VELOCITY‖ COMPONENT
- Changes due to gravity
- Does NOT cover equal displacements in equal time periods.
- Both the MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION change.
 As the projectile moves up the MAGNITUDE
DECREASES and its direction is UPWARD.
 As it moves down the MAGNITUDE INCREASES and
the direction is DOWNWARD.
Together, these components produce what is called a
TRAJECTORY or path. This path is parabolic in nature.
HORIZONTALLY LAUNCHED PROJECTILES
- Projectiles which have NO upward trajectory and NO initial
VERTICAL velocity.
- To analyze a projectile in 2 dimensions we will use this
equation:
Example: A plane traveling with a horizontal velocity of 100
m/s is 500 m above the ground. At some point the pilot
decides to drop some supplies to designated target below. (a)
How long is the drop in the air? (b) How far away from point
where it was launched will it land?
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
LAW OF INERTIA - An object at rest will remain at rest and an
object in motion will continue moving at a constant velocity
unless acted upon by a net force.
Inertia
- tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion
- increases as mass increases
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
LAW OF ACCELERATION - The acceleration of an object is
directly proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
LAW OF INTERACTION
- In every action, there is always an equal and opposite
reaction.
- Tells that forces come in pairs: action force and reaction
force
- Action and reaction force are equal in magnitude, are
directed in opposite directions and are acting on different
bodies
- Explains what happens when we walk, how rockets,
airplanes and the like are propelled, and a lot more
FORCE– a push or pull that one body exerts on another
BALANCED FORCES
- forces acting on an object that are opposite in direction and
equal in size
- no change in velocity
NET FORCE
- unbalanced forces that are not opposite and equal
- velocity changes (object accelerates)
FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
1. Gravitational – attractive force between masses
2. Electromagnetic – caused by to electric and magnetic
fields
3. Strong Nuclear Force – holds nuclear particles together
4. Weak Nuclear Force – involved in radioactive decay of
nuclei
TYPES OF FORCES
FRICTION
- a force acting when two surfaces rub against each other.
- force that opposes motion between 2 surfaces
- depends on the:
 types of surfaces
  force between the surfaces - A force directed towards the center of a circular path
- Friction is greater...
 between rough surfaces
 when there’s a greater force between the surfaces
Origin of Centripetal Force:
NORMAL FORCE - a force acting perpendicular to the
interface of contact between two objects.
GRAVITY - force of attraction between any two objects in the
universe
- increases as:
 mass increases
 distance decreases
WEIGHT - the force of gravity on an object

MOMENTUM
– quantity of motion
- mass is always the same
– inertia in motion
- weight is dependent on gravity

AIR RESISTANCE
- ―fluid friction‖ or ―drag‖
- force that air exerts on a moving object to oppose its
motion
- depends on:
 speed
 surface area
 shape
 density of fluid IMPULSE - change in momentum

TERMINAL VELOCITY CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

- maximum velocity reached by a falling object Law of Conservation of Momentum - The total momentum
- reached when: in a group of objects doesn’t change unless outside forces act
on the objects.

Elastic Collision - KE is conserved

Inelastic Collision - KE is not conserved
FORCES IN FLUIDS
CIRCULAR MOTION – motion along a circular path/arc Fluid
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION - circular motion with – matter that flows
constant speed – liquids and gases
NON-UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION - circular motion with ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
changing speed BUOYANCY- the ability of a fluid to exert an upward force on
PERIODIC MOTION - motion that repeats itself after a fixed an object immersed in it
time Buoyant Force
Period – time of one cycle - upward force exerted by a fluid on an immersed object
For an object moving in a circle with radius r: - the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is equal to the
weight of fluid displaced by the object
Buoyant force > Weight
- object rises
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION Buoyant force < Weight
- Object moves along a circular path. - object sinks
- The direction of velocity is changing. Buoyant force = weight
- Changing velocity implies that the object accelerates. - object floats
- Direction of acceleration is toward the center PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE - pressure applied to a fluid is
- Caused by centripetal force transmitted unchanged throughout the fluid

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE - as the velocity of a fluid increases,
the pressure exerted by the fluid decreases
Venturi Effect - fluids flow faster through narrow spaces
causing reduced pressure
WORK
– transfer of energy through motion
– force exerted through a distance
Work is done when an object applies a force on another
object and this force displaces the other object.
MACHINES
– tools used by man to aid him in doing work
– devices that make work easier
– delivers the same amount of work but expending lesser
energy
– changes the size and/or direction of the exerted force
TYPES OF MACHINES
SIMPLE MACHINES – tools that change the direction or
magnitude of a force; it can do work with one movement.
TYPES OF SIMPLE MACHINES
1. Lever – is a board or bar that rests on a turning point. It
involves moving a load around a pivot the easier it is to
move.
Classes and Classifications of Lever
In a Type 1 Lever, the pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort
and the load. With this kind of lever, the direction of force is
changed. Effort applied downward moves the load up. Effort
applied upward moves the load down.
In a Type 2 Lever, the load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and
the effort. With this kind of lever, the direction of force is not
changed. Pushing up on the lever arm pushes up the load.
Pushing down on the lever arm pushes down the load.
In a Type 3 Lever, the effort is between the pivot (fulcrum)
and the load. With this kind of lever, the direction of force is
not changed.
The load moves in the same direction as the effort.
2. Inclined Plane – is a flat surface that is higher on one end
and can be used to move an object to a lower or higher place.
It is the simplest machine of all machines.
The longer the distance of the ramp, the easier it is to do the
work; however, it will take a much longer time needed to do
the work.
Examples are ramp, slanted road, path up a hill slide.
3. Wedge – a simple machine used to push two objects apart.
It is also made up of two inclined planes which meet to form
the sharp edge. It is the active twin of the inclined plane; it
does useful work by moving.
Examples are knives, axes, nails.
4. Wheel and Axle – a simple machine made of a large wheel
secured to a smaller wheel which is called an axle.
Examples are cars, roller skates, door knob, and bicycles.
5. Screw – is actually an inclined plane that winds around
itself.
A screw has ridges and it is not smooth like a nail.
Some screws are used to lower and raise things.
They are also used to hold objects together.
Examples are bottle caps and light bulbs.
6. Pulley – is made up of a wheel and a rope.
If we had to lift a heavy load, pulley makes our work easier.
It changes the direction of the force making it easier to lift
things in a higher area.
Examples are flagpoles, sailboats, and blinds.
COMPOUND MACHINES – two or more simple machines
working together such as car engines and sewing machine.
POWER
– rate at which work is done
– measured in watts (W) or horsepower (HP)
ENERGY
– generally defined as the capacity of an object to do work
– measured in Joules (J)
FORMS OF ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY
- energy related to the motion of particles
- depends on mass and velocity
1. Thermal Energy: movement of molecules
2. Electrical Energy: movement of charges
3. Mechanical Energy: movement of systems of objects
4. Radiant Energy: accelerated charged particles producing
electromagnetic waves.
*All objects at any temperature emit radiant energy
POTENTIAL ENERGY
- stored energy
- depends on position or configuration of an object
1. Gravitational Potential Energy: energy due to vertical
position or height
2. Elastic Potential Energy: energy in elastic materials
3. Chemical Energy: bonding of atoms
4. Nuclear Energy: changes in the nucleus
SOURCES OF ENERGY
RENEWABLE SOURCES
- energy source that is not permanently depleted when used
- includes: biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar energy
and wind energy
NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES
- energy source that is permanently depleted when used.
- Includes: coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels, and
nuclear energy
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- Energy may change forms, but it cannot be created or
destroyed under ordinary conditions.
THERMODYNAMICS – Derived from the Greek words therme
and dynamis meaning ―movement of heat‖
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
When heat flows in or out of a system, the energy it gains or
loses is equal to the amount of heat transferred.
Temperature
- The degree of hotness or coldness of an object
- Temperature represents the average translational kinetic
energy of the individual particles in a system.
Temperature Scales
Absolute Zero - Total energy of the particles is zero
Temperature Conversions Induction - like charging by conduction, a charged object is
Celsius to Fahrenheit used. But this time, it is only brought close to the conductor.
A conductor is not made to touch the other object. If the
conductor is connected to the ground, electrons will flow on
to it or away from it. When the ground connection is
removed, the conductor will have a charge opposite in sign to
that of the charged object.
Conductors
- materials that allow electrons to move through them easily
- e are loosely held
- metals
Insulators
- materials that don’t allow electrons to move through them
easily
- e are tightly held
Specific Heat Capacity, C - plastic, wood rubber, glass
- resistance to change in temperature of a substance Electroscope
- instrument that detects the presence of electrical charges
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - the leaves of the instrument separate when they gain either
Law of Entropy - heat flows from an object with a higher a + or – charge
temperature to an object with a lower temperature
ENTROPY ELECTRIC CURRENT
- the amount of disorder in a system Circuit - closed path through which electrons can flow
- The universe is always moving towards a state of entropy
- It takes work to decrease entropy
TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction - Heat transfer between materials that are in
direct contact with each other
Convection - Transfer in a fluid by movement of the
substance itself
Radiation- Energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves
LATENT HEAT (L)
Latent Heat of Fusion - The amount of energy required to
change a unit mass of any substance from a solid to a liquid
(and vice versa)
Latent Heat of Vaporization - The amount of energy required
to change a unit mass from liquid to gas (and vice versa)

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTRONICS

ELECTRICITY
Static Electricity - the net accumulation of electric charges on
an object
Electric Field
- force exerted by an e on anything that has an electric
charge
- opposite charges attract
- like charges repel
Static Discharge - movement of electrons to relieve a
separation in charge
Ways the Objects can be given a Net Charge
Friction - electrons have the tendency to be transferred from
one material to the other leaving one material with a positive
charge and the other a negative charge
Conduction - if charged objects touch a conductor, some
charge will be transferred between the object and the
conductor, charging the conductor with the same sign as the
charge of the object
 to mechanical energy
- a commutator reverses the poles of the e’magnet
PRODUCING ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electromagnetic Induction
- producing a current by moving a wire through a magnetic
field
 some microphones work like mini-speakers in
reverse
HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS - combination of parallel circuits  sound waves cause a coil to move creating current
 too many devices can cause wires to overheat Electric Generator
Safety Features: - a device that can convert mechanical energy to electrical
Fuse – metal melts, breaking the circuit energy
Circuit Breaker – bimetallic strip bends when hot, breaking  an armature is rotated between magnet poles
circuit  the magnetic field induces a current in the wire coil
ELECTRICAL POWER – rate at which electrical energy is Hydroelectric Dam
converted to another form of energy - the potential energy of bodies of water is converted to
kinetic energy
- mechanical kinetic energy turns the generator shaft which
creates electrical energy
AC and DC
Direct Current (DC)
- current flows in one direction
- dry cell batteries
Alternating Current (AC)
- current reverses its direction at regular intervals
- electrical outlets
COULOMB’s LAW TRANSFORMERS
Any two charged objects will create a force on each other. - increase or decrease AC voltage
Opposite charges will produce an attractive force while - primary coil AC produces a magnetic field that induces AC in
similar charges will produce a repulsive force. The greater the the secondary coil
charges, the greater the force. The greater the distance - voltage ratio = ratio of turns in each coil
between them, the smaller the force. Step-up Transformer
MAGNETISM - increase the voltage
– force of attraction or repulsion between unlike or like poles - more turns
– due to the arrangement of electrons - can be seen in powerplants
– closely related to electricity Step-down transformer
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETS - decreases the voltage
Law of Poles - fewer turns
- like poles repel - can be seen in household appliances
- unlike poles attract WAVES – rhythmic disturbances that carry energy through
- a broken magnet creates new poles matter or space
Magnetic Field Medium
- are around a magnet where magnetic forces act – material through which a wave transfers energy
- field lines show direction of field (N→S) – solid, liquid, gas, or combination
Magnetic Domain – electromagnetic waves don’t need a medium (e.g. visible
- groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles light)
- in a magnetized object, domains are all aligned TWO TYPES OF WAVES
USES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS Transverse Waves - medium moves perpendicular to the
Electromagnetism - Magnets exert forces to metallic objects direction of wave motion
or to other magnetic bodies even without contact (non-
contact forces).
Electromagnet
- Strong, temporary magnet formed when current is passed
through a coil of wire surrounding an iron core
- Acts like a bar magnet when current is on
Speakers
- a device that can convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy
- a wire coil moves back & forth as its magnetic field interacts
with the field of a fixed magnet
- forced vibration causes the cone to move creating sound
Motor
- an electromagnet rotates between the poles of a fixed
magnet converting electrical energy
 – regular pattern
Noise
– no definite pitch
– no set pattern
RESONANCE
Forced Vibration
– when one vibrating object forces another object to vibrate
at the same frequency
– results in a louder sound because a greater surface area is
vibrating
– used in guitars, pianos, etc.
Resonance
– special case of forced vibration
– object is induced to vibrate at its natural frequency
HARMONICS
Fundamental – the lowest natural frequency of an object
Overtones – multiples of the fundamental frequency
INTERFERENCE – the ability of 2 or more waves to combine
to form a new wave
SOUND
– Sound waves are mechanical in nature. They are produced
from vibrating sources placed in a material media thus they
need a material medium to propagate.
– The vibrating source of a sound sets the particles of a
medium in vibration such that sound travels outward in the
form of longitudinal waves. The vibration of the particles is
parallel to the direction of the sound wave. Beats
– Sound cannot travel in vacuum because there are no – variations in sound intensity produced by 2 slightly different
molecules to pass on the vibration. frequencies
– Sound can be transmitted through solids, liquids and gases. – both constructive and destructive interference occur
– Sound travels fastest in solids and travels slowest in gases. ACOUSTICS – the study of sound
The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. REVERBERATION – echo effect produced by the reflection of
– The speed of sound waves is also affected by temperature sound
and humidity. Generally, the speed of sound increases with Anechoic chamber – designed to eliminate reverberation.
increasing temperature in air. Sound travels slightly faster LIGHT
when humidity rises. Electromagnetic Radiation
– Sound waves are audible to the human ears within the – transverse waves produced by the motion of electrically
frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. charged particles
– Sound waves of frequency lower than 20 Hz are called – does not require a medium
infrasound and sound waves of frequency higher than 20 000 – speed in a vacuum = 3×108 m/s
Hz are called ultrasound. – electric and magnetic components are perpendicular
Photons
HUMAN HEARING – tiny, particle-like bundles of radiation
sound wave → vibrates ear drum → amplified by bones → – absorbed and released by electrons
converted to nerve impulses in cochlea – energy increases with wave frequency
Pitch TYPES OF EM RADIATION
– highness or lowness of a sound Radiowaves
– depends on frequency of sound wave – lowest energy EM radiation
Intensity FM – frequency modulation
– volume of sound AM – amplitude modulation
– depends on energy (amplitude) of sound wave Microwaves – penetrate food and vibrate water & fat
– measured in decibels (dB) molecules to produce thermal energy
Doppler Effect Infrared Radiation (IR)
– change in wave frequency – slightly lower energy than visible light
– caused by a moving wave source – can raise the thermal energy of objects
– moving toward you – pitch sounds higher thermogram – image made by detecting IR radiation
– moving away from you – pitch sounds lower Visible Light
SEEING WITH SOUND – small part of the spectrum we can see
– Ultrasonic waves - above 20,000 Hz – ROY G. BIV – colors in order of increasing energy
– Used in Medical Imaging – red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
– SONAR – “Sound Navigation Ranging” Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) – slightly higher energy than
MUSIC visible light
Music Types:
– specific pitches and sound quality UVA - tanning, wrinkles
UVB - sunburn, cancer
UVC - most harmful, sterilization MIRRORS
Ozone layer depletion = UV exposure! Virtual Images in Plane Mirrors
X rays Rays seem to come from behind the mirror, but, of course,
– higher energy than UV they don't. It is virtually as if the rays were coming from
– can penetrate soft tissue, but not bones behind the mirror.
Gamma rays As far as the eye-brain system is concerned, the effect is the
– highest energy EM radiation same as would occur if the mirror were absent and the chess
– emitted by radioactive atoms piece were actually located at the spot labeled "virtual
– used to kill cancerous cells image".
LIGHT AND COLOR If light energy doesn't flow from the image, the image is
Light and Matter "virtual".
Opaque- absorbs or reflects all light Curved mirrors
Transparent- allows light to pass through completely If the mirror isn’t flat light still follows the same rules, with
Translucent- allows some light to pass through local surface normal
Seeing Colors Parabolic mirrors have exact focus
Whitelight – used in telescopes, backyard satellite dishes, etc.
– contains all visible colors - ROY G. BIV – also forms virtual image
In white light, an object... Concave Mirrors
- reflects the color you see – Curves inward
- absorbs all other colors – May be real or virtual image
White Object – reflects all colors For a real object between f and the mirror, a virtual image is
Black Object – absorbs all colors formed behind the mirror. The image is upright and larger
Mixing Colors than the object.
Primary light colors For a real object between C (center of curvature) and f
– red, green, blue (focus), a real image is formed outside of C. The image is
– additive colors inverted and larger than the object.
– combine to form white light For a real object at C, the real image is formed at C. The
Filter – transparent material that absorbs all light colors image is inverted and the same size as the object.
except the filter color For a real object close to the mirror but outside of the center
Pigment – colored material that absorbs and reflects of curvature, the real image is formed between C and f. The
different colors image is inverted and smaller than the object.
Primary pigment colors For a real object at f, no image is formed. The reflected rays
 cyan, magenta, yellow are parallel and never converge.
 subtractive colors Convex Mirrors
 combine to form black – Curves outward
When mixing pigments, the color of the mixture is the color – Reduces images
of light that both pigments reflect. – Virtual images
– Used in rear view mirrors, store security...
OPTICS Objects are closer than they appear!
MIRRORS AND LENSES Refraction – Light also goes through some things
Reflection  glass, water, eyeball, air
– We describe the path of light as straight-line rays – The presence of material slows light’s progress
– Reflection off a flat surface follows a simple rule:  interactions with electrical properties of atoms
 angle in (incidence) equals angle out (reflection) – The “light slowing factor” is called the index of refraction
 angles measured from surface ―normal‖  glass has n = 1.52, meaning that light travels about
(perpendicular) 1.5 times slower in glass than in vacuum
 water has n = 1.33
 air has n = 1.00028
 vacuum is n = 1.00000 (speed of light at full
capacity)
Refraction at a plane surface
– Light bends at interface between refractive indices
 bends more the larger the difference in refractive
index
Vocabulary LENSES
Real Image Convex Lenses
– Image is made from ―real‖ light rays that converge at a – Thicker in the center than edges.
real focal point so the image is REAL – Lens that converges (brings together) light rays.
– Can be projected onto a screen because light actually – Forms real images and virtual images depending on
passes through the point where the image appears position of the object
– Always inverted Concave Lenses
Virtual Image – Lenses that are thicker at the edges and thinner in the
–Not Real‖ because it cannot be projected center.
– Image only seems to be there! – Diverges light rays
– All images are erect and reduced.
Diffraction
– bending of waves around a barrier
– longer wavelengths (red) bend more – opposite of
refraction
Interference
– constructive → brighter light
– destructive → dimmer light
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE UNDER EARTH SCIENCE
1. GEOGRAPHY – the study of Earth as well as its features
phenomena and inhabitants
2. GEOLOGY – the study of the origin, history, evolution and
structure of the Earth’s crust
3. OCEANOGRAPHY – the exploration and study of the ocean
4. PALEONTOLOGY– the science of the forms of life that
existed in prehistoric or geologic periods
5. METEOROLOGY – the science that deals with the
atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate
6. CLIMATOLOGY – the study of climatic data, analysis of
climatic changes and investigations of its phenomena and
causes
7. MINERALOGY – the study of the chemistry, crystal
structure, and physical properties of minerals
8. HYDROLOGY – the distribution, occurrence, properties,
chemistry and circulation of water on the Earth.
9. MINERALOGY – the scientific discipline that includes the
study of chemical composition, physical properties, internal
crystal structure, origin, occurrence and distribution in nature
of different minerals
10. SEISMOLOGY – the study of earthquakes as well as
structure of the Earth, based on the study of seismic waves
11. ASTRONOMY – the study of celestial bodies such as stars,
comets, planets and galaxies and phenomena that originate
outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
12. COSMOLOGY – the study of the nature of the universe,
its origin and overall structure
EARTH SCIENCE – encompasses all sciences that seek to
understand Earth and it neighbors in space
EARTH SCIENCE AREAS OF STUDY:
1. GEOLOGY – the study of Earth
2. OCEANOGRAPHY – the study of the ocean
3. METEROLOGY – the study of the atmosphere and the
processes that produce weather
4. ASTRONOMY – the study of the universe
HYPOTHESES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:
Most researchers conclude that Earth and other planets
formed at essentially the same time.
1. ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS – a rogue star passes close to
the sun
- gas is tidally removed from both the rogue star and the sun
- the rogue star material is less dense and becomes outer
Solar System planets
- the inner Solar System material is more dense and becomes
terrestrial planets
2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS – the solar system evolved from a
rotating cloud called the solar nebula
– the nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen and helium
– about five billion years ago, the nebula began to contract
– it assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at
the center
– inner planets begin to form metallic and rocky clumps
– larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a
high percentage of ice
3. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS – a great cloud of gas and
dust rotated slowly in space
- the cloud was at least 10 billion kilometers in diameter
- the cloud shrank under the pull of its own gravitation or was
made to collapse by the explosion of a passing star
FORMATION OF EARTH
As the solar system was formed, layers formed on Earth. And
as Earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat
from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to
increase.
Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the
surface.
Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce
the primitive atmosphere.
EARTH’s MAJOR SPHERES
1. HYDROSPHERE
– Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere
 Nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface
 Holds about 97% of Earth’s water
– Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes and
glaciers, as well as that found underground
2. ATMOSPHERE
– Thin, tenuous blanket of air
– One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)
3. BIOSPHERE
– Includes all life
– Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from
the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into the
atmosphere
4. GEOSPHERE
– Based on compositional differences, it consists of the crust,
mantle, and core.
 Crust – the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth
 Mantle – the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of Earth
located below the crust.
 Core – the innermost layer of Earth, located beneath
the mantle.
MINERALS
– Naturally occurring solid substances with an orderly
crystalline structure and definite chemical composition
– Generally considered inorganic
HOW MINERALS FORM
– Crystallization from magma
– Precipitation
– Pressure and temperature
– Hydrothermal solutions
ROCKS – Any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter
occurring naturally as part of our planet
TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS – formed by the crystallization of molten
magma
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – formed from the weathered
products of preexisting rocks that have been transported,
deposited, compacted, and cemented
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS – formed by the alteration of pre-
existing rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state) by
heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids
THE ROCK CYCLE
– Show the interrelationships among the three rock types
TERMS:
Magma – molten material that forms deep beneath the
Earth’s surface
Lava – magma that reaches the surface
Weathering – a process in which rocks are broken down by
water, air, and living things
Sediment – weathered pieces of Earth elements
FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed when magma
hardens beneath the Earth’s surface
2. EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed when lava
hardens
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks can be classified based on their composition
and texture
1. TEXTURE
– Coarse-grained texture is caused by slow cooling resulting
in larger crystals
– Fine-grained texture is caused by rapid cooling resulting in
smaller, interconnected mineral grains
– Glassy texture is caused by very rapid cooling
– Porphyritic texture is caused by different rates of cooling
resulting in varied sized minerals
2. COMPOSITION
– Granitic composition rocks are made mostly of light-colored
quartz and feldspar
– Basaltic composition rocks are made mostly of dark-colored
silicate minerals
– Andesitic composition rocks are between granitic light-color
minerals and basaltic composition dark-colored minerals
– Ultramafic composition rocks are made mostly from iron
and magnesium rich minerals
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed through weathering, erosion
and deposition
EROSION involves the weathering and the removal of rock
DEPOSITION occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind,
ice, or gravity—loses energy and drops sediments
COMPACTION is a process that squeezes, or compacts
sediments
CEMENTATION takes place when dissolved minerals are
deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – composed of weathered
bits of rocks and minerals
– Classified by particle size
– Common rocks include
o Shale (most abundant)
o Sandstone
o Conglomerate
2. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – form when dissolved
substances precipitate or separate from water
– Common rocks include
o Limestone (most abundant)
o Microcrystalline quartz known as chert, flint, jasper, or
agate
o Evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum
o Coal
FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
METAMORPHISM means ―to change form‖.
Most metamorphic changes occur at elevated temperatures
and pressures.
Conditions for formation are found a few kilometers below
the Earth’s surface and extend into the upper mantle.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM occurs when magma moves into
rock
– Occurs near a body of magma
– Changes are driven by a rise in temperature
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM results in large-scale
deformation and high-grade metamorphism
– Directed pressure and high temperature occur during
mountain building
– Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock
AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
HEAT – provides the energy needed to drive chemical
reactions
PRESSURE – causes a more compact rock with greater
density
HYDROTHERMAL SOLUTIONS – hot water-based solution
escaping from the mass of magma
– promote recrystallization by dissolving original minerals
and then depositing new ones
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK – has a banded or layered
appearance
2. NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK – does not have a
banded texture
EARTH’s RESOURCES
ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES
1. RENEWABLE AND NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
a. Renewable resources can be replenished over fairly short
spans of time, such as months, years, or decades.
b. Nonrenewable resources take millions of years to form and
accumulate.
2. FOSSIL FUELS
a. Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons that may be used as fuel,
including coal, oil, and natural gas.
3. TAR SANDS AND OIL SHALE
a. Fuels derived from tar sand and oils shales could become
good substitutes for dwindling petroleum supplies.
FORMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Some of the most important mineral deposits form through
igneous processes and from hydrothermal solutions.
Ore is a useful metallic mineral that can be mined at a profit.
NONMETALLIC MINERAL RESOURCES
Nonmetallic mineral resources are extracted and processed
either for the nonmetallic elements they contain or for their
physical and chemical properties.

ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES

1. Solar Energy: energy from the sun
a. ―fuel‖ free
b. Non-polluting
2. Nuclear Energy
In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of heavy atoms such as uranium-
235 are bombarded with neutrons.
The uranium nuclei split into smaller nuclei and emit
neutrons and heat energy.
3. Wind Energy
Earth’s Water Balance
In the next 50 to 60 years, wind power could meet between 5
Balance in the water cycle means the average annual
to 10 percent of the country’s demand for electricity.
precipitation over Earth equals the amount of water that
4. Hydroelectric Power: power generated by falling water
evaporates.
The water held in a reservoir behind a dam is a form of
STREAMFLOW
stored energy that can be released through the dam to
– The ability of a stream to erode and transport materials
produce electric power.
depends largely on its velocity.
The strong water flow that results drives turbines and electric
Gradient is the slope or steepness of a stream channel.
generators.
– Channel Characteristics
5. Geothermal Energy: harnessed by taping natural
The stream channel is the course the water in a stream
underground reservoirs of steam and hot water.
follows.
Hot water is used directly for heating and to turn turbines
Shape, size, and roughness
that generate electric power.
– Discharge of a stream is the volume of water flowing past a
6. Tidal Power: harnessed by constructing a dam across the
certain point in a given unit of time.
mouth of a bay or an estuary in coastal areas.
The strong in-and-out flow of tidal water drives turbines and
GLACIERS, DESERT, AND WIND
electric generators.
GLACIERS
A glacier is a thick ice mass that forms above the snowline
WATER, AIR AND LAND RESOURCES
over hundreds or thousands of years.
THE WATER PLANET
The ice age was a period of time when much of the Earth was
Each day, people use fresh water for drinking, cooking,
covered in glaciers.
bathing, and growing food.
Freshwater Pollution
TYPES OF GLACIERS
– Point source pollution comes from a known and specific
1. VALLEY GLACIERS
location, such as factory pipes.
– Ice masses that slowly advance down mountain valleys
– Nonpoint source pollution is pollution that does not have a
originally occupied by streams.
specific point of origin.
– A stream of ice that flows between steep rock walls from
– Runoff is the water that flows over the land rather than
near the top of the mountain valley.
seeping into the ground, often carrying nonpoint source
2. Ice Sheets
pollution.
– Ice sheets are enormous ice masses that flow in all
directions from one or more centers and cover everything
THE WATER CYCLE
but the highest land.
– Water constantly moves among the oceans, the
– Ice sheets are sometimes called continental ice sheets
atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere.
because they cover large regions where the climate is
This unending circulation of Earth’s water supply is the water
extremely cold.
cycle.
– They are huge compared to valley glaciers.
Processes involved in the cycle are:
– They currently cover Greenland and Antarctica.
– Precipitation
– Evaporation
DESERTS
– Infiltration
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES IN ARID CLIMATES
The movement of surface water into rock or soil
1. Weathering
through cracks and pore spaces
– Much of the weathered debris in deserts results from
– Runoff
mechanical weathering.
– Transpiration
– Chemical weathering is not completely absent in deserts.
The release of water into the atmosphere from
Over long time spans, clay and thin soils do form.
plants through the ground
– Not as effective as in humid regions
2. The Role of Water
– In the desert, most streams are ephemeral—they only carry
water after it rains.
BASIN AND RANGE: A Desert Landscape
Most desert streams dry up long before they ever reach the
ocean. The streams are quickly depleted by evaporation and
soil infiltration.
Interior drainage into basins produces
– alluvial fan – a fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed
when a stream’s slope is abruptly reduced
– playa lake – a flat area on the floor of an undrained desert
basin (playa) that fills and becomes a lake after heavy rain
Most desert erosion results from running water. Although
wind erosion is more significant in deserts than elsewhere,
water does most of the erosional work in deserts.
LANDSCAPES SHAPED BY WIND
WIND EROSION
Wind erodes in the desert in two ways:
1. Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles such
as clay and silt. It produces
– Blowouts
– Desert pavement – a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel
created when wind removed the finer material
2. Abrasion
WIND DEPOSITS
The wind can create landforms when it deposits its
sediments, especially in deserts and along coasts. Both layers
of loess and sand dunes are landscape features deposited by
the wind.
1. Loess
– Deposits of windblown silt
– Extensive blanket deposits
– Primary sources are deserts and glacial stratified drift.
2. Sand Dunes
– Unlike deposits of loess, which form blanketlike layers over
broad areas, winds commonly deposit sand in mounds or
ridges called dunes.
– Characteristic features
– Slip face is the leeward slope of the dune
– Cross beds are the sloping layers of sand in the dune.
TYPES OF SAND DUNES
What form sand dunes assume depends on the wind
direction and speed, how much sand is available, and the
amount of vegetation.
– Barchan dunes
– Transverse dunes
– Barchanoid dunes
– Longitudinal dunes
– Parabolic dunes
– Star dunes
EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR
EARTHQUAKES
– An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy
Focus is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
Epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the
focus.
Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred.
CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
ELASTIC REBOUND HYPOTHESIS
– Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of
elastic energy stored in rock that has been subjected to great
forces.
– When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly
breaks, causing the vibrations of an earthquake.
AFTERSHOCKS AND FORESHOCKS
– An aftershock is a small earthquake that follows the main
earthquake
– A foreshock is a small earthquake that often preceded a
major earthquake
EARTHQUAKE WAVES
1. Surface waves – seismic waves that travel along Earth’s
outer layer.
2. Body Waves – Identified as P waves or S waves
a. P waves
– Are push-pull waves that push (compress) and pull (expand)
in the direction that the waves travel
– Travel through solids, liquids, and gases
– Have the greatest velocity of all earthquake waves
b. S waves
– Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer
– Shake particles at right angles to the direction that they
travel
– Travel only through solids
– Slower velocity than P waves
A seismogram shows all three types of seismic waves—
surface waves, P waves, and S waves.
LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Earthquake Distance
– The epicenter is located using the difference in the arrival
times between P and S wave recordings, which are related to
distance.
2. Earthquake Direction
– Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs can
be used to find the exact location of an earthquake
epicenter.
3. Earthquake Zones
– About 95 percent of the major earthquakes occur in a few
narrow zones.
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Historically, scientists have used two different types of
measurements to describe the size of an earthquake —
intensity and magnitude.
– Seismographs are instruments that record earthquake
waves.
– Seismograms are traces of amplified, electronically
recorded ground motion made by seismographs.
RICHTER SCALE
– Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave
– Each unit of Richter magnitude equates to roughly a 32-fold
energy increase
– Does not estimate adequately the size of very large
earthquakes
MOMENTUM MAGNITUDE
– Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along
the fault zone
– Moment magnitude is the most widely used measurement
for earthquakes because it is the only magnitude scale that
estimates the energy released by earthquakes.
– Measures very large earthquakes
DESTRUCTION FROM EARTHQUAKES
The damage to buildings and other structures from
earthquake waves depends on several factors. These factors
include the intensity and duration of the vibrations, the
nature of the material on which the structure is built, and the 2. Mantle
design of the structure. – Below crust to a depth of 2900 kilometers
1. SEISMIC VIBRATIONS – Composition of the uppermost mantle is the igneous rock
a. Building Design peridotite (changes at greater depths).
Factors that determine structural damage 3. Core
– Intensity of the earthquake – Below mantle
– Unreinforced stone or brick buildings are the most serious – Sphere with a radius of 3486 kilometers
safety threats – Composed of an iron-nickel alloy
– Nature of the material upon which the structure rests – Average density of nearly 11 g/cm3
– The design of the structure
b. Liquefaction LAYERS DEFINED BY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
– Saturated material turns fluid 1. Lithosphere
– Underground objects may float to surface – Crust and uppermost mantle (about 100 km thick)
2. TSUNAMIS – Cool, rigid, solid
Cause of Tsunamis 2. Asthenosphere
– A tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs where a slab – Beneath the lithosphere
of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a fault. – Upper mantle
– A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a quake sets – To a depth of about 660 kilometers
an underwater landslide into motion. – Soft, weak layer that is easily deformed
– Tsunami is the Japanese word for ―seismic sea wave.‖ 3. Lower Mantle
Tsunami Warning System – 660–2900 km
– Large earthquakes are reported to Hawaii from Pacific – More rigid layer
seismic stations. – Rocks are very hot and capable of gradual flow
– Although tsunamis travel quickly, there is sufficient time to 4. Inner Core
evacuate all but the area closest to the epicenter. – Sphere with a radius of 1216 km
3. OTHER DANGERS – Behaves like a solid
a. Landslides – With many earthquakes, the greatest damage 5. Outer Core
to structures is from landslides and ground subsidence, or – Liquid layer
the sinking of the ground triggered by vibrations. – 2270 km thick
b. Fire – In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, most of the – Convective flow of metallic iron within generates Earth’s
destruction was caused by fires that started when gas and magnetic field
electrical lines were cut.
DISCOVERING EARTH’S LAYERS
PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES 1. Moho
1. Short-Range Predictions – So far, methods for short-range – Velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below 50 km
predictions of earthquakes have not been successful. of depth
2. Long-Range Forecasts – Separates crust from underlying mantle
– Scientists don’t yet understand enough about how and 2. Shadow Zone
where earthquakes will occur to make accurate long-term – Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140 degrees
predictions. around the globe from an earthquake
– A seismic gap is an area along a fault where there has not – Can be explained if Earth contains a core composed of
been any earthquake activity for a long period of time. materials unlike the overlying mantle

EARTH’S LAYERED STRUCTURE DISCOVERING EARTH’S COMPOSITION

LAYERS DEFINED BY COMPOSITION 1. Crust
Earth’s interior consists of three major zones defined by their – Early seismic data and drilling technology indicate that the
chemical composition—the crust, mantle, and core. continental crust is mostly made of lighter, granitic rocks.
2. Mantle
1. Crust – Composition is more speculative.
– Thin, rocky outer layer – Some of the lava that reaches Earth’s surface comes from
– Varies in thickness asthenosphere within.
– Roughly 7 km in oceanic regions 3. Core
– Continental crust averages 8–40 km – Earth’s core is thought to be mainly dense iron and nickel,
– Exceeds 70 km in mountainous regions similar to metallic meteorites.
Continental Crust The surrounding mantle is believed to be composed of rocks
– Upper crust composed of granitic rocks similar to stony meteorites.
– Lower crust is more akin to basalt
– Average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 PLATE TECTONICS
– Up to 4 billion years old CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Oceanic Crust Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis stated that the
– Basaltic composition continents had once been joined to form a single
– Density about 3.0 g/cm3 supercontinent.
– Younger (180 million years or less) than the continental
crust
Wegener proposed that the supercontinent, Pangaea, began
to break apart 200 million years ago and form the present
landmasses.
Evidence
– The Continental Puzzle
– Matching Fossils
 Fossil evidence for continental drift includes several
fossil organisms found on different landmasses.
– Rock Types and Structures
 Rock evidence for continental exists in the form of
several mountain belts that end at one coastline,
only to reappear on a landmass across the ocean.
– Ancient Climates
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Wegener could not provide an explanation of exactly what
made the continents move. News technology lead to findings
which then lead to a new theory called plate tectonics.
EARTH’S MAJOR ROLES
According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost
mantle, along with the overlying crust, behaves as a strong,
rigid layer. This layer is known as the lithosphere.
– A plate is one of numerous rigid sections of the lithosphere
that move as a unit over the material of the asthenosphere.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
1. Divergent boundaries (also called spreading centers) are
the place where two plates move apart.
2. Convergent boundaries form where two plates move
together.
3. Transform fault boundaries are margins where two plates
grind past each other without the production or destruction
of the lithosphere.
ACTIONS AT PLATE BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
– Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated zones on the floor
of all major ocean basins. The rifts at the crest of ridges
represent divergent plate boundaries.
– Rift valleys are deep faulted structures found along the axes
of divergent plate boundaries. They can develop on the
seafloor or on land.
– Seafloor spreading produces new oceanic lithosphere.
Continental Rifts
– When spreading centers develop within a continent, the
landmass may split into two or more smaller segments,
forming a rift.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
– A subduction zone occurs when one oceanic plate is forced
down into the mantle beneath a second plate.
– Oceanic-Continental
o Denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere.
o Pockets of magma develop and rise.
o Continental volcanic arcs form in part by volcanic activity
caused by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a
continent.
o Examples include the Andes, Cascades, and the Sierra
Nevadas.
– Oceanic-Oceanic
o Two oceanic slabs converge and one descends beneath the
other.
o This kind of boundary often forms volcanoes on the ocean
floor.
o Volcanic island arcs form as volcanoes emerge from the
sea.
o Examples include the Aleutian, Mariana, and Tonga islands.
– Continental-Continental
o When subducting plates contain continental material, two
continents collide.
o This kind of boundary can produce new mountain ranges,
such as the Himalayas.
TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES
At a transform fault boundary, plates grind past each other
without destroying the lithosphere.
– Transform faults
o Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge.
o At the time of formation, they roughly parallel the direction
of plate movement.
o They aid the movement of oceanic crustal material.
EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS
The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, which lie as
mirror images across the ocean ridges, is among the
strongest evidence of seafloor spreading.
1. Earthquake Patterns
– Scientists found a close link between deep-focus
earthquakes and ocean trenches.
– The absence of deep-focus earthquakes along the oceanic
ridge system was shown to be consistent with the new
theory.
2. Ocean Drilling
– The data on the ages of seafloor sediment confirmed what
the seafloor spreading hypothesis predicted.
– The youngest oceanic crust is at the ridge crest, and the
oldest oceanic crust is at the continental margins.
3. Hot Spots
– A hot spot is a concentration of heat in the mantle capable
of producing magma, which rises to Earth’s surface; The
Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, producing the Hawaiian
Islands.
– Hot spot evidence supports that the plates move over the
Earth’s surface.
VOLCANOES AND OTHER IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
FACTORS AFFECTING ERUPTIONS
Factors that determine the violence of an eruption:
1. Composition of the magma
2. Temperature of the magma
3. Dissolved gases in the magma
VISCOSITY − Viscosity is the measure of a material's
resistance to flow.
Factors affecting viscosity
1. Temperature (hotter magmas are less viscous)
2. Composition (silica content)
a. High silica − high viscosity
b. Low silica − more fluid (e.g., basaltic lava)
DISSOLVED GASES
– Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide
– Gases expand near the surface
– A vent is an opening in the surface of Earth through which
molten rock and gases are released.
– Provide the force to extrude lava
– Violence of an eruption is related to how easily gases
escape from magma
o Gases escape easily from fluid magma
o Viscous magma produces a more violent eruption.
VOLCANIC MATERIAL
1. Lava Flows
– Basaltic lavas are more fluid
Types of Lava
i. Pahoehoe lava (resembles braid in ropes)
ii. Aa lava (rough, jagged blocks)
2. Gases
– One to 5 percent of magma by weight
– Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide
3. Pyroclastic Materials
– Pyroclastic materials is the name given to particles
produced in volcanic eruptions.
– The fragments ejected during eruptions range in size from
very fine duct and volcanic ash (less than 2 millimeters) to
pieces that weigh several tons.
Types of Pyroclastic Materials
1. Ash and dust – fine, glassy fragments
2. Pumice − frothy, air-filled lava
3. Lapilli − walnut-sized particles
4. Cinders − pea-sized particles
Particles larger than lapilli
1. Blocks − hardened lava
2. Bombs − ejected as hot lava
ANATOMY OF A VOLCANO
– A volcano is a mountain formed of lava and/or pyroclastic
material.
– A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or
that which is produced by a meteorite impact.
– A conduit, or pipe, carries gas-rich magma to the surface.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
The three main volcanic types are shield volcanoes, cinder
cones, and composite cones.
1. Shield Volcanoes– Shield volcanoes are broad, gently
sloping volcanoes built from fluid basaltic lavas.
2. Cinder Cones– Cinder cones are small volcanoes built
primarily of pyroclastic material ejected from a single vent.
– Steep slope angle
– Rather small in size
– Frequently occur in groups
3. Composite Cones– Composite cones are volcanoes
composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material.
– Most are adjacent to the Pacific Ocean
– Large size
– Interbedded lavas and pyroclastics
– Most violent type of activity
OTHER VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
1. Calderas
– Calderas are large depressions in volcanoes
– Nearly circular
– Formed by collapse
– Size exceeds one kilometer in diameter
2. Lava Plateaus
– Fluid basaltic lava extruded from crustal fractures called
fissures.
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
The basic connection between plate tectonics and volcanism
is that plate motions provide the mechanisms by which
mantle rocks melt to generate magma.
Ocean-Ocean – Rising magma can form volcanic island arcs in
an ocean (Aleutian Islands).
Ocean-Continent – Rising magma can form continental
volcanic arcs (Andes Mountains).
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
The greatest volume of volcanic rock is produced along the
oceanic ridge system.
– Lithosphere pulls apart
– Less pressure on underlying rocks
– Partial melting occurs
– Large quantities of fluid basaltic magma are produced
INTRAPLATE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
Intraplate volcanism is igneous activity that occurs within a
tectonic plate away from plate boundaries.
– Most intraplate volcanism occurs where a mass of hotter
than normal mantle material called a mantle plume rises
toward the surface.
– The activity forms localized volcanic regions called hot
spots.
– Examples include the Hawaiian Islands and the Columbia
Plateau.
MOUNTAIN FORMATION
ROCK DEFORMATION
FACTORS AFFECTING DEFORMATION
Factors that influence the strength of a rock and how it will
deform include temperature, confining pressure, rock type,
and time.
– Deformation is a general term that refers to all changes in
the original shape and/or size of a rock body.
o Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins.
– Stress is the force per unit area acting on a solid.
– Strain is the change in shape or volume of a body of rock as
a result of stress.
1. Temperature and Pressure
Rocks deform permanently in two ways: brittle deformation
and ductile deformation.
– Brittle deformation is the fracturing of an object once its
strength is exceeded.
– Ductile deformation is a type of solid state flow that
produces a change in the size and shape of an object without
fracturing the object.
2. Rock Type
Mineral composition and texture of a rock also greatly affect
how it will deform.
3. Time
Forces that are unable to deform rock when first applied may
cause rock to flow if the force is maintained over a long
period of time.
TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
Mountains are classified by the dominant processes that
have formed them.
Orogenesis is the collection of processes that result in the
forming of mountains.
1. Folded Mountains – Mountains that are formed primarily
by folding are called folded mountains.
2. Fault-Block Mountains
– Large-scale normal faults are associated with structures
called fault-block mountains.
– Fault-block mountains are formed as large blocks of crust
are uplifted and tilted along normal faults.
– Grabens are formed by the downward displacement of
fault-bounded blocks.
– Horsts are elongated, uplifted blocks of crust bounded by
faults.
3. Domes and Basins
– When upwarping produces a circular or elongated
structure, the feature is called a dome.
– Uplifted mountains are circular or elongated structures
formed by uplifting of the underlying basement rock.
PRINCIPLES OF ISOSTASY
Isostatic Adjustment for Mountains
Isostasy is the concept that Earth’s crust is floating in
gravitational balance upon the material of the mantle.
Because of isostasy, deformed and thickened crust will
undergo regional uplift both during mountain building and
for a long period afterward.
Isostatic adjustment is the process of establishing a new level
of gravitational equilibrium.
Geologic Time
DISCOVERING EARTH’S HISTORY
ROCKS RECORD EARTH HISTORY
Rocks record geological events and changing life forms of the
past.
We have learned that Earth is much older than anyone had
previously imagined and that its surface and interior have
been changed by the same geological processes that
continue today.
STRUCTURE OF THE TIME SCALE
– Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists
have divided Earth’s 4.56-billion-year history into units that
represent specific amounts of time. Taken together, these
time spans make up the geologic time scale.
– Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are
divided into eras. Each era is subdivided into periods. Finally,
periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.
– There are three eras within the Phanerozoic eon: the
Paleozoic, which means ―ancient life, the
Mesozoic, which means ―middle life, and the Cenozoic,
which means ―recent life.‖
– Each period within an era is characterized by somewhat
less profound changes in life forms as compared with the
changes that occur during an era.
– The periods of the Cenozoic era are divided into still smaller
units called epochs, during which even less profound changes
in life forms occur.
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
During Precambrian time, there were fewer life forms. These
life forms are more difficult to identify and the rocks have
been disturbed often.
DIFFICULTIES WITH THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
– A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain
radioactive isotopes, but these particles are not the same age
as the rock in which they occur.
– The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does
not necessarily represent the time when the rock was first
formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was
metamorphosed.
EARTH’S HISTORY
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
PRECAMBRIAN HISTORY
The Precambrian encompasses immense geological time,
from Earth’s distant beginnings 4.56 billion years ago until
the start of the Cambrian period, over 4 billion years later.
PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS
– Shields are large, relatively flat expanses of ancient
metamorphic rock within the stable continental interior.
– Much of what we know about Precambrian rocks comes
from ores mined from shields.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE EVOLVES
Earth’s original atmosphere was made up of gases similar to
those released in volcanic eruptions today— water vapor,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and several trace gases, but no
oxygen. Later, primary plants evolved that used
photosynthesis and released oxygen.
Oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5
billion years ago.
PRECAMBRIAN FOSSILS
– The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites.
– Stromatolites are distinctively layered mounds or columns
of calcium carbonate. They are not the remains of actual
organisms but are the material deposited by algae.
– Many of these ancient fossils are preserved in chert—a
hard dense chemical sedimentary rock.
PALEOZOIC ERA
EARLY PALEOZOIC
Following the long Precambrian, the most recent 540 million
years of Earth’s history are divided into three eras: Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
EARLY PALEOZOIC HISTORY
During the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian periods, the
vast southern continent of Gondwana encompassed five
continents (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and
part of Asia).
EARLY PALEOZOIC LIFE
Life in early Paleozoic time was restricted to the seas
LATE PALEOZOIC HISTORY
Laurasia is the continental mass that formed the northern
portion of Pangaea, consisting of present-day
North America and Eurasia.
By the end of the Paleozoic, all the continents had fused into
the supercontinent of Pangaea.
LATE PALEOZOIC LIFE
Some 400 million years ago, plants that had adapted to
survive at the water’s edge began to move inland, becoming
land plants.
The amphibians rapidly diversified because they had minimal
competition from other land dwellers.
THE GREAT PALEOZOIC EXTINCTION
The world’s climate became very seasonal, probably causing
the dramatic extinction of many species.
The late Paleozoic extinction was the greatest of at least five
mass extinctions to occur over the past 500 million years.
MESOZOIC ERA: Age of Reptiles
Dinosaurs were land-dwelling reptiles that thrived during the
Mesozoic era.
MESOZOIC HISTORY
A major event of the Mesozoic era was the breakup of
Pangaea.
MESOZOIC LIFE
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants that do not depend on
free-standing water for fertilization. The gymnosperms
quickly became the dominant plants of the Mesozoic era.
THE SHELLED EGG
Unlike amphibians, reptiles have shell-covered eggs that can
be laid on the land.
The elimination of a water-dwelling stage (like the tadpole
stage in frogs) was an important evolutionary step.
REPTILES DOMINATE
With the perfection of the shelled egg, reptiles quickly
became the dominant land animals.
At the end of the Mesozoic era, many reptile groups became
extinct.
CENOZOIC ERA: Age of Mammals
The Cenozoic era is divided into two periods of very unequal
duration, the Tertiary period and the
Quaternary period.
Plate interactions during the Cenozoic era caused many
events of mountain building, volcanism, and earthquakes in
the West.
CENOZOIC LIFE
MAMMALS—animals that bear live young and maintain a
steady body temperature— replaced reptiles as the
dominant land animals in the Cenozoic era.
ANGIOSPERMS—flowering plants with covered seeds—
replaced gymnosperms as the dominant land plants.
MAMMALS REPLACE REPTILES
Adaptations like being warm blooded, developing insulating
body hair, and having more efficient heart and lungs allow
mammals to lead more active lives than reptiles.
LARGE MAMMALS AND EXTINCTION
In North America, the mastodon and mammoth, both huge
relatives of the elephant, became extinct. In addition, saber-
toothed cats, giant beavers, large ground sloths, horses,
camels, giant bison, and others died out on the North
American continent.
THE OCEAN FLOOR
Nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by the global
ocean.
Oceanography is a science that draws on the methods and
knowledge of geology, chemistry, physics, and biology to
study all aspects of the world ocean.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE OCEANS
The world ocean can be divided into four main ocean basins
—the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the
Indian Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.
– The Pacific Ocean is the largest and has the greatest depth.
– The Atlantic Ocean is about half the size of the Pacific and
not quite as deep.
– The Indian Ocean, largely a southern hemisphere body, is
slightly smaller than the Atlantic.
– The Arctic Ocean is about 7 percent of the size of the
Pacific.
MAPPING THE OCEAN FLOOR
The topography of the ocean floor is as diverse as that of the
continents.
Bathymetry is the measurement of ocean depths and the
charting of the shape or topography of the ocean floor.
Today’s technology—particularly sonar, satellites, and
submersibles—allows scientists to study the ocean floor in a
more efficient and precise manner than ever before.
SONAR
– Sonar is an acronym for sound navigation and ranging. It is
also referred to as echo sounding.
– Sonar works by transmitting sound waves toward the ocean
bottom.
SATELLITES
– Satellites are able to measure small differences by bouncing
microwaves off the ocean surface.
– Using this new technology, scientists have discovered that
the ocean surface is not perfectly flat.
– Differences in the height of the ocean surface are caused by
ocean-floor features.
SUBMERSIBLES
– Submersibles are small underwater crafts used for deep-sea
research.
– Today, many submersibles are unmanned and operated
remotely by computers. These remotely operated vehicles
(ROVs) can remain underwater for long periods.
OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES
The ocean floor regions are the continental margins, the
ocean basin floor, and the mid-ocean ridge.
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
A continental margin is the zone of transition between a
continent and the adjacent ocean basin floor.
– In the Atlantic Ocean, thick layers of undisturbed sediment
cover the continental margin. This region has very little
volcanic or earthquake activity.
– In the Pacific Ocean, oceanic crust plunges beneath
continental crust. This force results in a narrow continental
margin that experiences both volcanic activity and
earthquakes.
CONTINENTAL SHELF
A continental shelf is the gently sloping submerged surface
extending from the shoreline.
– Continental shelves contain important mineral deposits,
large reservoirs of oil and natural gas, and huge sand and
gravel deposits.
CONTINENTAL SLOPE
A continental slope is the steep gradient that leads to the
deep-ocean floor and marks the seaward edge of the
continental shelf.
– A submarine canyon is the seaward extension of a valley
that was cut on the continental shelf during a time when sea
level was lower—a canyon carved into the outer continental
shelf, slope, and rise by turbidity currents.
– A turbidity current is the downslope movement of dense,
sediment-laden water created when sand and mud on the
continental shelf and slope are dislodged and thrown into
suspension.
CONTINENTAL RISE
A continental rise is the gently sloping surface at the base of
the continental slope.
OCEAN BASIN FLOOR
The ocean basin floor is the area of the deep-ocean floor
between the continental margin and the oceanic ridge.
DEEP-OCEAN TRENCHES
Trenches form at the sites of plate convergence where one
moving plate descends beneath another and plunges back
into the mantle.
ABYSSAL PLAINS
An abyssal plain is a very level area of the deep-ocean floor,
usually lying at the foot of the continental rise.
– The sediments that make up abyssal plains are carried
there by turbidity currents or are deposited as suspended
sediment settles out.
OCEAN WATER AND OCEAN LIFE
THE COMPOSITION OF SEAWATER
SALINITY- is the total amount of solid material dissolved in
water.
– Because the proportion of dissolved substances in seawater
is such a small number, oceanographers typically express
salinity in parts per thousands.
– Most of the salt in seawater is sodium chloride, common
table salt.
Sources of Sea Salt
– Chemical weathering of rocks on the continents is one
source of elements found in seawater.
– The second major source of elements found in seawater is
from Earth’s interior.
THE DIVERSITY OF OCEAN LIFE
CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE ORGANISMS
Marine organisms can be classified according to where they
live and how they move.
PLANKTON- include all organisms—algae, animals, and
bacteria—that drift with ocean currents.
– Phytoplankton are algal plankton, which are the most
important community of primary producers in the ocean.
– Zooplankton are animal plankton.
NEKTON- include all animals capable of moving
independently of the ocean currents, by swimming or other
means of propulsion.
BENTHOS- describes organisms living on or in the ocean
bottom.
MARINE LIFE ZONES
Three factors are used to divide the ocean into distinct
marine life zones: the availability of sunlight, the distance
from shore, and the water depth.
Availability of Sunlight
– The photic zone is the upper part of the ocean into which
sunlight penetrates.
Distance from Shore
– The intertidal zone is the strip of land where the land and
ocean meet and overlap, or the zone between high and low
tides.
– The neritic zone is the marine-life zone that extends from
the low-tide line out to the shelf break.
– The oceanic zone is the marine-life zone beyond the
continental shelf.
Water Depth
– The pelagic zone is open zone of any depth. Animals in this
zone swim or float freely.
– The benthic zone is the marine-life zone that includes any
sea-bottom surface regardless of its distance from shore.
– The abyssal zone is a subdivision of the benthic zone
characterized by extremely high pressures, low
temperatures, low oxygen, few nutrients, and no sunlight.
Hydrothermal Vents
– Here seawater seeps into the ocean floor through cracks in
the crust.
– At some vents, water temperatures of 100oC or higher
support communities of organisms found nowhere else in the
world.
WAVES AND TIDES
WAVES
Wave Characteristics
– Most ocean waves obtain their energy and motion from the
wind.
– The wave height is the vertical distance between the trough
and crest.
– The wavelength is the horizontal distance between two
successive crests or two successive troughs.
– The wave period is the time it takes one full wave—one
wavelength—to pass a fixed position.
– Fetch is the distance that the wind has traveled across open
water.
– The height, length, and period that are eventually achieved
by a wave depend on three factors: (1) wind speed, (2)
length of time the wind has blown, and (3) fetch.
ANATOMY OF A WAVE
Wave Motion– Circular orbital motion allows energy to move
forward through the water while the individual water
particles that transmit the wave move around in a circle.
Breaking Waves
– Changes occur as a wave moves onto shore.
– As the waves touch bottom, wave speed decreases. The
decrease in wave speed results in a decrease in wavelength
and an increase in wave height.
TIDES- are daily changes in the elevation of the ocean
surface.
Ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted
upon Earth by the moon and, to a lesser extent, by the sun.
Tide-Causing Forces – The force that produces tides is
gravity.
Tide Cycle
– Tidal range is the difference in height between successive
high and low tides.
– Spring tides are tides that have the greatest tidal range due
to the alignment of the Earth–moon– sun system.
– Neap tides are tides that have the lowest tidal range,
occurring near the times of the first-quarter and third-
quarter phases of the moon.
Tidal Patterns
Three main tidal patterns exist worldwide: diurnal tides,
semidiurnal tides, and mixed tides.
THE ATMOSPHERE: Structure and Temperature
ATMOSPHERE CHARACTERISTICS
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Weather is constantly changing, and it refers to the state of
the atmosphere at any given time and place.
Climate, however, is based on observations of weather that
have been collected over many years. Climate helps describe
a place or region.
Major Components
Air is a mixture of different gases and particles, each with its
own physical properties.
Variable Components
Water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation. Like
carbon dioxide, water vapor absorbs heat given off by Earth.
It also absorbs some solar energy.
Ozone is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms
into each molecule (O3)
If ozone did not filter most UV radiation and all of the sun’s
UV rays reached the surface of Earth, our planet would be
uninhabitable for many living organisms.
Human Influence
Emissions from transportation vehicles account for nearly
half the primary pollutants by weight.
Primary Pollutants
HEIGHT AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere rapidly thins as you travel away from Earth
until there are too few gas molecules to detect.
Pressure Changes
Atmospheric pressure is simply the weight of the air above.
Temperature Changes
The atmosphere can be divided vertically into four layers
based on temperature.
– The troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere
where temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
– The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere where
temperature remains constant to a height of about 20
kilometers. It then begins a gradual increase until the
stratopause.
– The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere
immediately above the stratosphere and is characterized by
decreasing temperatures with height.
– The thermosphere is the region of the atmosphere
immediately above the mesosphere and is characterized by
increasing temperatures due to the absorption of very short-
wave solar energy by oxygen.
EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS
Earth’s Motions
Earth has two principal motions—rotation and revolution.
Earth’s Orientation
Seasonal changes occur because Earth’s position relative to
the sun continually changes as it travels along its orbit.
Solstices and Equinoxes
– The summer solstice is the solstice that occurs on June 21
or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and is the ―official‖ first
day of summer.
– The winter solstice is the solstice that occurs on December
21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and is the ―official‖
first day of winter.
– The autumnal equinox is the equinox that occurs on
September 22 or 23 in the Northern Hemisphere.
– The spring equinox is the equinox that occurs on March 21
or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere.
Length of Daylight
The length of daylight compared to the length of darkness
also is determined by Earth’s position in orbit.
HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE
What Happens to Solar Radiation?
When radiation strikes an object, there usually are three
different results.
1. Some energy is absorbed by the object.
2. Substances such as water and air are transparent to certain
wavelengths of radiation.
3. Some radiation may bounce off the object without being
absorbed or transmitted.
Reflection and Scattering
– Reflection occurs when light bounces off an object.
Reflection radiation has the same intensity as incident
radiation.
– Scattering produces a larger number of weaker rays that
travel in different directions.
Absorption
– About 50 percent of the solar energy that strikes the top of
the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface and is absorbed.
– The greenhouse effect is the heating of Earth’s surface and
atmosphere from solar radiation being absorbed and emitted
by the atmosphere, mainly by water vapor and carbon
dioxide.

MOISTURE, CLOUDS, AND PRECIPITATION
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Precipitation is any form of water that falls from a cloud.
When it comes to understanding atmospheric processes,
water vapor is the most important gas in the atmosphere.
HUMIDITY
Humidity is a general term for the amount of water vapor in
air.
Saturation
– Air is saturated when it contains the maximum quantity of
water vapor that it can hold at any given temperature and
pressure.
– When saturated, warm air contains more water vapor than
cold saturated air.
Relative Humidity
– Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor
content compared with the amount of water vapor air can
hold at that temperature and pressure.
– When the water-vapor content of air remains constant,
lowering air temperature causes an increase in relative
humidity, and raising air temperature causes a decrease in
relative humidity.
Dew Point
– Dew point is the temperature to which a parcel of air would
need to be cooled to reach saturation.
Measuring Humidity
– A hygrometer is an instrument to measure relative
humidity.
– A psychrometer is a hygrometer with dry- and wet- bulb
thermometers. Evaporation of water from the wet bulb
makes air temperature appear lower than the dry bulb’s
measurement. The two temperatures are compared to
determine the relative humidity.
CLOUD TYPES AND PRECIPITATION
TYPES OF CLOUDS
Clouds are classified on the basis of their form and height.
– Cirrus (cirrus = curl of hair) are clouds that are high, white,
and thin.
– Cumulus (cumulus = a pile) are clouds that consist of
rounded individual cloud masses.
– Stratus (stratus = a layer) are clouds best described as
sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
High Clouds
– Cirrus clouds are high, white, and thin.
– Cirrostratus clouds are flat layers of clouds.
– Cirrocumulus clouds consist of fluffy masses.
Middle Clouds
– Altocumulus clouds are composed of rounded masses that
differ from cirrocumulus clouds in that altocumulus clouds
are larger and denser.
– Altostratus clouds create a uniform white to gray sheet
covering the sky with the sun or moon visible as a bright spot.
Low Clouds
– Stratus clouds are best described as sheets or layers that
cover much or all of the sky.
– Stratocumulus clouds have a scalloped bottom that appears
as long parallel rolls or broken rounded patches.
– Nimbostratus clouds are the main precipitation makers.
Clouds of Vertical Development
Some clouds do not fit into any one of the three height
categories mentioned. Such clouds have their bases in the
low height range but often extend upward into the middle or
high altitudes.
FOG- defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the
ground.
Fog Caused by Cooling
As the air cools, it becomes denser and drains into low areas
such as river valleys, where thick fog accumulations may
occur.
Fog Caused by Evaporation
When cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture
may evaporate from the water surface to produce saturation.
EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA
El Niño- is the name given to the periodic warming of the
ocean that occurs in the central and eastern Pacific.
– At irregular intervals of three to seven years, these warm
countercurrents become unusually strong and replace
normally cold offshore waters with warm equatorial waters.
– A major El Niño episode can cause extreme weather in
many parts of the world.
La Niña
Researchers have come to recognize that when surface
temperatures in the eastern Pacific are colder than average,
a La Niña event is triggered that has a distinctive set of
weather patterns.
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Global precipitation can be explained if knowledge of global
winds and pressure systems are applied.
WEATHER PATTERNS AND SEVERE STORMS
AIR MASSES AND WEATHER
AIR MASSES
An air mass is an immense body of air that is characterized by
similar temperatures and amounts of moisture at any given
altitude.
Movement of Air Masses
As it moves, the characteristics of an air mass change and so
does the weather in the area over which the air mass moves.
Classifying Air Masses
In addition to their overall temperature, air masses are
classified according to the surface over which they form.
Continental Polar Air Masses
– Continental polar air masses are uniformly cold and dry in
winter and cool and dry in summer.
Maritime Tropical Air Masses
– Maritime tropical air masses are warm, loaded with
moisture, and usually unstable.
Maritime Polar Air Masses
– Maritime polar air masses begin as cP air masses in Siberia.
The cold, dry continental polar air changes into relatively
mild, humid, unstable maritime polar air during its long
journey across the North Pacific.
– Maritime polar air masses also originate in the North
Atlantic off the coast of eastern Canada.
Continental Tropical Air Masses
– Only occasionally do cT air masses affect the weather
outside their source regions. However, when a cT air mass
moves from its source region in the summer, it can cause
extremely hot, drought like conditions in the Great Plains.
– Movements of cT air masses in the fall result in mild
weather in the Great Lakes region, often called Indian
summer.
FRONTS
FORMATION OF FRONTS
When two air masses meet, they form a front, which is a
boundary that separates two air masses.
TYPES OF FRONTS
Warm Fronts – A warm front forms when warm air moves
into an area formerly covered by cooler air.
Cold Fronts – A cold front forms when cold, dense air moves
into a region occupied by warmer air.
Stationary Fronts – Occasionally, the flow of air on either
side of a front is neither toward the cold air mass nor toward
the warm air mass, but almost parallel to the line of the
front. In such cases, the surface position of the front does not
move, and a stationary front forms.
Occluded Fronts– When an active cold front overtakes a
warm front, an occluded front forms.
Occurrence of Tropical Cyclones
– Most tropical cyclones form between about 5 and 20
degrees north and south latitude. The North Pacific has the
greatest number of storms, averaging 20 per year.
Development of Tropical Cyclones
– Tropical cyclones develop most often in the late summer
when water temperatures are warm enough to provide the
necessary heat and moisture to the air.
– The eye is a zone of scattered clouds and calm averaging
about 20 kilometers in diameter at the center of a tropical
cyclone.
– The eye wall is a doughnut-shaped area of intense
cumulonimbus development and very strong winds that
surrounds the eye of a tropical cyclone.
CLIMATE
EARTH’S MAJOR CLIMATE ZONES

Middle-Latitude Cyclones
Middle-latitude cyclones are large centers of low pressure
that generally travel from west to east and cause stormy
weather.
The Role of Airflow Aloft
More often than not, air high up in the atmosphere fuels a
middle-latitude cyclone.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMATE
LATITUDE
SEVERE STORMS
– As latitude increases, the intensity of solar energy
THUNDERSTORMS
decreases.
– A thunderstorm is a storm that generates lightning and
– The tropical zone is between 23.5° north (the tropic of
thunder. Thunderstorms frequently produce gusty winds,
Cancer) and 23.5° south (the tropic of Capricorn) of the
heavy rain, and hail.
equator. The sun’s rays are most intense and the
Occurrence of Thunderstorms
temperatures are always warm.
– At any given time, there are an estimated 2000
– The temperate zones are between 23.5° and 66.5° north
thunderstorms in progress on Earth. The greatest number
and between 23.5° and 66.5° south of the equator. The sun’s
occur in the tropics where warmth, plentiful moisture, and
rays strike Earth at a smaller angle than near the equator.
instability are common atmospheric conditions.
– Polar zones are between 66.5° north and south latitudes
Development of Thunderstorms
and the poles. The sun’s rays strike Earth at a very small angle
– Thunderstorms form when warm, humid air rises in an
in the polar zones.
unstable environment.
ELEVATION – The higher the elevation is, the colder the
climate.
TORNADOES
TOPOGRAPHY – Topographic features such as mountains
– Tornadoes are violent windstorms that take the form of a
play an important role in the amount of precipitation that
rotation column of air called a vortex.
falls over an area.
The vortex extends downward from a cumulonimbus cloud.
WATER BODIES
Occurrence and Development of Tornadoes
– Large bodies of water such as lakes and oceans have an
– Most tornadoes form in association with severe
important effect on the temperature of an area because the
thunderstorms.
temperature of the water body influences the temperature
– A mesocyclone is a vertical cylinder of rotating air that
of the air above it.
develops in the updraft of a thunderstorm.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Tornado Intensity
– Global winds are another factor that influences climate
– Because tornado winds cannot be measured directly, a
because they distribute heat and moisture around Earth.
rating on the Fujita scale is determined by assessing the
VEGETATION
worst damage produced by the storm.
– Vegetation can affect both temperature and the
Tornado Safety
precipitation patterns in an area.
– Tornado watches alert people to the possibility of
tornadoes in a specified area for a particular time.
CLIMATE CHANGES
– A tornado warning is issued when a tornado has actually
NATURAL PROCESSES THAT CHANGE CLIMATES
been sighted in an area or is indicated by weather radar.
Volcanic Eruptions – The presence of volcanic aerosols (ash,
dust, and sulfur-based aerosols) in the air increases the
TROPICAL CYCLONES
amount of solar radiation that is reflected back into space.
– Whirling tropical cyclones produce winds of at least 119
This causes Earth’s lower atmosphere to cool.
kilometers per hour are known in the
Ocean Circulation
Western Pacific Area as typhoons, in the Indian Ocean as
– Changes in ocean circulation also can result in short-term
Cyclones and in the United States as hurricanes.
climate fluctuations.
Solar Activity
– When the sun is most active, it contains dark blemishes
called sunspots. The formation of sunspots appears to
correspond with warm periods in Europe and North America.
Earth Motions
– Geographic changes in Earth’s land and water bodies cause
changes in climate.
– Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit and the tilt of Earth on
its axis are other Earth motions that affect global climates.
HUMAN IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGES
The Greenhouse Effect
– The greenhouse effect is a natural warming of both Earth’s
lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface from solar radiation
being absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere.
Global Warming
– As a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases, global temperatures have increased. This
increase is called global warming.
ORIGIN OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
EARLY ASTRONOMY
ANCIENT GREEKS
– Astronomy is the science that studies the universe. It
includes the observation and interpretation of celestial
bodies and phenomena.
– The Greeks used philosophical arguments to explain natural
phenomena.
– The Greeks also used some observational data.
Geocentric Model (Ptolemy)
– In the ancient Greeks’ geocentric model, the moon, sun,
and the known planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter
—orbit Earth.
Heliocentric Model (Copernicus)
– In the heliocentric model, Earth and the other planets orbit
the sun.
Ptolemaic System
– Ptolemy created a model of the universe that accounted for
the movement of the planets.
– Retrograde motion is the apparent westward motion of the
planets with respect to the stars.
THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
Nicolaus Copernicus
– Copernicus concluded that Earth is a planet. He proposed a
model of the solar system with the sun at the center.
Tycho Brahe
– Tycho Brahe designed and built instruments to measure the
locations of the heavenly bodies. Brahe’s observations,
especially of Mars, were far more precise than any made
previously.
Johannes Kepler
Kepler discovered three laws of planetary motion:
1. Orbits of the planets are elliptical.
2. Planets revolve around the sun at varying speed.
3. There is a proportional relationship between a planet’s
orbital period and its distance to the sun.
– An ellipse is an oval-shaped path.
– An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between
Earth and the sun; it is about 150 million kilometers.
Galileo Galilei
– Galileo’s most important contributions were his
descriptions of the behavior of moving objects. He developed
his own telescope and made important discoveries:
– Four satellites, or moons, orbit Jupiter.
– Planets are circular disks, not just points of light.
– Venus has phases just like the moon.
– The moon’s surface is not smooth.
– The sun has sunspots, or dark regions.
Sir Isaac Newton
– Although others had theorized the existence of
gravitational force, Newton was the first to formulate and
test the law of universal gravitation.
Universal Gravitation
– Gravitational force decreases with distance.
– The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its
gravitational force.
THE EARTH–MOON–SUN SYSTEM
MOTIONS OF EARTH
The two main motions of Earth are rotation and revolution.
Precession is a third and very slow motion of Earth’s axis.
Rotation
– Rotation is the turning, or spinning, of a body on its axis.
Two measurements for rotation:
– Mean solar day is the time interval from one noon to the
next, about 24 hours.
– Sidereal day is the time it takes for Earth to make one
complete rotation (360o) with respect to a star other than
the sun—23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds.
Revolution
– Revolution is the motion of a body, such as a planet or
moon, along a path around some point in space.
– Perihelion is the time in January when Earth is closest to
the sun.
– Aphelion is the time in July when Earth is farthest from the
sun.
Earth’s Axis and Seasons
– The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane that connects
Earth’s orbit with the celestial sphere.
– Because of the inclination of Earth’s axis to the plane of the
ecliptic, Earth has its yearly cycle of seasons.
Precession
– Precession traces out a cone over a period of 26,000 years.
Earth–Sun Motion
– The solar system speeds in the direction of the star Vega.
– The sun revolves around the galaxy.
– Earth is presently approaching one of its nearest galactic
neighbors, the Great Galaxy in Andromeda.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM
– Perigee is the point at which the moon is closest to Earth.
– Apogee is the point at which the moon is farthest from
Earth.
Phases of the Moon
– The phases of the moon are the progression of changes in
the moon’s appearance during the month.
– Lunar phases are a result of the motion of the moon and
the sunlight that is reflected from its surface.

Lunar Motions
– The synodic month is based on the cycle of the moon’s
phases. It lasts 29 1/2 days.
– The sidereal month is the true period of the moon’s
revolution around Earth. It lasts 27 1/3 days.
– The difference of two days between the synodic and
sidereal cycles is due to the Earth–moon system also moving
in an orbit around the sun.
– The moon’s period of rotation about its axis and its
revolution around Earth are the same, 27 1/3 days. It causes
the same lunar hemisphere to always face Earth.
ECLIPSES
– Solar eclipses occur when the moon moves in a line directly
between Earth and the sun, casting a shadow on Earth.
– Lunar eclipses occur when the moon passes through
Earth’s shadow.
– During a new-moon or full-moon phase, the moon’s orbit
must cross the plane of the ecliptic for an eclipse to take
place.
EARTH’S MOON
THE LUNAR SURFACE
Craters
– A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or a
depression produced by a meteorite impact
– Most craters were produced by the impact of rapidly
moving debris.
– Rays are any of a system of bright, elongated streaks,
sometimes associated with a crater on the moon.
Highlands
– Most of the lunar surface is made up of densely pitted,
light-colored areas known as highlands.
Maria
– Maria, ancient beds of basaltic lava, originated when
asteroids punctured the lunar surface, letting magma bleed
out.
– A rille is a long channel associated with lunar maria. A rille
looks similar to a valley or a trench.
Regolith
– The lunar regolith is a thin, gray layer on the surface of the
moon, consisting of loosely compacted, fragmented material
believed to have been formed by repeated impacts of
meteorites.
LUNAR HISTORY
The most widely accepted model for the origin of the moon is
that when the solar system was forming, a body the size of
Mars impacted Earth. The resulting debris was ejected into
space, began orbiting around Earth, and eventually united to
form the moon.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
THE PLANETS: An Overview
– Moderately large objects that orbit a star
– The terrestrial planets are planets that are small and rocky
—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
– The Jovian planets are the huge gas giants—Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
– Size is the most obvious difference between the terrestrial
and Jovian planets.
– Density, chemical makeup, and rate of rotation are other
ways in which the two groups of planets differ.
Criteria for being a planet
– It is in orbit around the Sun
– It should have sufficient mass for it self-gravity to overcome
rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium
(nearly round shape).
– It should have a cleared neighborhood around its orbit.
The Interiors of the Planets
– The substances that make up the planets are divided into
three groups: gases, rocks, and ices.
The Atmosphere of the Planets
– The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres of
hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia.
– By contrast, the terrestrial planets, including Earth, have
meager atmospheres at best.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Nebular Theory
– A nebula is a cloud of gas and/or dust in space.
– According to the nebular theory, the sun and planets
formed from a rotating disk of dust and gases.
Planetesimals
– Planetesimals are small, irregularly shaped bodies formed
by colliding matter.
THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
– smaller size and mass
– higher density
– made mostly of rock and metal
– solid surface
– few (if any) moons and no rings
MERCURY: The Fastest Revolving Planet
– The closest Planet to the Sun.
– Only a little larger than our moon.
– It is covered by dust, rocks, and craters.
– It takes 59 days for it to rotate once around its axis
– Mercury has almost no atmosphere.
– It is the 8th largest planet in the solar system.
Surface Features
– Mercury has cratered highlands, much like the moon, and
vast smooth terrains that resemble maria.
Surface Temperatures
– Mercury has the greatest temperature extremes of any
planet.
– Mercury can reach a high of 800 degrees and a low of
about 300 degrees Fahrenheit
VENUS: The Hottest Planet
Venus is similar to Earth in size, density, mass, and location in
the solar system. Thus, it has been referred to as ―Earth’s
twin.‖
– It takes longer to rotate once around its axis than to revolve
once around the sun
– On Venus a day is slightly more than a year
– The atmosphere completely hides the surface and traps the
heat.
– Has no water.
– Life as we know it could not survive here.
– Only rocks can handle the high temperature and crushing
pressure
– It is the sixth largest planet in the solar system.
Surface Temperatures
– The surface temperature of Venus reaches 475 °C, and its
atmosphere is 97 percent carbon dioxide.
Surface Features
– Has mountains, valleys, and plains.
– Venus is covered in thick clouds that visible light cannot
penetrate.
– About 80 percent of Venus’s surface consists of plains
covered by volcanic flow.
EARTH: Our Mother Planet
– 70% of its surface is water& the other 30% is land.
– Its tilt causes the seasons on the planet.
– Earth is the only planet in the universe which is known to
support life.
– Earth is almost five billion years old.
– The center of the Earth, its core, is molten
– Earth is the only planet in the Solar System known to be
geologically active.
– The 5th largest plane net in the Solar System
– It has one satellite – Moon
MARS: The Red Planet
– The largest volcano in the Solar System is on Mars, called
Olympus Mons.
– Mars has seasons like Earth.
– This is caused by the tilt of the planet's axis, at a similar
angle to the tilt of Earth's axis
– Rocks from Mars have landed on Earth from meteorite
impacts blasting debris through space.
– The average temperature on Mars is about -67 °F.
– Mars is the 7th largest planet.
– It has two small natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos.
The Martian Atmosphere
– The Martian atmosphere has only 1 percent of the density
of Earth’s.
– Although the atmosphere of Mars is very thin, extensive
dust storms occur and may cause the color changes observed
from Earth.
Surface Features
– Most Martian surface features are old by Earth standards.
The highly cratered southern hemisphere is probably 3.5
billion to 4.5 billion years old.
Water on Mars
– Some areas of Mars exhibit drainage patterns similar to
those created by streams on Earth.
– Images from the Mars Global Surveyor indicate that
groundwater has recently migrated to the surface.
THE OUTER (JOVIAN) PLANETS
– large size and mass
– lower density
– made mostly of hydrogen, helium and hydrogen
compounds
– no solid surface
– rings and many moons
JUPITER: The Largest Planet
– Earth could fit into Jupiter over 1300 times
– Jupiter is made up almost entirely of gas
– Jupiter's has a famous structure --Red Spot is a great storm
that has raged for at least four hundred years.
– Jupiter has a thin set of rings, hardly visible from Earth.
– Jupiter has the strongest pull of gravity in the Solar System.
– If we were able to stand on the surface of Jupiter, we would
weigh three times as much as we would on Earth.
– Jupiter does not have a solid surface.
– The planet is a ball of liquid surrounded by gas.
– Jupiter has a mass that is 2 1/2 times greater than the mass
of all the other planets and moons combined.
Structure of Jupiter
– Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere also contains small
amounts of methane, ammonia, water, and sulfur
compounds.
Jupiter’s Moons
– Jupiter’s satellite system, resembles a miniature solar
system.
– Jupiter has four large Galilean moons, twelve smaller
named moons and twenty-three more recently discovered
but not named moons. The four large Galilean moons were
first observed by
Galileo in 1610.
IO
– the fifth moon of Jupiter.
– the third largest of Jupiter’s moons.
– has hundreds of volcanic calderas, some of the volcanoes
are active.
EUROPA
– Europa is the sixth of Jupiter’s moons and is the fourth
largest.
– It is slightly smaller than the Earth’s moon.
– The surface strongly resembles images of sea ice on Earth.
– There may be a liquid water sea under the crust.
– Europa is one of the five known moons in the solar system
to have an atmosphere.
GANYMEDE
– the seventh and largest of Jupiter’s known satellites.
– has extensive cratering and an icy crust.
CALLISTO
– the eighth of Jupiter’s known satellites and the second
largest.
– has the oldest, most cratered surface of anybody yet
observed in the solar system.
Jupiter’s Rings
– Jupiter’s ring system was one of the most unexpected
discoveries made by Voyager 1.
SATURN: The Elegant Planet
– The most prominent feature of Saturn is its system of rings.
– Saturn is the second largest planet.
– The many moons of Saturn are as different as fire and ice.
– A year on Saturn would take almost thirty Earth years.
– Saturn is twice as far away from the Sun as Jupiter is.
– Saturn is made of materials that are lighter than water
– If you could fit Saturn in a lake, it would float.
Features of Saturn
– Saturn’s atmosphere is very active, with winds roaring at up
to 1500 kilometers per hour.
– Large cyclonic ―storms‖ similar to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot,
although smaller, occur in Saturn’s atmosphere.
Saturn’s Rings
– Until the discovery that Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have
ring systems, this phenomenon was thought to be unique to
Saturn.
– Most rings fall into one of two categories based on particle
density.
– Saturn’s rings are not solid; they are composed of small
countless particles.
– Saturn's rings are believed to be the particles of an old
moon orbiting the planet, smashed apart in a collision about
50 million years ago.
– The rings are very thin.
Though they’re 250,000km or more in diameter, they’re less
than one kilometer thick.
Saturn’s Moons
– Saturn’s satellite system consists of at least 31 moons.
– Titan is the largest moon, and it is bigger than Mercury.
URANUS: The Sideways Planet
– Instead of being generally perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit like the other planets, Uranus’s axis of rotation lies
nearly parallel with the plane of its orbit.
– It takes just over 84 years on Earth for Uranus to orbit the
Sun.
– Uranus is the only planet in our solar system to rotate on its
side.
– If we were able to see Uranus' moons orbiting the planet,
they would go over and under the planet like lights on a
Ferris wheel.
– Uranus is pale blue/blue-green color.
– It is caused by the methane in its atmosphere which filters
out red light.
– Uranus is the third largest planet in the solar system
NEPTUNE: The Windy Planet
– Winds exceeding 1000 kilometers per hour encircle
Neptune, making it one of the windiest places in the solar
system.
– Neptune sometimes orbits the Sun further away than Pluto
making it the most distant planet in the Solar System (1979-
1999).
– Since its discovery in 1846, Neptune has not yet completed
a full orbit. In fact, it takes 165 years for the planet to go
around the Sun.
– Neptune has the strongest winds in the Solar System, and a
dark spot, similar to Jupiter's Great Red Spot
– Neptune is the 4th largest planet.
– Like Uranus, methane gives it color
MINOR MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
MOON or SATELLITE
– An object that orbits a planet
ASTEROIDS: Microplanets
– An asteroid is a small, rocky body whose diameter can
range from a few hundred kilometers to less than a
kilometer.
– Most asteroids lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in
the asteroid belt. They have orbital periods of three to six
years.
CERES
– Largest Known Asteroid
– By far, the largest and most massive body in the asteroid
belt.
– Discovered on Jan. 1, 1801 by G. Piazzi
– Named after the Roman Goddess of Harvest.
COMETS
– Comets are small bodies made of rocky and metallic pieces
held together by frozen gases. Comets generally revolve
about the sun in elongated orbits.
– Commonly found orbiting in the Kuiper Belt
Coma
– A coma is the fuzzy, gaseous component of a comet’s head.
– A small glowing nucleus with a diameter of only a few
kilometers can sometimes be detected within a coma. As
comets approach the sun, some, but not all, develop a tail
that extends for millions of kilometers.
Halley’s Comet
– The most famous short-period comet is Halley’s comet. Its
orbital period is 76 years.
Oort Cloud
– Comets with long orbital periods appear to be distributed in
all directions from the sun, forming a spherical shell around
the solar system called the Oort cloud.
DWARF PLANETS
A celestial body that:
– Is in orbit around the Sun
– Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid
body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium
(nearly round) shape.
– The neighborhood around its orbit is not cleared
– Is not a satellite
– Found in the Kuiper Belt
Kuiper Belt
– Like the asteroids in the inner solar system, most Kuiper
belt comets move in nearly circular orbits that lie roughly in
the same plane as the planets.
– begins near the orbit of Neptune and continues beyond
Pluto. This is also a region where most comets are found.
KNOWN DWARF PLANETS IN THE KUIPER BELT
1. Eris – the largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System.
Eris is the most distant member of our solar system known at
this time. It is 3 times farther out than Pluto. One trip around
the Sun takes 557 Earth years for Eris.
2. Pluto – The second largest dwarf planet. Its orbit is highly
inclined to the ecliptic and highly eccentric. Named after the
God of the Underworld. The name was proposed by Venetia
Burney, an eleven-year-old girl from England. The name was
chosen from suggestions all over the world.
Pluto has three known moons:
a. Charon – the largest moon of Pluto
b. Nix
c. Hydra
3. Makemake – Initially known as 2005 FY9 and later given
the minor planet number 136472. Discovered on March 31,
2005 by Mike Brown.
4. Haumea - 2003 EL61
Named after Hawaiian Goddess of Childbirth. Discovered on
Dec. 28, 2004 by Mike Brown
METEOROIDS
– A meteoroid is a small, solid particle that travels through
space.
– A meteor is the luminous phenomenon observed when a
meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up,
popularly called a shooting star.
– A meteorite is any portion of a meteoroid that reaches
Earth’s surface.
Most meteoroids originate from any one of the following
three sources:
(1) interplanetary debris that was not gravitationally swept
up by the planets during the formation of the solar system,
(2) material from the asteroid belt, or
(3) the solid remains of comets that once traveled near
Earth’s orbit.
THE SUN
TOOLS FOR STUDYING SPACE
REFRACTING TELESCOPES
A refracting telescope is a telescope that uses a lens to bend
or refract light.
Focus – The most important lens in a refracting telescope,
the objective lens, produces an image by bending light from a
distant object so that the light converges at an area called the
focus (focus = central point).
Chromatic Aberration– A chromatic aberration is the
property of a lens whereby light of different colors is focused
at different places.
REFLECTING TELESCOPES
A reflecting telescope is a telescope that reflects light off a
concave mirror, focusing the image in front of the mirror.
Advantages of Reflecting Telescopes
– Most large optical telescopes are reflectors. Light does not
pass through a mirror, so the glass for a reflecting telescope
does not have to be of optical quality.
Properties of Optical Telescopes – Both refracting and
reflecting telescopes have three properties that aid
astronomers in their work:
1. Light-gathering power
2. Resolving power
3. Magnifying power
RADIO TELESCOPES
A radio telescope is a telescope designed to make
observations in radio wavelengths.
– A radio telescope focuses the incoming radio waves on an
antenna, which, just like a radio antenna, absorbs and
transmits these waves to an amplifier.
Advantages of Radio Telescopes
– Radio telescopes are much less affected by turbulence in
the atmosphere, clouds, and the weather.
– No protective dome is required, which reduces the cost of
construction.
– Radio telescopes can ―see‖ through interstellar dust
clouds that obscure visible wavelengths.
SPACE TELESCOPES
– Space telescopes orbit above Earth’s atmosphere and thus
produce clearer images than Earth- based telescopes.
Hubble Space Telescope
– The first space telescope, built by NASA, was the Hubble
Space Telescope. Hubble was put into orbit around Earth in
April 1990.
Other Space Telescopes
– To study X-rays, NASA uses the Chandra X-Ray Observatory.
This space telescope was launched in 1999.
– Another space telescope, the Compton Gamma-Ray
Observatory, was used to study both visible light and gamma
rays.
– In 2011, NASA plans to launch the James Webb Space
Telescope to study infrared radiation.
STRUCTURE OF THE SUN
Because the sun is made of gas, no sharp boundaries exist
between its various layers. Keeping this in mind, we can
divide the sun into four parts: the solar interior; the visible
surface, or photosphere; and two atmospheric layers, the
chromosphere and corona.
PHOTOSPHERE
– The photosphere is the region of the sun that radiates
energy to space, or the visible surface of the sun.
– It consists of a layer of incandescent gas less than 500
kilometers thick.
– It exhibits a grainy texture made up of many small, bright
markings, called granules, produced by convection.
– Most of the elements found on Earth also occur on the sun.
– Its temperature averages approximately 6000 K (10,000oF).
CHROMOSPHERE
– The chromosphere is the first layer of the solar atmosphere
found directly above the photosphere.
– It is a relatively thin, hot layer of incandescent gases a few
thousand kilometers thick.
– Its top contains numerous spicules, which are narrow jets
of rising material.
CORONA
– The corona is the outer, weak layer of the solar
atmosphere.
– The temperature at the top of the corona exceeds 1 million
K.
– Solar wind is a stream of protons and electrons ejected at Light-Year
high speed from the solar corona. – A light-year is the distance light travels in a year, about 9.5
trillion kilometers.
SUNSPOTS
– A sunspot is a dark spot on the sun that is cool in contrast STELLAR BRIGHTNESS
to the surrounding photosphere. Apparent Magnitude
– Sunspots appear dark because of their temperature, which – Apparent magnitude is the brightness of a star when
is about 1500 K less than that of the surrounding solar viewed from Earth.
surface. – Three factors control the apparent brightness of a star as
seen from Earth: how big it is, how hot it is, and how far away
PROMINENCES it is.
– Prominences are huge cloudlike structures consisting of
chromospheric gases. Absolute Magnitude
– Prominences are ionized gases trapped by magnetic fields – Absolute magnitude is the apparent brightness of a star if it
that extend from regions of intense solar activity. were viewed from a distance of 32.6 light-years.

SOLAR FLARES DIFFERENT KINDS OF STARS

– Solar flares are brief outbursts that normally last about an – A red giant is a large, cool star of high luminosity;
hour and appear as a sudden brightening of the region above – A supergiant is a very large, very bright red giant star.
a sunspot cluster. Variable Stars
– During their existence, solar flares release enormous – A Cepheid variable is a star whose brightness varies
amounts of energy, much of it in the form of ultraviolet, periodically because it expands and contracts; it is a type of
radio, and X-ray radiation. pulsating star.
– Auroras, the result of solar flares, are bright displays of – A nova is a star that explosively increases in brightness.
ever-changing light caused by solar radiation interacting with Interstellar Matter
the upper atmosphere in the region of the poles. – A nebula is a cloud of gas and/or dust in space.
– There are two major types of nebulae:
THE SOLAR INTERIOR 1. Bright nebula
– Emission nebula
Nuclear Fusion – Reflection nebula
– Nuclear fusion is the way that the sun produces energy. 2. Dark nebula
This reaction converts four hydrogen nuclei into the nucleus
of a helium atom, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. STELLAR EVOLUTION
– During nuclear fusion, energy is released because some STAR BIRTH
matter is actually converted to energy. Protostar Stage
– It is thought that a star the size of the sun can exist in its – A protostar is a collapsing cloud of gas and dust destined to
present stable state for 10 billion years. become a star—a developing star not yet hot enough to
As the sun is already 4.5 billion years old, it is ―middle- engage in nuclear fusion.
aged.‖ – When the core of a protostar has reached about 10 million
K, pressure within is so great that nuclear fusion of hydrogen
BEYOND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM begins, and a star is born.
PROPERTIES OF STARS
CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS Main-Sequence Stage
– A constellation is an apparent group of stars originally – Stars age at different rates.
named for mythical characters. The sky contains 88 – Massive stars use fuel faster and exist for only a few million
constellations. years.
– Small stars use fuel slowly and exist for perhaps hundreds
Star Color and Temperature of billions of years.
– Color is a clue to a star’s temperature. – A star spends 90 percent of its life in the main-sequence
stage.
Binary Stars and Stellar Mass
– A binary star is one of two stars revolving around a Red-Giant Stage
common center of mass under their mutual gravitational – Hydrogen burning migrates outward. The star’s outer
attraction. envelope expands.
– Binary stars are used to determine the star property most – Its surface cools and becomes red.
difficult to calculate—its mass. – The core collapses as helium is converted to carbon.
Eventually all nuclear fuel is used and gravity squeezes the
MEASURING DISTANCES TO STARS star.

Parallax BURNOUT AND DEATH

– Parallax is the slight shifting of the apparent position of a – All stars, regardless of their size, eventually run out of fuel
star due to the orbital motion of Earth. and collapse due to gravity.
– The nearest stars have the largest parallax angles, while
those of distant stars are too small to measure.
Death of Low-Mass Stars
– Stars less than one-half the mass of the sun never evolve to
the red giant stage but remain in the stable main-sequence
stage until they consume all their hydrogen fuel and collapse
into a white dwarf.
Death of Medium-Mass Stars
– Stars with masses similar to the sun evolve in essentially
the same way as low-mass stars.
– During their collapse from red giants to white dwarfs,
medium-mass stars are thought to cast off their bloated
outer layer, creating an expanding round cloud of gas called
planetary nebula.
Death of Massive Stars
– In contrast to sunlike stars, stars that are over three times
the sun’s mass have relatively short life spans, which end in a
supernova event.
– A supernova is an exploding massive star that increases in
brightness many thousands of times.
– The massive star’s interior condenses and may produce a
hot, dense object that is either a neutron star or a black hole.
STELLAR REMNANTS
White Dwarfs
– A white dwarf is a star that has exhausted most or all of its
nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very small size, believed
to be near its final stage of evolution.
– The sun begins as a nebula, spends much of its life as a
main-sequence star, and then becomes a red giant, a
planetary nebula, a white dwarf, and, finally, a black dwarf.
Neutron Stars
– A neutron star is a star of extremely high density composed
entirely of neutrons.
– Neutron stars are thought to be remnants of supernova
events.
Supernovae
– A pulsar is a source that radiates short bursts or pulses of
radio energy in very regular periods.
– A pulsar found in the Crab Nebula during the 1970s is
undoubtedly the remains of the supernova of 1054.
Black Holes
– A black hole is a massive star that has collapsed to such a
small volume that its gravity prevents the escape of
everything, including light.
– Scientists think that as matter is pulled into a black hole, it
should become very hot and emit a flood of X-rays before
being pulled in.
THE UNIVERSE
The Milky Way Galaxy
– A galaxy is a group of stars, dust, and gases held together
by gravity.
Size of the Milky Way
– The Milky Way is a large spiral galaxy whose disk is about
100,000 light-years wide and about 10,000 light-years thick at
the nucleus.
Structure of the Milky Way
– Radio telescopes reveal that the Milky Way has at least
three distinct spiral arms, with some splintering.
TYPES OF GALAXIES
Spiral Galaxies
– About 30 percent of all galaxies are spiral galaxies.
– They have large diameters of 20,000 to 125,000 light-years
and contain both young and old stars.
Elliptical Galaxies
– About 60 percent of galaxies are classified as elliptical
galaxies.
– Elliptical galaxies range in shape from round to oval.
Irregular Galaxies
– Only 10 percent of the known galaxies have irregular
shapes and are classified as irregular galaxies.
– In addition to shape and size, one of the major differences
among different types of galaxies is the age of their stars.
Irregular galaxies contain young stars.
Galaxy Clusters
– A galaxy cluster is a system of galaxies containing several to
thousands of member galaxies.
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
Red Shifts
– Red shift, or a Doppler shift toward the red end of the
spectrum, occurs because the light waves are ―stretched,‖
which shows that Earth and the source are moving away
from each other.
Hubble’s Law
– Hubble’s law is a law that states that the galaxies are
retreating from the Milky Way at a speed that is proportional
to their distance.
– The red shifts of distant galaxies indicate that the universe
is expanding.
– To help visualize the nature of the universe, imagine a loaf
of raisin bread dough that has been set out to rise for a few
hours. As the dough doubles in size, so does the distance
between all the raisins. Those objects located father apart
move away from each other more rapidly.
THE BIG BANG
The big bang theory states that at one time, the entire
universe was confined to a dense, hot, supermassive ball.
Then, about 13.7 billion years ago, a violent explosion
occurred, hurling this material in all directions.
Supporting Evidence
– The red shift of galaxies supports the big bang and the
expanding universe theories.
– Scientists discovered a type of energy called cosmic
background radiation. Scientists think that this radiation was
produced during the big bang.
THE BIG CRUNCH?
The future of the universe follows two possible paths:
1. The universe will expand forever.
2. The outward expansion will stop and gravitational
contraction will follow.
– The view currently favored by most scientists is an
expanding universe with no ending point.
– It should be noted, however, that the methods used to
determine the ultimate fate of the universe have substantial
uncertainties.