Chapter 5: Learning: Multiple-Choice

Chapter 5: Learning
Multiple-Choice
1. The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in

behavior or potential behavior is known as ________.
a. learning
b. intelligence formation
c. cognition
d. imprinting
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 153
Topic: Introduction
Skill: F
2. Learning is a process by which experience results in ________.

a. acquisition of motivation
b. delayed genetic behavioral contributions
c. amplification of sensory stimuli
d. relatively permanent behavior change or potential behavior change
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1 2 yr.: 89% r = .20
Page Reference: 153
Topic: Introduction
Skill: F
3. A type of learning that involves associating one event with another is called ________.
a. vicarious learning
b. latent learning
c. cognitive learning
d. conditioning
Answer: d
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 153
Topic: Introduction
Skill: F
Classical Conditioning
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Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved .
Learning Objectives
 Define learning.
 Describe the elements of classical conditioning, distinguishing among unconditioned
stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
 Describe the process of establishing a classically conditioned response, including the
effect of intermittent pairing.
 Provide examples of classical conditioning in humans, including desensitization therapy.
Explain the statement that “classical conditioning is selective” and illustrate with
examples of conditioned taste aversions.
4. The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one type of stimulus is elicited
by different, formerly neutral, stimulus is called ________.
a. classical conditioning
b. vicarious learning
c. cognitive restructuring
d. operant conditioning
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 153
Topic: Classical Conditioning
Skill: F
5. The transfer of a response from a natural stimulus to another, previously neutral stimulus, is
called ________.
a. modeling
b. desensitization
c. operant conditioning
d. classical conditioning
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2 4 yr.: 74% r = .33; 2 yr.: 89% r = .32
Page Reference: 153
Skill: F
6. We associate the name ________ most closely with classical conditioning.

a. E. L. Thorndike
b. Albert Bandura
c. B. F. Skinner
d. Ivan Pavlov
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 153
2
Skill: F
7. Ivan Pavlov is most closely associated with ________.

a. the Law of Effect
b. classical conditioning
d. vicarious learning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 153
Skill: F
8. A researcher trains a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell by pairing the ringing of the bell
with the presentation of meat. This type of learning is known as ________.
b. operant conditioning
Incorrect: Operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is controlled by the anticipated
outcomes it will produce.
Correct: The ability of the bell to evoke the response that was originally produced by the meat is
an example of classical conditioning.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 153-154
Skill: A
9. A researcher trains a little boy to fear a rabbit by making a loud, frightening noise every time
the boy approaches the rabbit. This type of learning is known as ________.
Correct: The fact that the rabbit now evokes fear, fear that was originally evoked by the noise, is
an example of classical conditioning.
Incorrect: If the young boy had learned to be afraid of the rabbit by watching his mother or
father demonstrate fear, this would be vicarious (or observational) learning.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
3
Skill: A
10. By pairing the ringing of a bell with the presentation of meat, Pavlov trained dogs to salivate
to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, the meat was the
________.
a. unconditioned response
b. conditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned stimulus
d. conditioned response
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, the ringing of the
bell was the ________.
b. unconditioned stimulus
c. conditioned response
d. conditioned stimulus
Answer: d
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, salivation to the
meat was the ________.
a. conditioned response
b. conditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response
d. unconditioned stimulus
Answer: c
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
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to the sound of a bell even when no meat was presented. In this experiment, salivation to the bell
was the ________.
a. conditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response
Answer: d
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
14. A response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs is
a(n) ________.
a. reflex
b. conditioned response
c. vicarious response
d. unconditioned response
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
15. An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually
produces the desired response when presented alone is a(n) ________.
b. reinforcer
c. antecedent
d. unconditioned stimulus
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
16. After conditioning, the response an organism produces when only a conditioned stimulus is
presented is a(n) ________.
a. conditioned response
b. unconditioned response
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c. reflex
d. vicarious response
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
17. Rachel has found that when she opens the cupboard door to get the cat food, the cats come
running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the
unconditioned stimulus is the ________.
a. cupboard door opening
Incorrect: The animal learns that the sound of the cupboard is associated with the receipt of cat
food, so the cupboard door opening is a conditioned stimulus.
b. cat food
Correct: The animal reflexively responds to the cat food, so it is the unconditioned stimulus.
c. running of the cats
d. cat
Answer: b
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the conditioned
stimulus is the ________.
a. cupboard door opening
Correct: The animal learns that the sound of the cupboard is associated with the receipt of cat
food, so the cupboard door opening is a conditioned stimulus.
b. running of the cats
c. cat food
Incorrect: The animal reflexively responds to the cat food, so it is the unconditioned stimulus.
d. cat
Answer: a
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
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running to the kitchen. Rachel knows that this is classical conditioning and that the
unconditioned stimulus is the ________ and the conditioned stimulus is the ________.
a. cat food; cupboard door opening
Correct: A conditioned stimulus is one that the cat learns to respond to, and an unconditioned
stimulus is one that happens reflexively.
b. cupboard door opening; cat food
Incorrect: This is the opposite of the correct answer.
c. cat food; kitchen
d. kitchen; cat food
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
20. An experimenter finds that a certain male subject always has an increased heartbeat when he
hears a certain piece of music. The experimenter sounds a buzzer and then plays the piece of
music. The experimenter repeats this procedure until the man responds with an increased
heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the unconditioned response is
________.
a. the piece of music
b. the sound of the buzzer
Incorrect: The sound of a buzzer comes to evoke the response, but the sound itself is a stimulus,
not a response.
c. listening to the music
d. an increased heartbeat
Correct: The increased heartbeat is an unconditioned stimulus when it is evoked by the music,
because it is happening before learning takes place.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the conditioned response is
________.
a. listening to the music
b. an increased heartbeat
Correct: The increased heartbeat is an unconditioned stimulus when it is evoked by the buzzer,
because it is happening after learning takes place.
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c. the piece of music
d. the sound of the buzzer
Incorrect: The sound of a buzzer comes to evoke the response, but the sound itself is a stimulus,
not a response.
Answer: b
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
heartbeat to the sound of the buzzer alone. In this situation, the unconditioned response is
________ and the conditioned response is ________.
a. listening to the music; listening to the music
b. an increased heartbeat; an increased heartbeat
Correct: In classical conditioning the CR and UR are the same response. What distinguishes
them is the stimulus that causes them to occur.
c. an increased heartbeat; listening to the music
Incorrect: This answer is incorrect because the sound of the music is a stimulus, not a response.
d. listening to the music; an increased heartbeat
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
23. Gloria, the star in the school play, must cry when her “father” tells her to leave home.
During rehearsal, Gloria holds an onion near her eyes when her “father” tells her to leave. The
onion serves as the ________ while being told to “leave home” is the ________.
a. US; UR
b. US; CS
Correct: Gloria is learning to associate a new stimulus (CS) with a stimulus that naturally causes
a response (US).
c. CS; US
Incorrect: This answer is backwards. The best answer is US;CS.
d. CS; UR
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
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24. “Every morning a train goes by my house at 6:30 when I am just sitting down to breakfast.
Lately, however, the train has been coming by at 4:30 and I am having a terrible time getting
back to sleep because I’m so hungry.” In this example of classical conditioning, the conditioned
stimulus is ________ and the conditioned response is ________.
a. eating breakfast; hunger
b. the sound of the train; going back to sleep
Incorrect: The sound of the train is the CS, but the US is getting hungry, not going back to sleep.
c. the sound of the train; hunger
Correct: Because you have learned to respond to the sound of the train by getting hungry, they
are now referred to as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
d. hunger; eating breakfast
Answer: c
Page Reference: 154
Skill: A
25. Classical conditioning has been demonstrated ________.

a. in humans and in other animals.
b. only in mammals
c. only in dogs
d. in all forms of animals except insects
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
26. Which of the following statements is true?

a. In classical conditioning, the learning takes place most quickly if the pairings of the CS and
US are separated by a moderate amount of time.
Correct: When the time separation between the CS and US increases, the rate of learning drops.
b. In classical conditioning, the learning occurs at about the same pace no matter how far apart
the pairings of the CS and US are.
c. In classical conditioning, the learning takes place most quickly if the pairings of the CS and
US are separated by a very long time.
d. In classical conditioning, the learning takes place most quickly if the pairings of the CS and
US follow each other very rapidly.
Incorrect: Without some separation between the CS and US, the organism in question seems not
to make the association between them that is necessary to maximize learning.
Answer: a
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Difficulty: 2
Skill: C
27. Pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the
learning trials is called ________.
a. partial reinforcement
b. shaping
c. intermittent pairing
d. sporadic pairing
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
28. The use of intermittent pairing ________ the rate of learning while it ________ the final
strength of the learned response.
a. reduces; reduces
Correct: When the CS is paired with the US only a portion of the learning trials, the rate of
learning is reduced, as is the final strength of the learned response.
b. increases; increases
Incorrect: When intermittent pairing is used, it reduces, not increases, the rate of learning and
the final strength of the learned response.
c. increases; reduces
d. reduces; increases
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 156
Skill: C
29. An experimenter attempting to classically condition a new behavior in a dog unintentionally

presents the CS without the US several times during the conditioning process. She finds that this
intermittent pairing ________.
a. increases the rate of learning and the strength of the final learned response
Incorrect: This is the opposite of the correct answer. Intermittent pairing reduces the rate of
learning and the strength of the final learned response.
b. has no effect on the rate of learning or the strength of the final learned response
c. increases the rate of learning but decreases the strength of the final learned response
d. reduces the rate of learning and the strength of the final learned response
10
Correct: When the US is only paired with the CS on some trials, it reduces the rate of learning
and the strength of the final learned response.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
30. One of the best known examples of classical conditioning was the Little Albert study,
conducted by ________.
a. Watson
b. Pavlov
c. Skinner
d. Freud
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
31. In the experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned stimulus was ________.
a. Albert
b. the rat
Correct: Little Albert had to learn to fear the rat, so the rat was a conditioned stimulus.
c. the loud noise
Incorrect: Because the noise evoked a response reflexively, it is referred to as an unconditioned
stimulus.
d. the laboratory room
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
32. In the experiment with Little Albert, the conditioned response was fear of the ________.
a. rat
Correct: Little Albert learned to be afraid of the rat, this fear was called a conditioned response.
b. loud noise
Incorrect: Little Albert was reflexively afraid of the noise, so this fear would be an unconditioned
response.
c. laboratory
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d. experimenter
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
33. In the experiment with Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus was the ________.
a. rat
Incorrect: Little Albert had to learn to fear the rat, so the rat was a conditioned stimulus.
b. loud noise
Correct: Because the noise evoked a response reflexively, it is referred to as an unconditioned
stimulus.
c. experimenter
d. laboratory
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
34. In the experiment with Little Albert, the unconditioned response was fear of the ________.
a. rat
Incorrect: Little Albert learned to be afraid of the rat, this fear was called a conditioned
response.
b. loud noise
Correct: Little Albert was reflexively afraid of the noise, so this fear would be an unconditioned
response.
c. laboratory
d. experimenter
Answer: b
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
35. In the Watson and Rayner study of Little Albert, the white rat was the ________ and the
loud noise was the ________.
a. US; UR
b. CS; CR
c. CS; US
Correct: The rat did not evoke a fear response reflexively, and the loud noise did. This means the
rat was the CS and the noise was the US.
12
d. US; CS
Incorrect: This answer is backwards, because the rat did not evoke a reflexive response, while
the loud noise did.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
36. In the Watson and Rayner study of Little Albert, the UR was ________ and the CR was
________.
a. crying and crawling away; crying and crawling away
Correct: In classical conditioning, the UR and the CR are the same response; the difference is
based on what stimulus is used to evoke the response.
b. the loud noise; the white rat
Incorrect: These are the CS and US (stimuli) not the responses.
c. crawling toward the rat and playing with it; crying and crawling away
d. crying and crawling away; crawling toward the rat and playing with it
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: A
37. Mary Cover Jones first demonstrated that children’s fears can be ________.
a. unlearned through classical conditioning
b. unlearned through operant conditioning
c. learned through classical conditioning
d. learned through operant conditioning
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
38. A kind of therapy closely related to classical conditioning that is designed to gradually
reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation is known as ________ therapy.
a. psychoanalytic
b. desensitization
c. conditioned
d. response
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Answer: b
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
39. Desensitization therapy is based primarily on the principles of ________.

Incorrect: Vicarious learning involves learning through observation without necessarily
participating. Desensitization requires active participation to be effective.
b. cognitive learning
c. classical conditioning
Correct: The pairing of stimuli to evoke a new response is a central concept of classical
conditioning.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: C
40. Wolpe’s therapy for treating anxiety, which involves the pairing of relaxation training with a
hierarchical list of fearful situations, is called ________.
a. desensitization
c. shaping
d. aversive conditioning
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
41. The person most closely associated with the development of desensitization therapy is
________.
a. John B. Watson
b. Joseph Wolpe
c. B. F. Skinner
d. Sigmund Freud
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
14
Skill: F
42. Researchers have discovered that many autoimmune disorders can be successfully controlled
without drug treatments through the use of ________ procedures.
a. desensitization
c. vicarious learning
Answer: d
Difficulty: 3
Skill: F

a. Phobias are intense fears
b. People develop phobias to just about everything.Phobias are rational fear responses to
dangerous things
c. Phobias can only be learned through operant conditioning.
d. We develop phobias to all triggers in the same manner.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
44. The process by which some stimuli, such as snakes, serve readily as conditioned stimuli for
certain responses, such as fear in humans, is called ________.
a. the diathesis-stress model
b. mental set
c. response acquisition
d. preparedness
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
45. The psychologist most closely associated with the concept of preparedness is ________.
a. Seligman
b. Wolpe
15
c. Bandura
d. Jones
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
46. Which of the following is NOT an example of preparedness in conditioning?

a. Birds quickly learn to avoid drinking water that is the same color as water that previously
made them ill.
Incorrect: This is an example of conditioned taste aversion, which is a type of preparedness.
b. Baby ducklings learn to recognize their mother’s sight and call as they follow her around, and
soon will follow nobody but their mother.
c. A child learns that brushing his teeth always results in praise from his parents.
Correct: Because there is no immediate survival advantage demonstrated by this example, it
would not be an example of preparedness.
d. Rats learn to avoid drinking water with a salty taste that previously made them ill.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 157
Skill: A
47. Conditioned taste aversions are typically learned after ________ pairing(s) between the
aversive food and the nauseous reaction to it.
a. only one
b. two to four
c. four to six
d. six to eight
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
48. Conditioned taste aversions are found ________.

a. in humans and other animals with a well-developed sense of taste
b. only in nonhuman animals
c. in virtually all animals
d. only in humans
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Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
Operant Conditioning
Learning Objectives
 Explain how operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning.
 Explain the law of effect (the principle of reinforcement) and the role of reinforcers,
punishers, and shaping in establishing an operantly conditioned response. Differentiate
between positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, and punishment. Explain the
circumstances under which punishment can be effective and the drawbacks to using
punishment.
 Explain what is meant by learned helplessness.
 Describe how biofeedback and neurofeedback can be used to change behavior.
49. Thorndike was known for his work with ________.

a. a Skinner box
b. a puzzle box
c. monkeys
d. modeling
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 158
Topic: Operant Conditioning
Skill: F
50. Instrumental conditioning is another term for ________.

a. cognitive restructuring
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 158
Skill: F
51. Operant conditioning is another name for ________.

a. Pavlovian conditioning
17
b. instrumental conditioning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 158
Skill: F
52. Emitted, voluntary behavior is BEST modified by ________.

a. trial and error
Incorrect: Classical conditioning deals with reflexive behaviors that are usually beyond the
individual’s control.
c. aversive conditioning
Correct: Operant conditioning deals with voluntary behaviors that an individual chooses to
engage in, and has control over.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 159
Skill: C
53. The two researchers most closely associated with operant conditioning are ________.
a. Freud and Perls
b. Skinner and Thorndike
c. Bandura and Ellis
d. Pavlov and Watson
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
54. Kevin is a good student. He studies hard because when he does he gets the teacher’s
approval. His studying behavior was probably learned through ________.
a. generalization
Correct: Kevin is engaging in a behavior to get a reward. This is a central concept of operant
conditioning.
18
Incorrect: In this case, there is no pairing of two stimuli to associate a reflexive response, so it
would not be classical conditioning.
d. trial and error
Answer: b
Page Reference: 159
Skill: A
55. An example of a behavior that is learned through operant conditioning is ________.

a. cleaning up your room to get your parents’ approval
Correct: The action of cleaning up is mediated by the desire to earn a reward. This is a core
concept in operant conditioning.
b. blinking in response to a flash of light
Incorrect: This is an example of a reflexive behavior, not a voluntary behavior, so it would not
demonstrate operant conditioning.
c. sneezing in response to dust
d. pulling one’s hand away from a flame
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 159
Skill: A
56. Which of the following is NOT an example of operantly learned behavior?

a. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented
Correct: This is an example of a reflexive behavior, not a voluntary behavior, so it would not
demonstrate operant conditioning.
b. a rat pressing a bar after receiving food for this behavior
c. a child doing her homework after she receives her teacher’s approval for her behavior
d. a rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behavior
Incorrect: The avoidance of a punisher is a core concept of operant behaviors, so this would not
be a correct answer.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 159
Skill: A
57. A child learns that whenever he eats all of his dinner he gets a cookie for dessert. This type
of learning is BEST explained by ________.
19
Incorrect: Because there is no involvement of a reflexive behavior, this is not a strong
demonstration of classical conditioning.
b. social learning theory
c. biofeedback theory
Correct: The engaging of behaviors to earn a reward on a repeated basis is a demonstration of
operant conditioning.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 159
Skill: A
58. Spontaneous, voluntary behaviors that you engage in by choice are called ________
behaviors.
a. latent
b. vicarious
c. operant
d. manifest
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
59. The idea that a behavior will increase or decrease based on the consequences that follow that
behavior is crucial to ________.
a. operant conditioning
Correct: This is one significant way that operant and classical conditioning differ from each
other.
b. insight learning
Incorrect: In classical conditioning, the stimulus comes before, not after, the response.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 159
Skill: C
60. Operant conditioning operates on the principle that behaviors occur more often when they
are ________.
a. modeled
20
b. punished
Incorrect: Punishing behaviors inhibits them. It does not encourage them.
c. ignored
d. reinforced
Correct: Reinforcement can be thought of as a reward, and rewarding a behaviour is the best
way to strengthen it.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 159
Skill: C
61. Any stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated is called a ________.
a. higher-order conditioner
b. situational artifact
c. reinforcer
d. cue
Answer: c
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
62. Any stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated is called a(n) ________.
a. aversive stimulus
b. punisher
c. negative reinforcer
d. antecedent
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
63. According to the law of effect, a behavior is most likely to be repeated when it is ________.
a. paired with a neutral stimulus
b. ignored
c. followed by reinforcement
Correct: Thorndike’s law of effect observed that reinforcing a behavior strengthens that
behavior, causing it to be repeated in the future.
21
d. preceded by reinforcement
Incorrect: The basic concept of the law of effect is that a behavior comes before the consequence,
not after it.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 159
Skill: C
64. The person most closely associated with the law of effect is ________.
a. Thorndike
b. Pavlov
c. Watson
d. Skinner
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
65. A box used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available responses and thus
increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur, is called a ________ box.
a. Skinner
b. Watson
c. trial
d. response
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 160
Skill: F
66. A “Skinner box” is most likely to be used in research on ________.

b. cognitive learning
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 160
22
Skill: F
67. Changing behavior through the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired

response is called ________.
a. modeling
b. negative reinforcement
c. shaping
Answer: c
Page Reference: 160
Skill: F
68. To teach a tiger to jump through a flaming hoop, the tiger is first reinforced for jumping up
on a certain pedestal, then for leaping from that pedestal to another. Next, the tiger has to jump
through a hoop between the pedestals to get the reward. Finally, the hoop is set afire and the tiger
must jump through it to get the reward. This is an example of ________.
a. secondary learning
b. modeling
Incorrect: The tiger is not demonstrating modeling, because he is not watching another tiger
jump through the hoop to show him the required behavior.
c. negative reinforcement
d. shaping
Correct: Because the tiger is reinforced as he gets closer and closer to the desired behavior, this
is an example of shaping.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1 4 yr.: 84% r = .13; 2 yr.: 81% r = .33; 2 yr.: 93% r = .16
Page Reference: 160
Skill: A
69. At the National Zoological Park in Washington, D. C., a polar bear suffered a broken tooth
and keepers needed a safe way of treating the problem. The bear was rewarded first for sticking
its nose through a slot in the cage door, then for allowing a keeper to lift its lip and touch its
teeth. Finally, a veterinarian was able to treat the damaged tooth while the bear waited placidly
for its familiar reward. This is an example of ________.
a. negative reinforcement
Incorrect: The bear is being given rewards rather than having aversive stimuli removed; thus,
this is not an example of negative reinforcement.
b. secondary learning
c. desensitization
d. shaping
23
Correct: This is an example of shaping because the bear was rewarded as he got closer and
closer to the desired behavior of allowing his tooth to be treated without becoming aggressive.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 160
Skill: A
70. Which of the following steps is the basic principle of self-modification of behavior?
a. Provide yourself with a positive reinforcer that is contingent upon specific improvements in
the target behavior.
Correct: By setting a target behaviour to acquire a reward, you are using the concept of self-
modification and employing operant conditioning.
b. Decide what behavior you want to acquire.
c. Monitor your present behavior.
d. Define the target behavior precisely.
Incorrect: This is one of the steps of self-modification, but it is not the basic principle of the
technique.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 161
Topic: Box: Applying Psychology: Modifying Your Own Behavior
Skill: C
71. The self-modification step in which one focuses on the behavior to be acquired rather than
the behaviors to be eliminated is called ________.
a. identifying the target behavior
b. imprinting
c. preparedness
d. a response set
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
72. A budding author wishes to improve her typing. Which of the following would be least
helpful in a program to help her reach her goal?
a. giving herself reinforcement each time she consistently improves in either speed or accuracy
b. keeping a careful record of her current rates of speed and accuracy
Incorrect: Tracking one’s behavior (and behavior change) is an important part of behavioral
self-modification.
24
c. punishing herself whenever she fails to achieve the goals she has set for herself
Correct: Behavior self-modification employs the use of reinforcement for the most effective
learning, not punishment.
d. deciding on specific improvements she wishes to make in speed and accuracy
Answer: c
Page Reference: 161
Skill: A
73. Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that an ongoing behavior will recur is
a(n) ________.
c. positive reinforcer
d. negative reinforcer
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
74. Any event whose reduction or termination increases the likelihood that an ongoing behavior
will recur is a(n) ________.
a. positive reinforcer
b. antecedent
c. negative reinforcer
d. punisher
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
75. A reinforcer that adds something rewarding to a situation is a(n) ________ reinforcer.
a. secondary
b. primary
c. additive
d. positive
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
25
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
76. A reinforcer that removes something unpleasant from a situation is a(n) ________
reinforcer.
a. positive
b. secondary
c. primary
d. negative
Answer: d
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
77. Positive reinforcement ________ the likelihood that the behavior preceding it will happen
again while negative reinforcement ________ the likelihood that the preceding behavior will
happen again.
a. decreases; decreases
b. decreases; increases
c. increases; increases
Correct: Both positive and negative reinforcement are defined by the same outcome –
strengthening the reoccurrence of a particular behavior.
d. increases; decreases
Incorrect: This answer is a common mistake that people make. Negative reinforcement is
designed to increase, not decrease, a particular behavior.
Answer: c
Page Reference: 161
Skill: C
78. The 5-year-old child of two very busy parents has been throwing tantrums. Whenever the
child gets angry or upset, one or both of his parents immediately come to his side and fuss over
and cajole him. Nevertheless, his tantrums do not diminish. In fact, they seem to occur more
often. We may assume that for this child his parents’ fussing over him serves as a(n) ________.
b. positive reinforcer
Correct: The child’s behaviors are strengthening when he is provided with the attention that he is
seeking, so the parents’ fussing is a positive reinforcer.
c. punisher
d. negative reinforcer
26
Incorrect: Because the parents are giving him attention, this outcome is a positive reinforcer, not
a negative reinforcer.
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 161
Skill: A
79. A child is praised for using his fork instead of his fingers to eat some spaghetti. This is an
example of ________ reinforcement.
a. extrinsic
Incorrect: A child being given a reward such as praise may, in fact, be a form of extrinsic
reinforcement, but the best answer is positive reinforcement.
b. higher-order
c. primary
d. positive
Correct: Because the child is given praise, this is an example of a negative reinforcer.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 161
Skill: A
80. A child is scolded for using his fingers instead of his fork to eat some spaghetti. The
scolding stops when he picks up his fork. Stopping the scolding is an example of ________
reinforcement.
a. negative
Correct: The removal of an unpleasant stimulus encourages a behavior to continue. This is an
example of negative reinforcement.
b. tertiary
c. secondary
d. positive
Incorrect: The child is repeating a behavior because he wants something (the scolding) to stop.
This is not positive reinforcement, but a response to negative reinforcement.
Answer: a
Page Reference: 161
Skill: A
81. When someone uses negative reinforcement to change a behavior, the behavior is likely to
________.
a. occur at the same rate
27
b. completely stop
c. occur more frequently
Correct: Both positive and negative reinforcement are designed to strengthen a behavior’s
reoccurrence in the future.
d. occur less frequently
Incorrect: Consequences that cause a behavior to weaken, or occur less frequently, are called
punishers and not reinforcers.
Answer: c
Page Reference: 161
Skill: C
82. Nagging someone to do something until they do it is an example of ________.

a. punishment
Incorrect: If you were to nag a person until they stopped doing a behavior, it might be considered
a form of punishment. In this example, the best answer is negative reinforcement.
Correct: Once the behavior has occurred, the aversive consequence (nagging) is removed. This
is negative reinforcement if it causes the person to do the desired action more frequently in the
future.
d. positive reinforcement
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 161
Skill: A
83. ________ reinforcers result in the learning of new behaviors or the strengthening of existing
ones.
a. Positive, but not negative
b. Neither positive nor negative
c. Negative, but not positive
d. Positive and negative
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
28
84. In negative reinforcement, the ________ of a(n) ________ stimulus follows a response and
changes the likelihood of that response reoccurring.
a. termination; aversive
Correct: By removing an unpleasant stimulus, a behavior is strengthened. This is the concept of
negative reinforcement.
b. termination; pleasant
Incorrect: Terminating a pleasant stimulus would be an example of punishment by removal, and
would be most likely to weaken, and not strengthen, a behavior.
c. onset; aversive
d. onset; pleasant
Answer: a
Page Reference: 161
Skill: C

a. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment all serve to increase the
occurrence of a given behavior.
b. Positive reinforcement serves to increase the occurrence of a given behavior whereas negative
reinforcement and punishment serve to decrease its occurrence.
Incorrect: This answer is incorrect because negative reinforcement, like positive reinforcement,
strives to strengthen the reoccurrence of a behavior.
c. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement serve to increase the occurrence of a given
behavior whereas punishment serves to decrease its occurrence.
Correct: Both positive and negative reinforcement strive to strengthen behaviors, while
punishment attempts to weaken behaviors.
d. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment all serve to decrease the
occurrence of a given behavior.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Skill: C
86. The basic difference between punishment and reinforcement boils down to a difference
between ________.
a. conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
Incorrect: A CS and US are concepts found in classical conditioning, not operant conditioning.
b. presenting and removing stimuli
c. stimuli and responses
d. decreasing and increasing response rates
Correct: By definition, punishers are designed to decrease response rates while reinforcers are
designed to increase response rates.
29
Answer: d
Skill: C
87. Superstitious behaviors are most commonly learned through ________.

a. subliminal learning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
88. Skinner found that if he randomly presented rewards to pigeons in a Skinner box, the
pigeons ________.
a. refused to eat the food
b. ceased all movement until the food pellets were randomly presented for a second time
c. developed a series of trial and error behaviors in an attempt to get the reward
d. developed a series of superstitious behaviors
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
89. Research on the use of rewards to facilitate learning indicates that ________.
a. linking rewards to learning reduces intrinsic motivation but not creativity
b. linking rewards to learning does not compromise either intrinsic motivation or creativity
c. linking rewards to learning reduces creativity but not intrinsic motivation
d. even when used properly, linking rewards to learning actually reduces intrinsic motivation and
creativity
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
30
90. Punishment is a(n) ________ controller of behavior.
a. powerful
b. weak
c. sporadic
d. reinforcing
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
91. When someone uses punishment to change a behavior, the probability of the behavior
occurring is likely to ________.
a. decrease
Correct: Punishment, by definition, is designed to reduce a behavior’s future frequency.
b. increase
Incorrect: Reinforcement, not punishment, is used to increase a behavior’s future frequency.
c. generalize
d. remain the same
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 162
Skill: C
92. Any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur is
________.
a. a secondary reinforcer
b. punishment
c. an aversive stimulus
d. negative reinforcement
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
93. Presenting an aversive stimulus to eliminate undesired behavior is an example of ________.

a. positive reinforcement
c. punishment
31
d. shaping
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 162
Skill: F
94. Each of the following makes punishment more effective except when it is ________.
a. swift
Incorrect: In order for punishment to effectively reduce a behavior, it must come very soon after
the undesirable behavior occurs.
b. arbitrary
Correct: If rules are not consistent and are arbitrarily applied and enforced, then punishment
will not be effective.
c. sufficient
d. consistent
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 163
Skill: C
95. After being told all morning not to play baseball near the house, a small boy continues to
play ball and breaks a window. Of the following methods of discipline, the one likely to be most
effective in changing the boy’s subsequent behavior is to ________.
a. punish him only if he fails to come inside and tell you what he just did
b. immediately take away his bat and ball and not let him use them for a week
Correct: This form of punishment is both swift and sufficient. It is not an over-reaction, but is a
reasonable consequence of an inappropriate action.
c. immediately take away his bat and ball, then kiss him and let him know that you are not really
angry
Incorrect: This sort of response will send a mixed message, and will inadvertently teach the child
that the rule of not playing ball near the house is something that can be ignored without
consequence.
d. tell him calmly and firmly that he will be punished later in the day, then give him milk and
cookies to take his mind off the upcoming punishment.
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 163
Skill: A
32
96. A puppy has ruined four pairs of shoes by chewing them up at times when the family is not
home. Which of the following is the most effective way to use punishment to teach the puppy not
to chew shoes?
a. Make a loud noise whenever you come home and find shoes chewed up, but then hug it and
give it a bone so that it won’t be afraid of you.
b. Make a loud noise whenever you catch it in the act of chewing shoes, but then hug it and give
it a bone so that it won’t be afraid of you.
c. Make a loud noise whenever you catch it in the act of chewing shoes, but not at other times.
Correct: This form of punishment is both swift and consistent, and is likely to help reduce the
puppy’s tendency to chew shoes.
d. Make a loud noise whenever you come home and find shoes chewed up.
Incorrect: This form of punishment may be consistent, but it is not swift and thus the puppy is not
likely to associate the smack with the act of chewing the shoes.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 163
Skill: A

a. The effectiveness of punishment depends solely on its force.
b. Punishment usually enhances the learning process.
c. Punishment should be applied intermittently.
Incorrect: This is incorrect because the best way to use punishment effectively is to use it
consistently.
d. Punishment does not always work.
Correct: The effectiveness of punishment relies on it being swift, consistent, and sufficient.
Otherwise it may not work and may, in fact, backfire!
Answer: d
Page Reference: 163
Skill: C
98. Which of the following statements about punishment is not true?

a. Punishment does not always work.
Incorrect: Even the best punishment – applied swiftly, consistently, and sufficiently – may not
effectively stop a behavior from occurring.
b. Effective punishment is consistent punishment.
c. The effectiveness of punishment depends primarily on its force.
Correct: The force of the punishment is an important factor, but it is not the only factor that
determines the punishment’s effectiveness.
d. Effective punishment is swift punishment.
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Answer: c
Page Reference: 163
Skill: C
99. Punishment is particularly useful in situations in which a behavior is ________ and must be
changed ________.
a. dangerous; quickly
Correct: Some of the “shock” factor of a punishment may help to cause immediate change when
a behaviour is dangerous and must be immediately curtailed.
b. dangerous; gradually
Incorrect: Gradual behaviour change is more effectively brought about via reinforcement, not
punishment.
c. harmless; gradually
d. harmless; quickly
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 163
Skill: C
100. Each of the following is true of punishment except it ________.

a. can disrupt the learning process
b. teaches more desirable behavior
c. rarely works when long-term changes in behavior are desired
d. can provoke aggressive behavior
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 163
Skill: F
101. Which of the following is true?

a. Punishment works best when combined with reinforcement of the desired behavior.
b. Punishment is usually the most effective method for long-term behavior change.
c. Punishment is never an effective way to change behavior.
d. Punishment works best when used alone.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 164
34
Skill: F
102. Learning a positive behavior that prevents an undesirable situation from occurring is called
________ training.
a. reconditioning
b. aversive
c. avoidance
d. modeling
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 164
Skill: F
103. Oscar takes vitamins to prevent illnesses related to vitamin deficiencies. This is an example
of ________.
a. shaping
Incorrect: Oscar is not being slowly rewarded as he gets closer to a desired behavior (taking
vitamins) so this is not an example of shaping.
c. avoidance training
Correct: The behavior (taking vitamins) is designed to avoid an aversive outcome (getting sick)
so it is an example of avoidance training.
d. modeling
Answer: c
Page Reference: 164
Skill: A
104. An animal is placed in a box with a bar and also a wire floor that can deliver a mild shock.
The experimenter first sounds a buzzer, then a few seconds later turns on the shock. Pressing the
bar after the buzzer sounds but before the shock is delivered will prevent the shock from
occurring. This is an example of ________.
a. avoidance training
Correct: Because the animal learns to do a behavior in order to avoid an unpleasant outcome,
this is an example of avoidance training.
Incorrect: There is no pairing of stimuli to elicit a reflexive response, so this is not an example of
classical conditioning.
c. punishment learning
d. modeling
35
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 164
Skill: A
105. Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs
as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful stimuli is called ________.
b. learned helplessness
c. avoidance learning
d. aversive conditioning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 164
Skill: F
106. The person most closely associated with research on learned helplessness is ________.
a. Bandura
b. Wolpe
c. Thorndike
d. Seligman
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 164
Skill: F
107. A researcher places dogs in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The dogs are randomly
given electric shocks and can do nothing to prevent them or stop them. Later, the same dogs are
placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the
shocks are given, the dogs do not even try to escape. They just sit and cower. This is an example
of ________.
a. learned helplessness
Correct: The animal’s unwillingness to try to help himself or improve his situation is a
demonstration of learned helplessness.
d. avoidance learning
Incorrect: The animal does not demonstrate avoidance learning because he does not attempt to
avoid or eliminate aversive outcomes.
36
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 164
Skill: A
108. In an experiment, two groups of dogs are given shocks to their feet. One group is able to
escape the shocks by jumping over a barrier. The second group is harnessed and cannot escape.
After several trials, both groups are put in situations where they can escape. The first group
escapes the shocks but the second group just sits and whines, refusing to attempt to escape. The
response of the second group is due to ________.
a. response generalization
b. learned helplessness
Correct: The animals’ unwillingness to try to help themselves or improve their situation is a
demonstration of learned helplessness.
c. latent learning
Incorrect: There is no evidence of latent learning because the responses that have been learned
are demonstrated immediately.
d. contingency blocking
Answer: b
Page Reference: 164
Skill: A
109. College students faced with unsolvable problems eventually give up and make only half
hearted attempts to solve new problems, even when the new problems can be solved easily. This
behavior is probably due to ________.
a. contingency blocking
b. response generalization
c. latent learning
Incorrect: There is no evidence of latent learning because the responses that have been learned
are demonstrated immediately.
d. learned helplessness
Correct: The “give up” tendency is a central concept to learned helplessness. These students
have learned to give up instead of try to solve the problem.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 164
Skill: A
110. Each of the following is true of learned helplessness except________.
37
a. it decreases motivation to try different responses that might bring relief from an unpleasant
situation
b. it can be found in both people and animals
c. once established it generalizes to new situations
d. success in solving new problems is quite effective in eliminating it
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
111. An operant conditioning technique in which a learner gains control over some
physiological process is called ________.
a. preparedness
b. contingency training
c. biofeedback
d. social learning
Answer: c
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
112. Biofeedback is an application of ________.

b. preparedness
c. social learning
Answer: d
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
113. Which of the following would be most appropriate for the use of biofeedback procedures?
a. conditioning children who are bullies to be less aggressive
Incorrect: There is no appropriate use of biofeedback that would be applied to obtain this
particular outcome.
b. conditioning children to be on time for school
c. conditioning executives to reduce their blood pressure
Correct: Biofeedback has been used to control physiological responses that are normally thought
of as being involuntary, like blood pressure.
38
d. conditioning coyotes to stay away from sheep
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 165
Skill: A
114. Barbara suffers from tension headaches. Her doctor teaches her to control them by
attaching an electronic device that emits a tone to her head. Even slight relaxation of her head
muscles causes the tone to drop. By relaxing her head muscles, her headaches are relieved. This
technique is known as ________.
a. contingency training
b. social learning
c. biofeedback
Correct: Biofeedback has been used to control physiological responses that are normally thought
of as being involuntary, and this can include the reduction of pain.
d. preparedness
Incorrect: Preparedness refers to a biological tendency to engage in a certain behavior or to
develop a fear of a naturally threatening stimulus. It is not related to Barbara’s situation.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 165
Skill: A
115. Each of the following is true of biofeedback except ________.

a. it can be used to help people control their brain waves
b. it does not work for everyone
c. learning biofeedback techniques is quick, simple, and easy
d. it has become a well-established treatment for a variety of medical problems
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
116. The use of biofeedback to monitor and control brain wave activity is known as ________.
a. neurofeedback
b. neurogenesis
c. homeofeedback
d. retrofeedback
39
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning
Learning Objectives
 Describe the importance of contingencies in both operant and classical conditioning.
 Differentiate between the four schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning and
their effect on learned behavior.
 Describe the processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and
discrimination in classical and operant conditioning.
 Explain what is meant by higher order conditioning and differentiate between primary
and secondary reinforcers.
117. Each of the following is true of classical and operant conditioning except ________.
a. in both, new behaviors can build on previously established ones
b. responses learned through them will generally last forever
c. responses in both are under the control of stimuli in the environment
d. they both involve the learning of associations
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Topic: Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning
Skill: C
118. In ________ conditioning, new behaviors can build on previously established ones.
a. operant but not classical
b. both operant and classical
Correct: In both types of conditioning, past behaviors can be a roadmap to future behaviors.
c. neither classical nor operant
d. classical but not operant
Incorrect: This is only partially right, because this statement also reflects operant conditioning.
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 167
Skill: C
40
119. A reliable “if-then” relationship between two events such as a CS and a US is called a
________.
a. contingency
b. response set
c. ratio
d. reciprocal bearing
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
120. A relationship in which one event depends on another is known as a ________.

a. response set
b. reciprocal bearing
c. correlation
d. contingency
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
121. In classical conditioning, the most effective method is to present the ________.
a. CS and US simultaneously
b. CS without ever presenting the US
c. US just before the CS
d. CS just before the US
Answer: d
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 167
Skill:F
122. The idea that in conditioning, the conditioned stimulus must signify that if one thing
occurs, something else is likely to occur, is part of ________ theory.
b. contingency
Correct: The term “contingency” refers to a dependent relationship between two events, as in
two stimuli that come to evoke a common response.
Incorrect: Contingencies exist in operant conditioning, but the best answer is contingency
41
d. autonomic conditioning
Answer: b
Page Reference: 167
Skill: C
123. Presenting the unconditioned stimulus before the conditioned stimulus is known as
________ conditioning.
a. inverted
b. classical
c. backward
d. primary
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
124. The process in which prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even
when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously is called ________.
a. backward conditioning
b. proactive interference
c. blocking
d. retroactive interference
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
125. In operant conditioning, ________.

a. continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned
through partial or intermittent reinforcement
b. both continuous reinforcement and partial or intermittent reinforcement lead to behaviors that
persist for equally long periods of time
c. neither partial nor continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist for long
periods of time
d. partial or intermittent reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior
learned through continuous reinforcement
Answer: d
42
Difficulty: 3
Skill: F
126. When comparing the effects of continuous reinforcement with intermittent reinforcement,
________.
a. continuous reinforcement causes longer-term changes in behavior than intermittent
reinforcement
b. intermittent reinforcement causes longer-term changes in behavior than continuous
reinforcement
c. neither causes long-term behavior change
d. both cause equally long-term changes in behavior
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Skill: F
127. In partial reinforcement, the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will be
delivered is called a ________.
a. reinforcement map
b. response-to-reinforcement guide
c. schedule of reinforcement
d. token economy
Answer: c
Page Reference: 168
Skill: F
128. On a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

a. next correct response after a varying number of responses have occurred
b. next correct response after a fixed number of responses have occurred
c. first correct response after varying amounts of time have passed
d. first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed
Answer: d
Page Reference: 168
Skill: F
43
129. If a person is paid at the end of each work day, the reinforcement schedule would be
________.
a. variable-interval
Incorrect: If the amount of time that had to pass before reinforcement changed, it would be a
variable interval-schedule.
b. fixed-interval
Correct: Because the reinforcement is given after a constant amount of time has passed (one day)
this is a fixed-interval scale.
c. fixed-ratio
d. variable-ratio
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 168
Skill: A
130. A young man’s fiancé calls at 11:00 p.m. every night. As the usual time for the call
approaches, he looks at the phone more and more frequently. His phone-looking is being
reinforced according to a ________.
a. fixed-ratio schedule
b. variable-ratio
c. fixed-interval schedule
Correct: Because the reinforcement is given after a constant amount of time has passed (one day)
this is a fixed-interval scale.
d. variable-interval
Incorrect: If his lady called him at a different time every night it would be an example of a
variable-interval scale.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 168
Skill: A
131. Scott works at a job where he is paid a salary every two weeks. Scott is being reinforced on
a ________ schedule.
a. variable-ratio
b. fixed-ratio
Incorrect: If Scott was paid after he sold 20 computers, and then again after he sold another 20
computers, this would be an example of a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
c. variable-interval
d. fixed-interval
Correct: Because Scott is reinforced after a constant, or unchanging, amount of time has passed,
this is a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement.
44
Answer: d
Page Reference: 168
Skill: A
132. Bob is an assembly-line worker and knows his foreman always checks his work at 10:00
a.m. and 2:00 p.m. Consequently, he only works hard from 9:30 to 10:00 a.m. and from 1:30 to
2:00 p.m. He is on what kind of reinforcement schedule?
a. fixed-ratio
b. variable-interval
Incorrect: If Bob’s boss came around to praise him at random times instead of at the same time
each day, this would be an example of variable-interval reinforcement.
c. fixed-interval
Correct: Bob is reinforced at the same time each day when his boss praises him for working
hard. This is an example of fixed-interval reinforcement.
d. variable-ratio
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 168
Skill: A
133. Perry works at a job where he is paid by commission. For every car Perry sells, he gets 10
percent of the profits. Perry is being reinforced on a ________.
a. fixed-ratio schedule
Correct: Perry is paid after a specific number of responses (selling one car) so this is a fixed-
ratio schedule of reinforcement.
b. fixed-interval schedule
Incorrect: If Perry got his paycheck on the same day of every week, that would be an example of
a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement.
c. variable-interval schedule
d. variable-ratio schedule
Answer: a
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
134. If you want an organism to respond very rapidly with only a brief pause after each
reinforcement, which schedule of reinforcement would you choose?
a. fixed-interval
45
b. fixed-ratio
Correct: The fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is likely to provide a quick but inconsistent
increase in responses, with a brief delay after each reinforcement is received.
Incorrect: The variable-interval schedule of reinforcement is most likely to show a slow and
steady pattern of increasing responses.
d. Any reinforcement schedule would work as well as any other.
Answer: b
Page Reference: 169
Skill: C
135. On a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

a. first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed
b. next correct response after a fixed number of responses have occurred
d. next correct response after a varying number of responses have occurred
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 169
Skill: F
136. Abigail is trying to figure out how she can best use employee pay to shape her employees’
behavior. She is worried about consistent behavior, not speed. Therefore, she is interested in
getting a slow but steady rate of response from her workers. According to reinforcement
principles, she should probably use a ________ schedule.
a. fixed-ratio
Incorrect: The fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is likely to provide a quick but inconsistent
increase in responses. The best answer is variable-interval.
b. variable-ratio
c. fixed-interval
Correct: The variable-interval schedule of reinforcement is most likely to show a slow and steady
pattern of increasing responses.
Answer: d
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
46
137. Lila doesn’t like her psychology class because the instructor uses unannounced “pop”
exams to test the class. As a result, she never knows when she will be tested. Her instructor is
testing her on a ________ schedule.
a. fixed-interval
Incorrect: If the professor gave quizzes every Friday (or always after 1 week had passed) this
would be an example of fixed-interval reinforcement.
b. variable-ratio
Correct: The fact that different amounts of time pass before the next quiz occurs suggests that
this is a variable-interval schedule.
d. fixed-ratio
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
138. On a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

a. next correct response after a fixed number of responses have occurred
b. next correct response after a varying number of responses have occurred
d. first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed
Answer: a
Page Reference: 169
Skill: F
139. Abigail is trying to figure out how she can best use employee pay to shape her employees’
behavior. She is interested in short-term productivity (speed), not consistency, long-term
productivity, or employee turnover. According to reinforcement theory, she should use a
________ schedule.
a. fixed-ratio
Correct: The fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is likely to provide a quick but inconsistent
increase in responses.
b. variable-interval
Incorrect: The variable-interval schedule of reinforcement is most likely to show a slow and
steady pattern of increasing responses. The best answer is fixed-ratio.
c. ratio-interval
d. fixed-interval
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 169
47
Skill: A
140. A salesperson who gets an increase in salary for every 100 policies he or she sells is being
reinforced according to what schedule of reinforcement?
a. variable-interval
b. variable-ratio
c. fixed-ratio
Correct: The salesperson is being reinforced after a constant (fixed) number of responses (ratio).
This is a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
d. fixed-interval
Incorrect: If the salesperson was reinforced after a constant (fixed) amount of time (interval) had
passed, it would be a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
141. On a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

a. next correct response after a fixed number of responses have occurred
b. first correct response after varying amounts of time have passed
c. first correct response after a fixed amount of time has passed
d. next correct response after a varying number of responses have occurred
Answer: d
Page Reference: 169
Skill: F
142. Abigail is trying to figure out how she can best use employee pay to elicit a high rate of
employee productivity over a long period of time. If employees’ responses to pay schedules are
similar to people’s general responses to reinforcement schedules, she should use a ________
schedule.
a. ratio-interval
b. variable-ratio
Correct: Variable ratio schedules of reinforcement produce a high rate of response with little or
no pause after each reinforcement.
Incorrect: A variable interval schedule shows a relatively moderate and constant rate of
responding, but this is not what Abigail is after.
d. fixed-interval
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Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
143. Gambling behavior is very hard to extinguish because it is reinforced according to a

________ schedule of reinforcement.
a. variable interval
b. fixed ratio
Incorrect: Gambling is not reinforced on a fixed schedule. If it was, everyone would gamble
because they’d know when they were going to win!
c. variable ratio
Correct: Because a person never knows how many behaviors they have to do to earn a response,
variable-ratio responding can encourage behaviors that are hard to discontinue.
d. fixed interval
Answer: c
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
144. Sandy’s favorite activity is to go to Las Vegas and play the slot machines. Her gambling
behavior is being reinforced on a ________ schedule.
a. fixed-interval
b. fixed-ratio
Incorrect: If Sandy could be certain that her machine would pay off once every five spins, this
would be a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
c. variable-ratio
Correct: Because Sandy doesn’t know how many times she has to play the machine before she
will win, this is a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 169
Skill: A
145. The process of presenting the conditioned stimulus alone so often that the learner no longer
associates it with the unconditioned stimulus and stops making the conditioned response is called
________.
a. extinction
b. generalization
49
c. shaping
d. spontaneous recovery
Answer: a
Skill: F
146. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs because the ________ is no longer paired with
the ________.
a. CS; UR
b. US; UR
c. CS; US
d. CR; UR
Answer: c
Skill: F
147. When the US is no longer paired with the CS or when reinforcement is no longer presented
following a learned response, a process called ________ occurs.
a. generalization
b. counterconditioning
c. disinhibition
d. extinction
Answer: d
Skill: F
148. In classical conditioning, during extinction the ________ is consistently omitted and the
________ gradually disappears.
a. CS; UR
b. UR; CR
c. US; CS
d. US; CR
Answer: d
50
Skill: F
149. A dog, taught to salivate to the sound of a whistle, is now going through many trials in
which the whistle sound is not followed by food. The dog will probably ________.
a. salivate to the sound at a steady but lower level than initially achieved
b. gradually stop salivating to the presentation of food
Incorrect: The food is a US, so the response to the food will not extinguish. The dog will stop
responding to the sound of the whistle.
c. begin to salivate to other sounds it hears in the environment
d. gradually stop salivating to the sound of the whistle
Correct: This is an example of extinction, which occurs when the US and CS are no longer
paired together.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 170
Skill: A
150. An unruly child has become conditioned to fear the sight of the principal’s door. Over the
past month, however, he had no contacts with the principal. Now the child will probably
________.
a. begin to fear all other doors in the school building
b. have an even greater fear of the principal’s door
Incorrect: The lack of pairing of the US with the CS will cause the response to diminish, not
increase. This is called extinction.
c. gradually stop fearing the sight of the principal’s door
Correct: This is an example of extinction, which occurs when the US and CS are no longer
paired together.
d. maintain his former level of fear of the principal’s door
Answer: c
Skill: A
151. A pet dog loves to go for rides in the family car. Every time it sees someone take out a set
of keys, it goes to the garage door and waits expectantly. When grandma, who is afraid of dogs,
comes to visit for two weeks in the summer, the family decides not to let the dog ride in the car
during her stay. By the end of grandma’s visit, the dog has stopped going over to the garage door
when someone takes out a set of keys. The best explanation for this change in behavior is that
________.
a. counterconditioning has occurred
51
Incorrect: If the dog was presented with an aversive, or punishing, stimulus when he responded
to the sound of the keys, this would be an example of counterconditioning.
b. grandma has produced external inhibition in the dog
c. the original conditioned stimulus is no longer present
d. the original conditioned response has been extinguished
Correct: This diminishing of the conditioned response is an example of extinction.
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Skill: A
152. ________ occur(s) in classical conditioning.

a. Neither extinction nor spontaneous recovery
b. Spontaneous recovery, but not extinction,
c. Both extinction and spontaneous recovery
d. Extinction, but not spontaneous recovery,
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Skill: F
153. Extinction and spontaneous recovery occur in ________ conditioning.

a. both classical and operant
b. operant, but not classical,
c. classical, but not operant,
d. neither operant nor classical
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
154. The process in which a learned response that has been extinguished suddenly reappears on
its own with no retraining is called ________.
a. spontaneous recovery
b. generalization
c. discrimination
d. a reaction formation
(
Answer: a
52
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 170
Skill: F
155. A dog, taught to salivate to the sound of a buzzer, learned that the buzzer was no longer
followed by food and stopped salivating to the buzzer. If the the buzzer was again paired with
food after a few weeks, the dog would probably ________.
a. not salivate
Incorrect: While it is possible that the dog would not salivate, the best answer is that he would
salivate, demonstrating the process of spontaneous recovery.
b. salivate
Correct: The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response is called
spontaneous recovery.
c. require only one trial pairing of the buzzer and the food to reestablish the association and
begin salivating to the buzzer again
d. salivate only if the buzzer was dissimilar to the one on which it was conditioned
Answer: b
Page Reference: 170
Skill: A
156. Your dog Hans loves to ride in the car. Whenever anyone picks up a set of keys he races
for the door. When your grandmother, who is afraid of dogs, arrives for a visit, Hans is not
allowed to ride in the car. By the end of her two-week visit, he has ceased going to the door
when the keys come out. However, after a brief vacation away from home, he’s back at the door
again as soon as he hears the keys. Why?
a. Generalization has occurred.
Incorrect: If the dog had responded to something other than the keys, it would be an example of
stimulus generalization.
b. Grandma produced external inhibition in the dog.
c. Spontaneous recovery has occurred.
Correct: The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response is called
spontaneous recovery.
d. Counterconditioning occurred during the vacation.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 170
Skill: A
157. ________ occur(s) in operant conditioning.

53
a. Spontaneous recovery, but not extinction,
b. Neither extinction nor spontaneous recovery
c. Extinction, but not spontaneous recovery,
d. Both extinction and spontaneous recovery
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 171
Skill: F
158. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs as a result of withholding ________.

a. reinforcement
b. the conditioned stimulus
c. the unconditioned stimulus
d. punishment
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 171
Skill: F
159. Which of the following statements is not true?

a. It is harder to extinguish a response learned on a partial reinforcement schedule than one
learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule.
b. Behaviors learned through punishment are relatively easy to extinguish.
c. The stronger the original learning, the more difficult extinction will be.
d. Simple behavior is easier to extinguish than complex behavior.
Answer: b
Page Reference: 171
Skill: F
160. A fourth-grade teacher realized that one of his students was misbehaving in order to receive
attention. The teacher decided to ignore all instances of the misbehavior. The teacher is using
________.
a. extinction
Correct: By withholding the reinforcement of the behavior, the teacher is hoping that the student
will stop the undesirable behavior. This is an application of extinction.
Incorrect: The teacher’s desire is to stop the behavior rather than encourage it. Therefore, this is
not an example of reinforcement.
c. the Premack principle
54
d. avoidance training
Answer: a
Page Reference: 171
Skill: A
161. Which of the following statements is true for operant conditioning?

a. Avoidance training is especially difficult to extinguish.
b. The stronger the original learning, the easier it is to extinguish.
c. Complex behavior is easier to extinguish than simple behavior.
d. The greater the variety of settings in which learning takes place, the easier the behavior is to
extinguish.
Answer: a
Page Reference: 171
Skill: F
162. Which of the following behaviors will be most difficult to extinguish?

a. A little boy gets 50 cents from his mother each time he dries the dishes.
b. A teenage girl gets home before midnight so that her parents will not punish her.
Correct: This is an example of avoidance training, and this is a behavior set that is particularly
difficult to extinguish.
c. A woman goes to her local market four days in a row to get prime rib but finds it unavailable.
Incorrect: The lack of reinforcement (the prime rib) is likely to stop the woman from engaging in
the associated behavior (going to the market). This is an example of extinction.
d. A man takes the same bus route every day to get to his job.
Answer: b
Page Reference: 171
Skill: A
163. Which of the following behaviors will be easiest to extinguish?

a. A little boy who helps with household chores is occasionally paid for his efforts.
Incorrect: It will be difficult to extinguish behaviors that have previously been reinforced on a
partial schedule of reinforcement.
b. A woman goes to her local market for four days in a row to get prime rib but finds it
unavailable.
Correct: The lack of reinforcement (the prime rib) is likely to stop the woman from engaging in
the associated behavior (going to the market).
55
c. A teenage girl gets home before midnight so that her parents will not punish her.
d. A traveling salesman uses a particular come-on with considerable success in cities all across
the country; it almost always works.
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 171
Skill: A
164. Stimulus control appears in ________ conditioning.

a. operant, but not classical,
b. both classical and operant
c. classical, but not operant,
d. neither classical nor operant
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
165. The control of conditioned responses by cues or stimuli in the environment is known as
________.
a. response control
b. stimulus control
c. stimulus generalization
d. response cost
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
166. The transfer of a learned response to a different but similar stimulus is called ________.
a. response cost
d. stimulus control
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 172
56
Skill: F
167. Reacting to a stimulus that is similar to one you have already learned to respond to is called
________.
a. modeling
c. higher-order conditioning
d. stimulus generalization
Answer: d
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
168. A person is conditioned to fear white rats. Soon after, she also begins to fear white cats,
white dogs, and white rabbits. Her new fears result from ________.
a. response generalization
b. stimulus discrimination
Incorrect: If this person had demonstrated fear to only the white rat but not to other white furry
animals, it would demonstrate stimulus discrimination.
Correct: She has learned to respond to a similar stimulus as the one to which she was originally
conditioned. This is an example of stimulus generalization.
d. vicarious reinforcement
Answer: c
Page Reference: 172
Skill: A
169. A person originally feared great heights such as standing on top of tall buildings. Now the
person has also developed fears of flying in airplanes, standing on ladders, and even watching
high-wire artists perform. These new fears are probably the result of ________.
a. stimulus generalization
Correct: The person has learned to respond to a similar stimulus as the one to which they were
originally conditioned. This is an example of stimulus generalization.
c. stimulus discrimination
Incorrect: If this individual was specifically afraid of tall buildings but not other “height”
involved situations, this would demonstrate stimulus discrimination.
d. vicarious reinforcement
Answer: a
57
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 172
Skill: A
170. A child who calls all four-legged animals “doggies” is exhibiting ________.
a. response inhibition
b. stimulus generalization
Correct: The child is “spreading” her response from dogs to other similar stimuli (cats, pigs,
horses). This demonstrates stimulus generalization.
c. response generalization
Incorrect: If the animal gave a similar response to the same stimulus, this would be an example
of response generalization.
d. stimulus inhibition
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 172
Skill: A
171. In classical conditioning, discrimination basically is the reverse of ________.

a. external inhibition
b. extinction
Incorrect: Discrimination and extinction are not directly related to each other, either as similar
or opposite concepts.
c. generalization
Correct: Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are opposite effects.
d. intermittent pairing
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 172
Skill: C
172. The process of learning to respond only to a single specific object or event and inhibit the
response to all other stimuli is called ________.
a. stimulus discrimination
c. inhibition
d. extinction
Answer: a
58
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
173. A pigeon learns to peck at a red disk. It will not peck at an identical disk of any other color.
This illustrates the concept of ________.
a. discrimination
Correct: Demonstrating a response to one and only one stimulus, to the exclusion of other
similar stimuli is an example of stimulus discrimination.
b. extinction
c. avoidance training
Incorrect: This pigeon is not demonstrating avoidance training, because there is no negative or
aversive outcome being avoided.
d. desensitization
Answer: a
Page Reference: 172
Skill: A
174. Giving different responses to the same stimuli to which you were classically conditioned
illustrates ________.
a. latent learning
c. spontaneous recovery
d. response generalization
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
175. Conditioning based on previous learning, in which the conditioned stimulus serves as an
unconditioned stimulus for further learning, is called ________ conditioning.
a. primary
b. secondary
c. higher order
d. cue controlled
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
59
Skill: F
176. In higher order conditioning, we pair a neutral stimulus with a(n) ________.
Correct: A conditioned stimulus from one instance of learning becomes a form of an
unconditioned stimulus for another learning experience.
b. unconditioned response
c. unconditioned stimulus
Incorrect: In higher order conditioning, the NS becomes paired with a CS in a second learning
experience.
Answer: a
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
177. In higher order conditioning, objects that have no intrinsic value but become reinforcers
because of their association with other, more basic reinforcers, are known as ________
reinforcers.
a. primary
Incorrect: Reinforcers that are naturally and intrinsically valuable are called primary
reinforcers. They often serve a crucial survival purpose to an animal.
b. central
c. secondary
Correct: Secondary reinforcers are of value to an individual, but do not serve some natural
survival purpose.
d. peripheral
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
178. Higher order conditioning is difficult to achieve because it battles against ________.
a. extinction
Correct: In higher-ordering conditioning, learning takes place sequentially from one trial to
another. In extinction, learning disappears over time.
b. spontaneous recovery
Incorrect: Spontaneous recovery occurs after extinction. Higher-order conditioning should take
place before extinction.
c. generalization
d. discrimination
60
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
179. A group of dogs is taught to salivate to the ringing of a bell by pairing the sound of the bell
with the presentation of meat. Once the dogs have been conditioned to the sound of the bell, a
black square is presented each time the bell is rung. Soon, the dogs are salivating to the
presentation of the black square without it being paired to the presentation of the bell. This is an
example of ________.
b. higher order conditioning
Correct: As one conditioned stimulus helps to train a response to a new stimulus, this
demonstrates higher order conditioning.
c. backward conditioning
d. response generalization
Incorrect: Because the response has not changed but the stimulus has, this is not an example of
response generalization.
Answer: b
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
180. In an experiment, the pupils of subjects’ eyes contracted when a bright light was shown.
After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, subjects’ pupils contracted
when they heard the bell. After pairing the sound of the bell with the experimenter’s verbal
instruction “Contract,” pupil contraction occurred with just the verbal instruction. In this entire
study, the conditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) the ________.
a. bell
Incorrect: The bell is the CS for the first pairing, but the word “contract” is the CS for the
second pairing. This answer is only partially correct.
b. bright light
c. word “contract”
d. bell and the word “contract”
Correct: In higher order conditioning, there are multiple conditioned stimuli. In this case, they
are the bell (first) and the word “contract” (second).
Answer: d
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
61
After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, the subjects’ pupils contracted
when they heard the bell. After the pairing of the sound of the bell with the presentation of a
black square, pupil contraction occurred with just the sight of the square. In this entire
conditioning study, the conditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) the ________.
a. bell and square
Correct: In higher order conditioning, there are multiple conditioned stimuli. In this case, they
are the bell (first) and the black square (second).
b. light and square
c. square
d. bell
Incorrect: The bell is the CS for the first pairing, but the black square is the CS for the second
pairing. This answer is only partially correct.
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
After continual pairing of the bright light with the sound of a bell, subjects’ pupils contracted
when they heard the bell. After the pairing of the sound of the bell with the presentation of a
black square, pupil contraction occurred with just the sight of the square. In this study, the
unconditioned stimulus is (stimuli are) the ________.
a. light and square
Incorrect: In this example of higher-order conditioning, the light and square are examples of
conditioned stimuli.
b. bright light
Correct: The bright light is the only stimulus in this example that evokes a response without
learning taking place. Therefore, it is the only US in the trial.
c. square
d. bell and square
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
183. A reinforcer that is reinforcing in and of itself is called a ________ reinforcer.

a. secondary
b. delayed
c. direct
62
d. primary
Answer: d
Page Reference: 173
Skill: F
184. A reinforcer that takes on its reinforcing properties only through association with other
reinforcers is called a(n) ________ reinforcer.
a. indirect
b. delayed
c. secondary
d. primary
Answer: c
Page Reference: 173
Skill: F
185. Which of the following is a primary reinforcer?

a. money
Incorrect: Money is reinforcing only because of its association with the things it can buy.
Therefore it is not a primary reinforcer.
b. poker chips
c. a bar of candy
Correct: A bar of candy can (sort of) satisfy our natural need for food. Therefore it is a primary
reinforcer.
d. a buzzer
Answer: c
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
186. Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer?

a. money
Correct: Money is reinforcing only because of its association with the things it can buy.
Therefore it is a secondary reinforcer.
b. a drink of water
c. warm, physical contact
Incorrect: Warm, physical contact is naturally reinforcing and, in many ways, necessary for our
survival. Therefore it is a primary reinforcer.
63
d. a bar of candy
Answer: a
Page Reference: 173
Skill: A
187. In classical conditioning the learner is ________, and in operant conditioning the learner is
________.
a. passive; active
Correct : Classical conditioning involves a “spreading” of reflexive behaviors, and thus it is
passive learning.
b. active; passive
Incorrect : This is the opposite of the correct answer.
c. active; active
d. passive; passive
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
188. In classical conditioning the desired behavior is usually ________, and in operant
conditioning, the desired behavior is usually ________.
a. voluntary; involuntary
Incorrect: This is the opposite of the correct answer.
b. voluntary; voluntary
c. involuntary; voluntary
Correct: Classical conditioning involves a “spreading” of reflexive, or involuntary, behaviors.
d. involuntary; involuntary
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
Cognitive Learning
Learning Objectives
 Define cognitive learning and how it can be inferred from evidence of latent learning and
cognitive maps.
64
 Explain what is meant by insight and its relation to learning sets.
 Explain the process of observational (vicarious) learning and the conditions under which
it is most likely to be reflected in behavior.
 Give examples of cognitive learning in nonhumans.
189. Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable is called
________ learning.
a. primary
b. cognitive
c. secondary
d. autonomic
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 174
Topic: Cognitive Learning
Skill: F
190. The concept of latent learning was developed by ________.

a. Watson
b. Skinner
c. Tolman
d. Thorndike
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 174
Skill: F
191. Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in a behavior change is called
________.
a. innate learning
b. latent learning
c. insight
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 174
Skill: F
65
192. The idea that learning occurs, and is stored up, even when behaviors are not reinforced, is
called ________.
a. placebo learning
b. latent learning
c. insight
d. innate learning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
193. Which of the following is true of learning?

a. Learning only occurs when the learner is active.
b. Learning involves only changes in observable behavior.
c. Learning involves changes in mental processes that may or may not be reflected in behavior.
d. Learning only occurs when the learner is passive.
Answer: c
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
194. A scientist trains a group of rats to run a maze to get food pellets. Another group of rats is
trained to run the maze without receiving food pellets. At the end of the training, the group
receiving the food pellets runs the maze faster and with fewer errors. However, when the
scientist begins giving the second group of rats food pellets for running the maze, they almost
immediately begin running the maze as well as the first group. This improved performance is
probably due to ________.
a. latent learning
Correct: The second group of rats demonstrated latent learning because their times improved at
some point in the future.
b. spontaneous recovery
c. insight
Incorrect: Insight learning occurs when a solution suddenly appears to a learner. This concept is
not demonstrated in this example.
d. vicarious trial and error learning
Answer: a
Page Reference: 175
Skill: A
66
195. The mental image of an area, such as a maze or the floor plan of a building, is called a
________.
a. mental set
Incorrect: A mental set is a habitual way of solving problems. It is not relevant to this question.
b. cognitive map
Correct: A mental representation of a concept, usually stored as an image of some sort, is called
a cognitive map.
c. Gestalt
d. perceptual illusion
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 175
Skill: F
196. The type of learning that involves a sudden coming together of the elements of a situation
so that the solution to a problem is instantly clear is ________.
a. insight
c. cognitive mapping
d. latent learning
Answer: a
Page Reference: 175
Skill: F
197. A child sees a cookie jar on a shelf. After several unsuccessful attempts to reach it, the
child looks around the room. She suddenly realizes that she can pull a chair over by the shelf,
then stand on the chair to reach the cookie jar. This type of learning is called ________.
a. shaping
Incorrect: The child has not been reinforced for getting closer and closer to the cookies, so this
does not demonstrate the concept of shaping.
b. response acquisition
c. insight
Correct: This sudden realization of the correct solution to the problem demonstrates insight
learning.
d. social learning
Answer: c
Page Reference: 175
67
Skill: A
198. Which of the following is true of research on insight?

a. Researchers have proven that all creatures, even one-celled organisms such as the amoeba, are
capable of insight learning.
b. Researchers have found that only human beings are capable of insight learning.
c. Researchers have found that under proper circumstances even lower animals, such as pigeons,
are capable of insight learning.
d. Researchers have found that only higher animals, such as humans and apes, are capable of
insight learning.
Answer: c
Page Reference: 176
Skill: F
199. The researcher whose work with monkeys explored their ability to develop learning sets
was ________.
a. Noam Chomsky
b. Louis Leaky
c. B. F. Skinner
d. Harry Harlow
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 176
Skill: F
200. The ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems
are solved is known as ________.
a. a response set
b. latent learning
c. a learning set
d. a response cue
Answer: c
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 176
Skill: F
68
201. A monkey learns that given three differently shaped boxes (square, round, and triangular),
food will always be found under the round box. Once this learning has occurred, the monkey
only looks under the round box for food, ignoring the other boxes. This exemplifies the principle
of ________.
a. insight
Incorrect: The monkey has not demonstrated a sudden realization of the solution, but rather is
improving its solving ability with repeated trials. This demonstrates a learning set, not insight.
b. learning sets
Correct: The monkey demonstrates the ability to become better and better at solving this
problem. This improvement in problem-solving skill is called a learning set.
c. contingency theory
d. cognitive maps
Answer: b
Page Reference: 176
Skill: A
202. The view of learning that emphasizes the ability to learn by observing a model or receiving
instructions, without firsthand experience by the learner, is called ________ theory.
a. contingency
b. conditioning
d. social learning
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
203. Vicarious learning is another term for ________.

a. observational learning
d. insight learning
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
69
204. The distinction between ________, on the one hand, and ________, on the other, is of
central importance to social learning theorists.
a. learning; performance
Correct: Social learning theory suggests that we can learn without actually performing a task. So
these two concepts are crucial to this theory.
b. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
Incorrect: While these concepts do play a role in social learning theory, they are of more central
importance to operant conditioning theories
c. reinforcement; punishment
d. generalization; discrimination
Answer: a
Page Reference: 177
Skill: C
205. For observational learning to occur, each of the following must happen except ________.
a. being reinforced for imitating the model
b. remembering what the model did
c. paying attention to what the model does
d. do what the model did
Answer: a
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
206. Reinforcement experienced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the
behavior they learned by observing those models is called ________ reinforcement.
a. mediated
b. secondary
c. primary
d. vicarious
Answer: d
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
207. Punishment experienced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the
behavior they learned by observing those models is called ________ punishment.
a. mediated
b. direct
70
c. indirect
d. vicarious
Answer: d
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
208. Social learning theory’s foremost proponent is ________.

a. Thorndike
b. Skinner
c. Bandura
d. Watson
Answer: c
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
209. A girl learns that whenever her older brother shares his cookie with her, her mother gives
him a piece of candy. The girl’s learning is a demonstration of ________.
a. contingency theory
c. social learning theory
Correct: Because she learns by watching what happens to someone else, this demonstrates social
learning.
Incorrect: Part of what is happening is that learning is occurring through reinforcement, but
because the girl is not being directly reinforced the best answer is social learning theory.
Answer: c
Page Reference: 177
Skill: A
210. In Bandura’s classic study of children exposed to a film of an adult model hitting an
inflated doll, both the children who saw the model rewarded and the children who saw the model
punished ________.
a. imitated the aggressive behavior they had seen
b. performed equally aggressively in a free play situation
c. learned nothing about the capacity to be aggressive
d. refused to behave aggressively in a free play situation
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Answer: a
Page Reference: 178
Skill: F
211. According to social learning theory, ________.

a. all learning is the result of classical or operant conditioning
b. people must see a model rewarded for observational learning to occur
c. people use their powers of observation and thought to interpret their own experiences and
those of others when deciding how to act
d. people must be rewarded for imitating the behavior of a model for observational learning to
occur
Answer: c
Page Reference: 178
Skill: F
212. In Bandura’s classic (1965) study of children exposed to a film of an adult hitting an
inflated doll, children who saw the model ________.
a. punished performed more aggressively in a free play situation than children who saw the
model rewarded
b. rewarded performed more aggressively in a free play situation than children who saw the
model punished
c. punished learned to be more aggressive than children who saw the model rewarded
d. rewarded learned to be more aggressive than children who saw the model punished
Answer: b
Skill: F
213. Research on cognitive learning in animals indicates that ________.

a. only mammals are capable of vicarious learning
b. a wide range of animals and even some insects are capable of vicarious learning
c. only primates are capable of vicarious learning
d. only humans are capable of vicarious learning
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 179
Skill: F
72
True/False
1. Learning that involves transfer of a natural response from one stimulus to another previously
neutral stimulus is called classical conditioning.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 153
Skill: F
2. Learning by classical conditioning plays a significant role in the lives of most animals.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 154
Skill: C
3. Classical conditioning usually occurs after only one pairing of the US and the CS.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 154
Skill: F
4. In classical conditioning, intermittent pairing reduces both the rate of learning and the final
level of learning achieved.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
73
5. Watson’s Little Albert study demonstrated the effectiveness of classical conditioning in
humans.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
6. Desensitization therapy is based on classical conditioning techniques.

a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
7. Classical conditioning is only effective in humans when they are infants.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
8. Some behaviors, such as food aversion, take much longer to learn by classical conditioning
than others.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 157
Skill: F
74
9. A crucial element of classical conditioning is emitted behavior.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
10. The law of effect is the same thing as classical conditioning.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
11. A reinforcer can be anything that, when presented after a response, increases the likelihood
of the response being repeated.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 159
Skill: F
12. The step-by-step reinforcement of partial responses is called shaping.

a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 160
Skill: F
13. Negative reinforcement results in the extinction of previously learned behaviors.

a. True
b. False
75
Answer: b
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 161
Skill: F
14. Punishment is the same as negative reinforcement.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Skill: F
15. Punishment alone works better than punishment combined with reinforcement of the desired
behavior.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 164
Skill: F
16. Learned helplessness can only occur in animals, not in humans.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 165
Skill: F
17. Conditioning is impossible if the conditioned stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
76
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
18. Presenting the unconditioned stimulus before the conditioned stimulus is known as backward
conditioning.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 167
Skill: F
19. A variable-ratio schedule produces a high response rate over a long period of time.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 169
Skill: F
20. After extinction, a classically conditioned response reappears on its own. This phenomenon
is called generalization.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 170
Skill: F
21. Extinction and generalization do not appear in operant conditioning.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 171
77
Skill: F
22. Behaviors learned through punishment are among the easiest learned behaviors to extinguish.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 171
Skill: F
23. Reacting to a stimulus that is similar to the one to which you have learned to respond to is
called response generalization.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 172
Skill: F
24. Higher order conditioning is difficult to achieve because it battles against extinction.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 173
Skill: F
25. Secondary reinforcers are identical to negative reinforcers.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 173
Skill: F
78
26. Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 173
Skill: F
27. Thorndike is known for his experiments demonstrating latent learning in rats.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 175
Skill: F
28. Since Tolman’s time, little research has been done on the nature of latent learning.
a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 175
Skill: F
29. Insight is only seen in higher animals such as primates.

a. True
b. False
Answer: b
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 176
Skill: F
30. Social learning theorists focus on vicarious, or observational, learning.

a. True
b. False
79
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 177
Skill: F
31. In Bandura’s classic (1965) study, children played more aggressively when a model was
rewarded for aggressive behavior.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
32. Social learning theory stresses that people can reward or punish themselves.
a. True
b. False
Answer: a
Difficulty: 1
Skill: F
Essay
1. Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies in terms of the US, UR, CS, CR, and his
results. Briefly discuss two examples of classical conditioning in your own life, naming the US,
UR, CS, and CR.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Skill: C
2. Define “learning,” and explain what classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
instrumental conditioning are; comparing how they are similar to or different from each other.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
80
Topic: Classical Conditioning; Operant Conditioning; Factors Shared by Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Skill: C
3. Explain the goals and results of the Little Albert study. Also, describe other efforts to apply
classical conditioning principles to humans, such as desensitization.
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 156
Skill: F
4. Explain the concept of preparedness. Also, summarize research findings on food aversion and
how it relates to preparedness.
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 157
Skill: C
5. Describe the findings of Thorndike’s experiments and discuss the elements essential for
operant conditioning.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
6. Explain the steps involved in modifying your own behavior.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 161
Topic: Applying Psychology: Modifying Your Own Behavior
Skill: A
7. Compare and contrast positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in terms of their
methods and effects.
81
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 161
Skill: C
8. Discuss the requirements for punishment to be effective as well as the dangers and limitations
of using punishment to change behavior. Also, describe the role that avoidance training plays in
using punishment to change behavior.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
9. Explain what learned helplessness is and describe how it develops. Also, discuss what effects
it has on people and animals once it is established.
Answer:
Difficulty: 1
Skill: C
10. Explain what biofeedback is and describe how it can be used to shape behavioral changes in
humans. What are the criticisms and limitations of biofeedback?
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 165
Skill: C
11. Discuss the importance of contingencies in classical conditioning. In your discussion, explain
what backward conditioning is and how it works.
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 167
Skill: C
82
12. Name and briefly discuss each of the four schedules of reinforcement. In your discussion, be
sure to give an example for each schedule and describe the response pattern that typically results
from each schedule.
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Skill: F
13. Briefly describe how extinction and spontaneous recovery work in classical and in operant
conditioning.
Answer:
Difficulty: 1
Skill: C
14. Briefly describe the types of generalization and discrimination that occur in classical and
operant conditioning and explain how each works.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 172
Skill: C
15. Explain what higher order conditioning is and how it works. Also, explain the difference
between primary and secondary reinforcers.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 173
Skill: C
16. Briefly discuss the focus of cognitive learning theorists and describe some representative
research used to support their views.
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
83
Skill: C
17. Describe Kohler’s and Harlow’s research on insight and learning sets. What conclusions can
be drawn from this research regarding animals’ abilities to learn?
Answer:
Difficulty: 3
Skill: F
18. Describe Bandura’s classic (1965) study on aggression. Explain what conclusions can be
drawn from this study and why.
Answer:
Difficulty: 2
Skill: F
84

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Chapter 5: Learning: Multiple-Choice

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Chapter 5: Learning

1. The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in

2. Learning is a process by which experience results in ________.

6. We associate the name ________ most closely with classical conditioning.

7. Ivan Pavlov is most closely associated with ________.

25. Classical conditioning has been demonstrated ________.

26. Which of the following statements is true?

29. An experimenter attempting to classically condition a new behavior in a dog unintentionally

39. Desensitization therapy is based primarily on the principles of ________.

43. Which of the following statements is true?

46. Which of the following is NOT an example of preparedness in conditioning?

48. Conditioned taste aversions are found ________.

49. Thorndike was known for his work with ________.

50. Instrumental conditioning is another term for ________.

51. Operant conditioning is another name for ________.

52. Emitted, voluntary behavior is BEST modified by ________.

55. An example of a behavior that is learned through operant conditioning is ________.

56. Which of the following is NOT an example of operantly learned behavior?

66. A “Skinner box” is most likely to be used in research on ________.

67. Changing behavior through the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired

82. Nagging someone to do something until they do it is an example of ________.

85. Which of the following statements is true?

87. Superstitious behaviors are most commonly learned through ________.

93. Presenting an aversive stimulus to eliminate undesired behavior is an example of ________.

97. Which of the following statements is true?

98. Which of the following statements about punishment is not true?

100. Each of the following is true of punishment except it ________.

101. Which of the following is true?

110. Each of the following is true of learned helplessness except________.

112. Biofeedback is an application of ________.

115. Each of the following is true of biofeedback except ________.

Factors Shared by Classical and Operant Conditioning

120. A relationship in which one event depends on another is known as a ________.

125. In operant conditioning, ________.

128. On a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

135. On a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

138. On a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

141. On a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given for the ________.

143. Gambling behavior is very hard to extinguish because it is reinforced according to a

152. ________ occur(s) in classical conditioning.

153. Extinction and spontaneous recovery occur in ________ conditioning.

157. ________ occur(s) in operant conditioning.

158. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs as a result of withholding ________.

159. Which of the following statements is not true?

161. Which of the following statements is true for operant conditioning?

162. Which of the following behaviors will be most difficult to extinguish?

163. Which of the following behaviors will be easiest to extinguish?

164. Stimulus control appears in ________ conditioning.

171. In classical conditioning, discrimination basically is the reverse of ________.

183. A reinforcer that is reinforcing in and of itself is called a ________ reinforcer.

185. Which of the following is a primary reinforcer?

186. Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer?

190. The concept of latent learning was developed by ________.

193. Which of the following is true of learning?

198. Which of the following is true of research on insight?

203. Vicarious learning is another term for ________.

208. Social learning theory’s foremost proponent is ________.

211. According to social learning theory, ________.

213. Research on cognitive learning in animals indicates that ________.

6. Desensitization therapy is based on classical conditioning techniques.

7. Classical conditioning is only effective in humans when they are infants.

10. The law of effect is the same thing as classical conditioning.

12. The step-by-step reinforcement of partial responses is called shaping.