ECOLOGICAL BUILDING DESIGN &

MATERIALS
ASSIGNMENT # 01

NAME MOIZ NAVEED

ROLL # CE 590950
Question # 01
Define the concept of sustainable cities. What are the features
of sustainable low impact development? Are these applicable
to the context of Pakistan?
Answer
Sustainable cities, urban sustainability, or eco-city (also ecocity) is a city
designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental
impact and resilient habitat for existing populations, without
compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same.
The UN Sustainable Development Goal 11 defines sustainable cities as
those that are dedicated to achieving green sustainability, social
sustainability and economic sustainability. They are committed to doing
so by enabling opportunities for all through a design focused on
inclusivity as well as maintaining a sustainable economic growth. The
focus also includes minimizing required inputs of energy, water, and
food, and drastically reducing waste, output of heat, air pollution –
CO2, methane, and water pollution.

The concept of sustainable cities is closely interconnected with

environment and economy and safeguard protection of natural
resources, which in turn leads to a minimum acceptable quality of life.
There is a constant struggle with issues of air pollution, congestion of
human population and availability of open, green spaces. Strong,
healthy, livable cities depend on a healthy environment, a robust
economy and ample employment opportunities for its citizens.
Before going further into the details of aSchool children campaigning
for a sustainable city sustainable city, it is important to understand the
meaning of sustainability in the human context which leads to
sustainable development. Human endeavour focuses on certain basic
assumptions like good income; livelihoods which give meaning to life;
production of goods and services for basic needs; creation of
purchasing power; regeneration of the natural resource base;
conservation of the environment; control on demographic transitions
from the rural to the urban sector, empowerment and employment for
women. Thus, a sustainable city can be defined as one which is able to
provide for the basic needs of the people along with the necessary
infrastructure of civic amenities, health and medical care, housing,
education, transportation, employment, good governance, etc. It
should take care of the needs of all sections of the society without any
discrimination. As it pertains to Indian conditions, due emphasis should
be given to control population and provide housing to the weaker
sections of society who live in sub-human conditions in slums,
subsisting below the poverty line and causing environmental
degradation. Burgeoning population also leads to exploitation, crime
and lawlessness due to the ever shrinking job opportunities.

Characteristics of a Sustainable City

A sustainable city is a city which has :

 A controlled population for whom adequate, meaningful

employment is available.
 Adequate governance set-up which can meet the needs of the
populace and ensures civic responsibilities, community
 participation, a sense of identity, transparency and equity in local
institutions.
 Efficient basic civic amenities for a reasonably comfortable
existence. For example, due to the shortage of power, more than
50% of power is illegally consumed without payment to the
municipal corporation, leading to corruption, astronomical
financial losses and inadequate supply to those who pay for its
consumption. Same goes for water, which is inadequate to meet
the demands of the population.
 Planned housing colonies with adequate infrastructure like
schools, parks, drainage system, local medicare establishments.
 An appropriate transport system, as transportation affects the
environment. Transportation planning has to take into
consideration a wide range of options and choices like adequate
roads, parking lots, alternate system of transportation, mass
transit facilities. The aim should be to reduce the total vehicle
kilometres driven in congested areas, thus reducing the pollution
and emission of green house gases.
 Effective environmental infrastructure to address the issues of
untreated sewage and waste polluting rivers, lakes and coastal
zones, (thus threatening water ecosystems).
 Empowerment of women and encouraging their participation in
the political, social and economic life of a city and adoption of
urban policies that take into account women’s needs and
initiatives.
 Development of an efficient urban private sector, both formal
and non-formal which reduces poverty by generating jobs and
helping in economic growth.
  An efficient health-care system which would also address issues
of nutrition, family planning and sanitation.
 A mechanism in the form of a policy initiative for industrial
dispersal to satellite townships where better employment
opportunities are created.

Features of sustainable low impact development

Low Impact Development (LID) is an approach to land development
that works with nature to manage storm water runoff where it falls.

LID preserves and recreates natural landscape features, and minimizes

hard surfaces to create functional and appealing site drainage. Low
impact development treats storm water as a resource rather than a
waste product.

LID includes a variety of landscaping and design practices that slow

water down, spreads it out and soaks it in. These practices ultimately
improve the quality, and decrease the volume, of storm water entering
our waterways.

Rain Gardens
Rain gardens protect our watershed by managing the amount of
sediment and pollutants that reach our rivers from our stormwater
system.

They also reduce river bank erosion, and localized flooding and runoff,
by allowing for stormwater to soak into the ground.
In communities where there is not sufficient land for large-scale
stormwater management like wet ponds, rain gardens are a great
alternative.

In addition to protecting our watershed, rain gardens:

 Are planted with beautiful, hardy, low-maintenance, water-wise

plants
 Attract birds, butterflies and mosquito-eating dragonflies
 Complement any landscape and enhance the beauty of the
neighbourhood

How do rain gardens work?

A rain garden is a landscaped plant bed that captures and filters

stormwater before it returns to our stormwater system, and eventually
our rivers.

When it rains, stormwater from the surrounding area is directed into

the rain garden. Plants, layers of soil and gravel filter and absorb the
stormwater.

The silt and other natural solids, like leaves, are collected on top of the
gardens. Other pollutants (chemicals and bacteria) are filtered out and
used by the soil and plants.

Rain gardens can differ in both design and size, from small residential
rain gardens, to large engineered rain gardens that work as part of the
stormwater system.
Engineered Rain Garden

Engineered rain gardens are large, landscaped features located in

communities and on City of Calgary property. These rain gardens are
designed to allow overflow in a large rain event and hold standing
water for no more than 48 hours.
Engineered rain gardens are a low impact development practice and
are a part of our Stormwater Management Strategy.

Excess water not absorbed by the plants, seeps into the native soil
below or collects in the drainage pipe located under the drainage
layers. This drainage pipe connects to the stormwater system and
carries excess, filtered water back to the river.

Five Basic Principles of Low Impact Development:

 Conserve natural areas
 Minimize development impacts
 Maintain site runoff rate and control small storms
 Use integrated management practices (control volume and
pollutant loads)
 Implement pollution prevention, proper maintenance, and public
education programs

Question # 02
Explain the following using examples:
a) Countryside.
b) Elements of designing a healthy house in the
context of your city.
Answer :
In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is
located outside towns and cities. The Health Resources and Services
Administration of the United States Department of Health and Human
Services defines the word rural as encompassing "...all population,
housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is
not urban is considered rural."

Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements.
Agricultural area commonly comes under rural, as are other types of
area such as forest.

The definition of countryside is a rural area, or the people who live

there.

A lovely countryside view.

Elements of designing a healthy house in the context of your

city.
As I live in the city of Haripur situated in KP. So following are the
elements should be in mind for building a healthy house . . As Haripur is
gateway to Hazara Valley so its partially hilly and mountainous and
majority of it is Plain.

Ventilation

Higher rates of ventilation affect indoor pollutants, odors, and the

perceived freshness of air by diluting contaminants in the air.
Ventilation system is must for building in this area because in summer
its very hot inside the home and building due to plain area.

Healthy, sustainable thermal control

This second component depends on commitments to separate

ventilation air from thermal conditioning, design for dynamic thermal
zone size, provide individual thermal controls (e.g., underfloor air),
design for building load balancing and radiant comfort, and engineer
prototyped, robust systems.

Healthy, sustainable light

The third component can be achieved by maximizing the use of daylight

without glare, selecting the highest quality lighting fixtures, separating
task and ambient light, and designing plug-and-play lighting with
dynamic lighting zones.

Workplace ergonomics and environmental quality

Improving this fourth component has, as its goals, the well-being and
efficiency of individual workers with energy-efficient technologies;
optimal lighting, temperature, and placement of furniture; and healthy
interior materials. Sustainable design depends on the use of materials
that support healthy environments while reducing transportation
energies that carry secondary health concerns. Material selection is
critical to thermal performance, air quality and outgassing, toxicity in
fires, cancer-causing fibers, and mold, all which affect respiratory and
digestive systems, eyes, and skin.

Access to the natural environment

The fifth component is achieved by providing individual access to

nature by maximizing the use of daylight without glare, maximizing the
use of natural ventilation with mixed-mode HVAC, and designing for
passive solar heating and cooling. Access to the natural environment
may increase individual productivity between 0.4 and 18% and reduce
absenteeism, SBS, and recovery time while saving even 40% of lighting
energy.

Land use and transportation

This last component can be improved by commitments to designing

mixed-use communities, allowing for multigenerational mobility with
mixed-mode transportation, and preserving and celebrating natural
landscapes. For land use, walk able neighborhoods may contribute to
prevention of obesity. Cool roofs and cool community developments
with increases in landscaped surfaces and tree canopies demonstrated
reductions in annual cooling loads by 10%, peak cooling by 5%, as well
as benefits for carbon sequestration, storm runoff management, and a
6–8% reduction in smog that could potentially reduce respiratory
illnesses.

Question # 03
 Define the following terms:

a) Pollution & Environmental negative impacts of pollution.

b) Minimizing new resource consumption for building

industry.

c) Reduce, Reuse & Recycle. (15)

Answer :

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the
other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth.
Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and
aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the
temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice,
icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of
both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather
affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and
change the map of infectious diseases in the globe. Mosquito-
transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive,
as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and
secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-
warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of
waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem
to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example,
cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria.
The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and
storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays. Malnutrition
and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the
emerging infections affecting public health.

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to
Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy as well as
autochthonous cases in France.

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech

Republic seems to have occurred following flooding. As stated
previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect
the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo
phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space
and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years.

Environmental Effects

Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of
environmental effects:

Acid rain

Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and

sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are
burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain,
snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are
carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment,
acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify,
making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also
speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of
our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes,
ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife and forests.

Eutrophication

Is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients

(such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause
fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication
is a natural process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, human
activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at
which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen
oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to
the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.

Haze

Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the

air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see.
Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly
emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial
facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Others
are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind.

Effects on wildlife.

Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can

impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can
experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient
concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are
contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in
animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in
the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems.
These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in
tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many
times higher than in the water or air.

Ozone depletion.

Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper
atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a
pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however,
ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful
ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed
by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances,
including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in
coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and
aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause
increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead
to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems.
UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop
yields.

Crop and forest damage.

Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways. Ground-
level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial
forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and
increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental
stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above, crop and forest
damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation
caused by ozone depletion.
Global climate change.

The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally

occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's
surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable.
Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this
natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these
greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result,
the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's heat,
causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known
as global warming. Many scientists believe that global warming could
have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources,
forests, wildlife, and coastal areas.

.
(B). minimizing new resources consumption for building
industry.
ANSWER:
Builders, construction teams and design practitioners can divert
construction and demolition (C&D) materials from disposal by buying
used and recycled products, practicing source reduction, preserving
existing structures, as well as salvaging and reusing existing materials.
signing a building to support adaptation, disassembly and reuse can
reduce waste and extend its useful life, providing economic and
environmental benefits for builders, owners, and occupants, and the
communities. This practice can also avoid building removal altogether,
and allows materials to be easily, cost-effectively and rapidly taken
apart and directed for further reuse. By designing for adaptability,
disassembly and reuse, design practitioners are finding new
opportunities early in the design process to reduce environmental
impacts, conserve resources, and reduce costs.
Home strategies to use when designing for adaptability, disassembly
and reuse include:

 Developing an adaptation or disassembly plan with key

information (e.g., as built drawings, materials, key components,
structural properties and repair access and contact information).
 Using simple open-span structural systems and standard size,
modular building components and assemblies.
 Using durable materials that are worth recovering for reuse
and/or recycling.
 Minimizing the use of different types of materials and making
connections visible and accessible.
 Using mechanical fasteners such as bolts, screws and nails instead
of sealants and adhesives.
 Planning for the movement and safety of workers to allow for safe
building adaptation, repair and disassembly.
 The manufacture and production of building
 materials and components uses raw material resources,
consumes energy, produces greenhouse gas emissions and
 can consume significant quantities of water. At the end of a
building’s life cycle, a substantial proportion of the
 demolished materials may add to the environmental burden as
landfill.
 The manufacture and production of building
 materials and components uses raw material resources,
consumes energy, produces greenhouse gas emissions and
 can consume significant quantities of water. At the end of a
building’s life cycle, a substantial proportion of the
 demolished materials may add to the environmental burden as
landfill.
 The manufacture and production of building
 materials and components uses raw material resources,
consumes energy, produces greenhouse gas emissions and
  can consume significant quantities of water. At the end of a
building’s life cycle, a substantial proportion of the
 demolished materials may add to the environmental burden as
landfill.
 The manufacture and production of building
 materials and components uses raw material resources,
consumes energy, produces greenhouse gas emissions and
 can consume significant quantities of water. At the end of a
building’s life cycle, a substantial proportion of the
 demolished materials may add to the environmental burden as
landfill.

The manufacture and production of building materials and

components uses raw material resources, consumes energy,
produces greenhouse gas emissions and can consume significant
quantities of water. At the end of a building’s life cycle, a substantial
proportion of the demolished materials may add to the
environmental burden as landfill.
 The manufacture and production of building
 materials and components uses raw material resources,
consumes energy, produces greenhouse gas emissions and
 can consume significant quantities of water. At the end of a
building’s life cycle, a substantial proportion of the
 demolished materials may add to the environmental burden as
landfill.

(C). reduce, reuse and recycle.

ANSWER:
Reduce:
The principle of reducing waste, reusing and recycling resources and
products is often called the "3Rs." Reducing means choosing to use
things with care to reduce the amount of waste generated. Reusing
involves the repeated use of items or parts of items which still have
usable aspects.
Reuse:
Reuse is the action or practice of using an item, whether for its original
purpose or to fulfil a different function. It should be distinguished from
recycling, which is the breaking down of used items to make raw
materials for the manufacture of new products.
Recycle:
Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new
materials and objects. The recovery of energy from waste materials is
often included in this concept. The recyclability of a material depends
on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state.[1] It is
an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material
and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the
waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of
fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution
(from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling).
Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the
third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste
hierarchy. Thus, recycling aims toward environmental sustainability by
substituting raw material inputs into and redirecting waste outputs out
of the economic system. There are some ISO standards related to
recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, cardboard,
metal, plastic, tires, textiles, batteries, and electronics.
The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste such
as food or garden waste is also a form of recycling. Materials to be
recycled are either delivered to a household recycling center or picked
up from curbside bins, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new
materials destined for manufacturing new products.
Q4.what are renewable resources in the context of building
industry? What are the advantages and challenges of using
renewable resources in buildings and design of built
environment? Discus with reference to contact of Pakistan.
ANSWER:
Renewable resources include biomass energy (such as ethanol),
hydropower, geothermal power, wind energy, and solar energy.
Biomass refers to organic material from plants or animals. This includes
wood, sewage, and ethanol (which comes from corn or other plants)

The term “renewable” is generally applied to those energy resources

and technologies whose common characteristic is that they are non-
depletable or naturally replenishable.

Renewable resources include solar energy, wind, falling water, the heat
of the earth (geothermal), plant materials (biomass), waves, ocean
currents, temperature differences in the oceans and the energy of the
tides. Renewable energy technologies produce power, heat or
mechanical energy by converting those resources either to electricity or
to motive power. The policy maker concerned with development of the
national grid system will focus on those resources that have established
themselves commercially and are cost effective for on-grid applications.
Such commercial technologies include hydroelectric power, solar
energy, fuels derived from biomass, wind energy and geothermal
energy. Wave, ocean current, ocean thermal and other technologies
that are in the research or early commercial stage, as well as non-
electric renewable energy technologies, such as solar water heaters and
geothermal heat pumps, are also based on renewable resources, but
outside the scope of this Manual.

For the purposes of establishing a legal regime governing and

encouraging private-sector investment in renewable resources and
technologies, the policy strategist will make use of three conceptual
approaches. As well as the foregoing technical definition,
both political definitions and legal definitions, factor into a policy
definition of what resources deserve discrete treatment as “renewable
resources”.

Broadly define “Renewable Resources, then clarify that definition by

defining each specific renewable resource (e.g., “‘geothermal energy’
means the heat of the earth.”)

From the political perspective, renewable energy resources can be

divided into numerous categories depending upon the political goals or
objectives under consideration. For example, in a given country,
renewable resources may be distinguished by categorizing those which
are well established versus those which are underdeveloped; those
which have immediate development potential versus those which do
not; and those with potential rural versus those with urban customer
bases. The political perspective of the policy maker in one country may
be to justify different treatment for established resources such as large
hydroelectric from nascent resources such as geothermal. In another
country, the reverse may be true. Likewise, all of the renewable
resources may be treated differently for urban application than for
rural application.

Avoid operational definitions. For example, if different types of

hydropower are to be treated differently for political or legal reasons,
address such treatment in operational language, not by definition.

From the legal perspective, existing laws such as land use, water,
mining, and hydrocarbon laws need to be scrutinized to determine
their potential jurisdiction over and applicability to renewable
resources. It is important to define what technologies are to be
considered “renewable” for the purposes of any piece of legislation.
Such legislation can define “renewable resources” as appropriate, given
the state of development of the natural resources in that country. If a
court, legislator or executive interprets a law strictly, the term
“renewable resources” as used in a piece of legislation means what that
specific piece of legislation says it means, but only for the purposes of
that specific legislation. Thus, if a law defines coal as “renewable”, but
omits wind, this legal definition will prevail without reference to the
technical characteristics of either fuel. In most legal regimes, however,
the term “renewable energy” is used to distinguish naturally replenish
able fuels from those fuels of which the earth is endowed with fixed
stocks. The main examples of stock-limited resources are the fossil fuels
(principally coal, petroleum, natural gas, tar sands and oil shales) and
the nuclear fuels
Advantages of non-renewable energy resources
Most renewable energy resources are clean, because they do not
produce any pollution and cheap because their energy supplies do not
have any cost.
Hydroelectric power stations, as well as tidal and wave generators, are
very reliable, and both hydroelectric power stations and tidal
generators produce large amounts of electricity.
Energy Resource Advantages
Fossil fuels Reliable
Nuclear power Reliable
Wind turbines Clean and cheap to run
Clean and cheap to run and Scotland has a lot
Wave generators
of coastline
Clean and cheap to run and produce a lot of
Tidal generators
electricity once running
Hydroelectric power
Clean and cheap to run
stations
Solar cells Clean and cheap to run
 The Challenges Renewable Energy Sources Face
 Costs. The most significant and well-known obstacle to renewable
energy adoption right now is cost, in particular, the costs associated
with building and installing facilities like solar or wind farms. ...
 Transmission. Related Stories. ...
 Barriers to Entry. ...
 Politics. ...
 Oversupply.
 Availability of Power. One of the biggest concerns in the field of
renewable energy is power generation depending on natural resources
that are uncontrollable by humans.
 Power Quality Issues.
 Resource Location.
 Information Barrier.
 Cost Issue.
 Resources.
There are clear benefits, which may accrue from the wider adoption of
renewable energy technologies in building design. There are two key-
elements to fulfilling the technological potential of renewable energy
within the field of building design. Firstly, the appropriate skills and
attitudes must be instilled in building design professionals and
secondly, the provision of the opportunity for such people to
demonstrate their skills. The higher education of building designers
must include sustained development of attitudes and skills
encompassing the use of renewable energy technologies. With
environmental protection posing as the number one global problem,
man has no choice but to reduce his energy consumption. One way to
accomplish this is to resort to passive and low-energy systems to
maintain thermal comfort in buildings. The conventional and modern
designs of wind towers can successfully be used in hot, arid regions to
maintain thermal comfort (with or without the use of ceiling fans)
during all hours of the cooling season, or at least a fraction of it.
Climatic design is one of the best approaches to reduce the energy cost
in buildings. Proper design is the first step in defense against stress of
the climate. Buildings should be designed according to the local climate
in order to reduce the need of mechanical heating or cooling; hence,
maximum natural energy can be used for creating a pleasant
environment inside the built envelope. Technological and industrial
progress of the last decade has spread electronic and informatics
devices across many human activities and these now appear in building
construction. The utilization and operating opportunities of these
components, increase the reduction of heat losses by varying the
thermal insulation, optimizing lighting distribution with louver screens
and operating mechanical ventilation for coolness in indoor spaces. In
addition to these parameters, the intelligent envelope can act for
security control and became an important part of the building demotic
revolution. Application of simple passive cooling measure is effective in
reducing the cooling load of buildings in hot and humid climates. A
reduction of 43% can be achieved using a combination of well-
established technologies, such as glazing, shading, insulation and
natural ventilation. More advanced passive cooling techniques, such as
roof pond, dynamic insulation and evaporative water jacket need to be
considered more closely. The building sector is a major worldwide
consumer of both energy and materials and the consumption is
increasing. Additionally, most industrialized countries are becoming
more and more dependent on external supplies of conventional energy
carriers i.e., fossil fuels. Energy for heating and cooling can be replaced
by new renewable energy sources. However, new renewable energy
sources are usually not economically feasible compared with the
traditional carriers. In order to achieve the major changes necessary to
alleviate the environmental impacts of the building sector, it is
necessary to change and develop both the processes in the industry
itself and to build a favorable framework to overcome the present
economic, regulatory and institutional barriers.
y, environmental issues have been the focus of much of the world’s
attention. This has stimulated a response in many countries, which has
led to a closer examination of energy conservation strategies for
conventional fossil fuels. One way of reducing building energy
consumption is to design buildings, which are more economical in their
use of energy for: heating, lighting, cooling, ventilation and hot water
supply. Passive measures, particularly natural or hybrid ventilation
rather than air-conditioning, can dramatically reduce primary energy
consumption. However, exploitation of renewable energy in buildings
and agricultural greenhouses, can significantly contribute in reducing
dependency on fossil fuels. Therefore, promoting innovative renewable
applications and reinforcing the renewable energy market will
contribute to preserving the ecosystem by reducing emissions at local
and global levels. This will also contribute to the amelioration of
environmental conditions, through a reduction in air pollution and
greenhouse gases, by the replacement of conventional fuels with
renewable energies.

Q5. Write note on the following:

(A). climate change and its impacts on people living in urban
centers.
ANSWER:
Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical
weather patterns in a place. ... The cause of current climate change is
largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels, like natural gas, oil, and
coal. Burning these materials releases what are called greenhouse
gases into Earth's atmosphere.
he primary cause of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels, such as
oil and coal, which emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere—
primarily carbon dioxide. Other human activities, such as agriculture
and deforestation, also contribute to the proliferation of greenhouse
gases that cause climate change.
 These include warming temperatures and changes in precipitation, as
well as the effects of Earth's warming, such as:
 Rising sea levels.
 Shrinking mountain glaciers.
 Ice melting at a faster rate than usual in Greenland, Antarctica and the
Arctic.
 Changes in flower and plant blooming times.
Climate change is a global phenomenon that largely impacts urban life.
Rising global temperatures causes sea levels to rise, increases the
number of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and
storms, and increases the spread of tropical diseases.
More frequent and intense drought, storms, heat waves, rising sea
levels, melting glaciers and warming oceans can directly harm animals,
destroy the places they live, and wreak havoc on people's livelihoods
and communities. As climate change worsens, dangerous weather
events are becoming more frequent or severe.
Urban governments have critical roles in adaptation to climate change
in all nations as well as in mitigation (reducing greenhouse gas
emissions). It can be argued that they have the central role in
adaptation within their jurisdictions – although it is obvious that they
need a supportive institutional, regulatory and financial framework
from higher levels of government and, for most low- and middle-
income nations, also from international agencies. This paper will focus
on the effects of climate change on urban areas in low- and middle-
income nations and the implications for urban governance. It will
emphasize how most adaptation to the likely climate change-related
dangers over the next few decades fit well within a local development
agenda.
The roles and responsibilities of urban governments It is important to
understand the scale and scope of local government involvement in
urban centers, if their role in adaptation to climate change is to be
understood. Urban governments typically have a range of roles that can
be ordered under the eight headings listed below – although with many
differences as to how these are arranged (or combined) within each
urban center and how lines of authority and accountability are
structured between politicians and civil servants. Of course, there are
also very large differences in the scope of their responsibilities within
each of these and the competence with which these are fulfilled.
How climate change will affect cities:
Deaths
Temperatures are getting hotter. From 1999 to 2010, 2,039 heat-related
deaths were reported in the United States, according to the National
Weather Service. Among weather-related fatalities, heat was the cause
of more deaths between 1999-2018 in America than any other natural
hazard. In 2003, more than 70,000 people died in Europe from a severe
heatwave.
Hurricanes are also getting stronger and are flooding cities more.
According to the National Weather Service, 80 people in the U.S. have
died this year due to flooding. Other natural disasters are causing more
damage than ever recorded in the past. Wildfires will prevail as longer-
lasting droughts fuel already-devastating wildfire seasons.
Power outages
During extreme heat, we use an exceptional amount of power to keep
ourselves cool. About 20-25 percent more power is needed on a 90°F
day compared to an 80°F day. When the temps raise to 95°F, nearly 40
percent more power is needed when compared to an 80°F day.
Additionally, water needed to cool power plants can evaporate at a
faster rate during warmer temperatures, which may force some power
plants out of commission.
Infrastructure failures
With extra heat, the actual built environment of a city is affected.
Past power grids failing, excessive heat can cause asphalt to melt, rail
tracks to expand and airports to hold planes due to tarmacs being too
hot.
Floodwaters can wash away roads, erode bayous and river banks, and
push through bridges. And flooding from natural disasters isn't expected
to slow. According to a 2018 study by Texas A&M University: “The
growing number of extreme rainfall events that produce intense
precipitation are resulting in – and will continue to result in – increased
urban flooding unless steps are taken to mitigate their impacts.”
The 2017 National Climate Assessment concluded: “Heavy downpours
are increasing nationally, especially over the last three to five decades
and increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation
events are projected for all U.S. regions.”

(B). energy crises in Pakistan and its relationship to HVAC

design of buildings.
ANSWER:
Electricity Theft: Electricity theft can be termed as the mother of all
evils causing the energy crises. The inefficiencies of the transmission
and distribution system, cause this theft to take place, increasing the
cost of supplying electricity.
The energy crisis is the largest single drain on Pakistan's economy. This
crisis stems from a fuel mix transformation initiated two decades ago,
when power generation came to rely more on imported furnace oil
than hydropower.
Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) is generally
responsible for a significant proportion of total building energy
consumption. A typical system accounts for approximately 40% of total
building consumption and 70% of base building (i.e. landlord)
consumption.

The Energy Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in a dramatic change in the
planning and operation of construction activities in the developed
countries, the emphasis being on optimal utilization of energy. In
Pakistan, the last few years have witnessed the growing menace of
energy shortage or 'load-shedding". Although it could be contributed to
a slower rate of increase in our generation capacity, there are
numerous other factors which have been widening the gap between
demand and supply in all sectors of our economy, especially the
building sector. According to a conservative estimate, buildings in
Pakistan consume more than 40% of the total electricity produced. The
demand of this sector is growing at the rate of almost 14% per annum,
the highest among all other sectors. Rapid urbanization and resultant
construction of buildings and rising standards of living are considered to
be the causes of increased demand in this sector. However, a critical
evaluation would reveal that most of the current buildings are not
designed keeping in view local climatic conditions. Excessive use of
concrete and glass, high levels of illumination and heavy reliance on
space conditioning equipment are a common feature of our buildings.
These buildings need extra energy to be made comfortable for their
occupants. Although a Building Code of Pakistan exists, it does not
address this issue. Therefore, the National Energy Conservation Centre
(ENERCON), Planning and Development Division was requested by the
Environment and Urban Affairs Division, to come up with a Building
Energy Code, as an addendum to the Building Code of Pakistan. The
draft Code prepared by ENERCON,was presented to a Review
Committee, constituted by the Environment and Urban Affairs Division
(composition given on pages iii - iv). Due to the technical nature of the
Code, a Technical Sub-Committee was formed. which went through
each and every clause. The Code was finally approved by the Review
Committee on the recommendation of the Technical Sub-Committee
after incorporating necessary amendments in the light of the
comments of the members of both the committees. This Code gives
minimum performance standards for building windows and openings,
heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and
lighting. Though mostly based on American Society of Heating
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards, every
effort has been made to ensure its applicability in our buildings. In
accordance with the Building Code of Pakistan, which divides Pakistan
into five climatic zones, standards have been provided for each zone. In
order to ensure general understanding of the Code for a large-scale
compliance, ENERCON has also' prepared a Compliance Handbook for
use in conjunction with this Code. It explains most of the terms and
other technical aspects with the help of illustrative examples. The
building Energy Code is non mandatory at this stage. Both ENERCON
and the Environment and Urban Affairs Division shall help the building
professionals through introductory workshops and seminars to
understand the conceptual basis of the Code. This is expected to ensure
that the designs of buildings comply with the Code and are energy
efficient. Once the infrastructure has substantially developed, the Code
may be promulgated on a mandatory basis. The Code will be reviewed
by the Environment and Urban Affairs Division in consultation with
ENERCON periodically as and when needed but not later than five
years. Any valuable comments for its improvement will be highly
appreciated.
Air changes per hour (ACE). Number of complete changes of interior air
by outdoor air per hour. Air Infiltration. The uncontrolled air exchange
in a building due to air leakage through cracks and interstices in any
building element and around windows and doors of a building, caused
by the pressured effects of wind and/or the effect of differences in the
indoor and outdoor air density. Air transport factor. The ratio of the
rate of useful sensible heat removal from the conditioned space to the
energy input to the supply and return fan motor(s), expressed in
consistent units and under the designated operating conditions.
Automatic. Self-acting, operating by its own mechanism when actuated
by some impersonal influence, as for example, a change in current
strength, pressure, temperature or mechanical configuration. Boiler
capacity. The rate of heat output in W(Btu/h) measured at the boiler
outlet, at the design inlet and outlet conditions and rated fuel/energy
input. British thermal unit (Btu). Approximately the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one
Fahrenheit degree, at 60 F. International Steam Table Btu x 1.055 = W.
Building envelope. The element's of a building which enclose
conditioned spaces through which thermal energy may be transferred
to or from the exterior or to or from unconditioned spaces exempted
by the provisions (See Section 3.) 2-l Building project. A building or
group of buildings, including on-site energy conversion or electric
generating facilities which utilize a single submittal for a construction
permit or are within the boundary of a continuous area under one
ownership. C = thermal conductance. The thermal transmission in unit
time through unit area of a particular body or assembly having defined
surfaces, when unit averge temperature is established between the
surfaces: W/m9 .C (Btu/ft%h.F). Coefficient of performance (COP) -
cooling. in the following paragraphs: - Electric Packaged Equipment
(Cooling Mode) - Electrically Operated HVAC System Components
(Cooling Mode) - Heat Operated Equipment (Cooling Mode) As defined
4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 Coefficient of performance (COP), pump - heating
Mode. As defined in para 4.3.4. Comfort 8nV8lOp8. The area on a
psychometric chart enclosing all those conditions described in
ANSI/ASHEAE Standard 55-74, Fig. 1, as being comfortable. Conditioned
floor area. The horizontal projection of that portion of interior space
which is contained within exterior walls and which is conditioned
directly or indirectly by an energy-using system. Conditioned space.
Space within a building which is provided with heated and/or cooled air
or surfaces and, where required, with humidification or
dehumidification means so as to maintain a space condition falling
within the comfort zone set forth in ANSI/ASHEAE Standard 55-74
"Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.11 Cooled
space. Space within a building which is provided with a positive cooling
supply. D.O.E. Department of Energy (U.S.) Dwelling unit. A single
housekeeping unit comprised of one or more rooms providing
complete, independent living facilities for one or more persons
including permanent provisions for living, sleeping, eating, cooking and
sanitation. 2-2 Economiser cycle. A control sequence of an air supply
system that modulates the quantity of outdoor air supplied for the
purpose of space conditioning in order to reduce or eliminate the use
of refrigeration energy for cooling. Efficiency, HVAC system. The ratio of
the useful energy output (at the point of use) to the energy input for a
designated time period, expressed in percent. Energy. The capacity for
doing work: taking a number of forms which may be transformed from
one into another, such as thermal (heat), mechanical (work), electrical,
and chemical: in SI units, measured in joules (J), where 1 joule = 1 watt-
second; in customary units, measured in kilowatt hours (kWh) or British
thermal units (Btu). Energy efficiency ratio (EER). The ratio of net
equipment cooling capacity in Btu/h to total rate of electric input in
watts under designated operating conditions. When SI units are used
this ratio becomes equal to COP. (See coefficient of performance.)
Enthalpy. A thermodynamic property of a substance defined as the sum
of its internal energy plus the quantity Pv/J: where P = pressure of the
substance, v = its volume, and J = the mechanical equivalent of heat;
formerly called total heat and heat content. Exterior envelope. (See
building envelope.) Fenestration. Any light-transmitting opening in a
building wall or roof. Gross floor area. The sum of the areas of one or
more floors of the building, including basements, mezzanine and
intermediate-floored tiers and penthouses of headroom height,
measured from the exterior faces of exterior walls or from the
centerline of walls separating buildings, but excluding: 0 Covered
walkways, open roofed-over areas, porches and similar spaces. 0 Pipe
trenches, exterior terraces or steps, chimneys, roof overhangs, and
similar features. Gross wall area. See section 3.2 for definition. HVAC .
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning. 2-3 HVAC system. A system
that provides either collectively or individually the processes of comfort
heating, ventilating, and/or air conditioning within or associated with a
building. HVAC system equipment. The word "equipment" used without
modifying adjective, may, in accordance with common industry usage,
apply either to HVAC system equipment or HVAC system components.
HVAC system efficiency. (See efficiency, HVAC system.) Heated space.
Space, within a building, which is provided with a positive heat supply.
Finished living space within a basement, or in the presence of registers
or heating devices designed to supply heat to a basement space, shall
automatically define that space as heated space. Humidistat. A
regulatory device, actuated by changes in humidity, used for automatic
control of relative humidity. Illumination. The density of the luminous
flux incident on a surface: it is the quotient of the luminous flux by the
area of the surface when the latter is uniformly illuminated. Luminaire.
A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the
parts designed to distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps,
and to connect the lamps to the power supply.
Keeping in view the above mentioned ground realities, it is concluded
that burning issue of energy crisis is not new to Pakistan rather this is
the global issue. Not only under developed countries like Pakistan but
also many developed countries are threatened by energy crisis. As
tabulated above, Pakistan has already enough installed capacity that
can cope with the present demand if all the installed units would
operate and give their maximum possible outputs. Moreover, according
to the given records, Pakistan has many untapped fuel reservoirs which
may meet the increasing demands of the country. Influential planning
on the part of government is required. In that case, this issue can be
easily resolved. Furthermore, efforts are required on individual basis by
wise consumption of energy as well as timely bill payment system to
improve the efficiency of the concerned department. In the same line,
media needs to play its positive role to improve our social behavior
rather than creating any frustration among the masses.

Q6. discuss the following two concepts with reference to the

recommended course book:
(A). condensation and breathable construction.
ANSWER:
Condensation’ describes the physical process by which substances
change from a gas or a vapour to a liquid phase, usually as a result of a
drop in temperature. However, the term is commonly used to describe
the process when moisture in the air condenses out to form liquid
water as fine droplets in the air, or on a relatively colder material.
Common examples of the former in the natural environment are the
formation of clouds when warmer moisture-laden air mixes with colder
air above, and fog, where this occurs at ground level. Similarly mist
forms when warm moisture laden air is cooled by heat loss over night.
Examples of the latter include the misting up of car windows when the
warm moisture-laden air within cools on the surface of the window
screen, and the misting on the surface of a mirror when held in the
moist air exhaled from the mouth. This occurs because reducing the
temperature of the gases that make up air reduces the energy available
to keep the molecules whizzing around randomly within the available
space, and lets a proportion of the molecules settle down into a less
mobile liquid phase, in which the motion is more limited. Conversely,
molecules in the liquid phase may pick-up enough energy to leave the
liquid and ‘evaporate’ off to join the other gas molecules randomly
moving around the available space once more. In fact, at any time
molecules will be ‘condensing’ and ‘evaporating’ from any liquid water.
The more active and energetic the molecules are, the greater ‘pressure’
they exert. This is described as ‘partial vapour pressure’. If the energy
and hence the partial vapour pressure of the molecule in the liquid is
higher than those in the air, then there will be a net movement of
water into the air resulting from net evaporation or drying. Conversely,
if the temperature and hence partial vapour pressure of the water
molecules in the air is higher than that in the liquid or other adjacent
material, there will be net condensation.
Air will generally include moisture in the form of water vapour.
Typically this happens in buildings when warm, moist air comes into
contact with cooler surfaces that are at or below the dew point (such as
windows) and water condenses on those surfaces.
Roofing felt is impermeable to water so it will not allow moisture to
escape from the roof. Breathable membrane does allow water vapour
to escape from the roof space but if other circumstances are working
against it then it may not be sufficient on its own to prevent
condensation.
Condensation problems within a building are usually indicative of
humidity and ventilation problems within a property. It is often
believed to be caused by building defect, but that is usually not the
case. Condensation is caused by excess water vapour in the air, which
can't escape.
A breathable structure is one that allows the passage of moisture in
order to prevent the accumulation of harmful water within the building
fabric or its surroundings. Harmful water is water that increases
humidity to a detrimental level or which alters the physical structure of
materials in a damaging way.
Condensation occurs when warm air collides with cold surfaces,
or when there's too much humidity in your home. When this moisture-
packed warm air comes into contact with a chilly surface, it cools down
quickly and releases the water, which turns into liquid droplets on the
cold surface.
DEFECTS CAN CAUSE CONDENSATION
Defects introduced in the refurbishment of older buildings or during the
construction of new extensions may cause damp problems as a result
of condensation. Some common examples are listed below:

 the sealing of gaps around windows without provision of

appropriate supplementary ‘trickle’ ventilation
 the introduction of showers, jacuzzis, saunas or swimming pools
with insufficient provision of extractor fans or passive stack
ventilation
 the installation of laundry units without proper installation of
exhaust vents to the exterior
 the installation of broken or crushed ducts from extractor fans in
showers or bathrooms
 the installation of extractor fan ducts exhausting into building
voids such as roof spaces, rather than to the exterior
 the failure to provide adequate ‘makeup’ air or trickle ventilation
into areas fitted with extractor fans, to allow proper through
ventilation
 the blocking of existing flues and chimneys preventing passive
stack ventilation
 the blocking of existing vents or plenums designed to vent air to
the exterior, in particular through the ceilings and roofs over
function rooms, or at the skylights over staircases
 the installation of intermittent heating, especially hot air heating
systems, allowing warm moist air to ‘pulse’ into unheated areas
under reduced occupancy – for example, in churches in reduced
or intermittent use
 the inadequate provision of low level structural heating to
massive structures under reduced occupancy, such as churches or
castles, allowing cold front condensation.
 the provision of inadequate through ventilation to rooms under
reduced occupancy
 the introduction of security locked windows with no provision for
locking in a partially opened position
 the sealing of roof voids by the installation of insulation or
sparking felts, preventing adequate through-ventilation
 the sealing of floor voids by the blocking of airbricks, and the
installation of fitted carpets or other impermeable floor coverings
 the blocking of windows, hatches or other vents to cellar or
basement areas, preventing adequate through-ventilation
 the introduction of defective insulation and ‘vapour barriers’ or
‘vapour checks’; especially in extremely hot or cold environments,
or around cold structures within buildings, such as cold water
tanks or refrigeration systems.
 CONDENSATION IN BUILDINGS

The air in occupied buildings will always contain moisture. This is

because we are all mostly made up of water, and add water to the
environment at every breath. Occupancy will also introduce water
into the built environment with activities such as bathing, washing
and cooking. In modern and refurbished buildings the installation
of shower units, Jacuzzis, swimming pools and saunas in particular
can add significant quantities of water to the internal air.
Moisture will also enter the air within structures due to the
evaporation of water penetrating from the exterior. This occurs
mostly from ground and surface drainage via the foundations, and
through walls and roofs due to defective roof drainage. Moisture-
laden air may also enter the structure from the exterior when it is
warm and wet outside relative to the interior environment. Any
sources of moisture into the internal environment may result in
moisture-laden air being cooled to below its dew point at
relatively cool surfaces or within relatively cool materials within
the building structures; resulting in net condensation and the
accumulation of liquid water causing localized damp conditions.
This localized accumulation of moisture as a result of
condensation can result in a number of damp-related problems in
buildings, including the decay or damage of building materials or
contents, and affecting the health and comfort of occupants.
 Cold-bridge condensation occurs when relatively warm moisture
laden air comes into contact with surfaces, at or below its dew
point, which are relatively cold as a result of locally reduced
insulation values between the warm air and a relatively cold area.
Typical examples of this process are condensation at the base of
external walls, where it may be confused with rising damp,
condensation on window panes where it often results in
accelerated decay to the lower parts of window frames, and
condensation to the undersides of roof surfaces. The latter may
 result in accelerated corrosion of lead roof surfaces. Liquid water
penetration into structures will usually degrade their insulating
properties and may therefore form a ‘cold bridge‘, resulting in
further condensation. Because of this it is not unusual to find
water penetration at the base of walls or through roofs also
causing local condensation. Cold bridge condensation can also
occur on relatively cold internal structures, such as inadequately
insulated cold water tanks or refrigeration units.
 Warm front condensation occurs when relatively warm moisture-
laden air from the exterior enters into a relatively cold building,
following a change in weather from cold to warm. This usually
occurs in the UK with a ‘warm front’ arriving from the Atlantic
from November through to February, and can result in water
running down the interior walls of massive masonry structures
under reduced occupancy, especially in the towers of churches or
castles, and in subterranean structures.
 Interstitial condensation occurs when relatively warm moisture-
laden air diffuses into a vapour-permeable material or structure
such as fibrous insulation or a porous brick wall. If it is relatively
warm on one side and below the dew point temperature on the
other; this can result in the moisture-laden air reaching ‘dew
point’ within the material and depositing liquid water at this
point. This becomes a particular problem if the diffusion of the
moisture vapour through the material is restricted towards the
cold side of the structure and if the insulation or thermal
conductivity of the structure is such that the temperature profile
is skewed towards the relatively warm side. The risk of
condensation in these circumstances can be calculated using
graphs and formulae, or using specialist computer programmes,
and it can become a particular problem in heavily insulated or
air-conditioned buildings. This is especially important when
dealing with the conservation of buildings in extreme
environments such as the conservation of buildings in the tropics,
 which tend to be airconditioned on refurbishment. In this
situation, interstitial condensation can be a significant problem;
and it is necessary to turn the usual calculations back to front, as
conditions will be warm and wet on the outside and cold and dry
on the inside of the structure. Similarly, extreme conditions can
occur in very cold environments, and when refrigeration units are
introduced, without adequate ‘vapour checks’ or insulation.

(B). ventilation and infiltration losses.

What is the relationship between ventilation and infiltration?
Natural or passive ventilation occurs because of wind and
thermal forces which produce a flow of outdoor air through
the various openings in a building. Infiltration is the flow
through the unintentional openings.
ANSWER:
The key factor in determining the ventilation heat loss in a building is
the ventilation rate , i.e. the average rate at which air flows through it.
Any warm air that escapes through the windows, doors and various
gaps in the outer fabric is immediately replaced by a new supply of
fresh cold air from outside.
Infiltration is the unwanted and unintentional flow of air through a
building's fabric.Ventilation is the deliberate movement of air to
remove contaminants such as water vapour, airborne chemicals (VOCs),
CO2, NOx, and odours from an indoor environment, and to keep
everything feeling 'fresh'.
Ventilation Air can be natural or mechanical. In modern commercial
buildings, the term ventilation refers to mechanical ventilation. It is the
intentional controlled introduction of outdoor air into an enclosed
occupied space. Ventilation is provided using mechanical systems such
as fans. The entry of outdoor air through an open door or window is
considered infiltration and not ventilation. The total air supplied to a
space consisting of outdoor air and indoor recirculation air is not
ventilation air either. It is referred to as Supply Air
Infiltration Air is the unintentional and uncontrolled entry of outdoor
air into an enclosed space. Infiltration occurs through cracks in the
building envelope and due to pressure differences between inside and
outside. The outdoor air entering through open doors and windows is
considered infiltration although the purpose of opening the door or
window might be ventilation. Infiltration occurs mainly in winter when
the air outside is colder and heavier than the air inside. It depends on
wind velocity, wind direction and the air-tightness of the building
envelope. In the case of high-rise buildings the stack effect also causes
infiltration
The amount of ventilation needed has been debated for over a century,
and the different rationales developed have led to radicauy different
ventilation standards. Considerations such as the amount of air
required to expel exhaled air. moisture removal from indoor air, and
control of carbon dioxide (C02) were each primary criteria used at
different times during the nineteenth century. Current ventilation rates
in commercial and residential buildings are based on a number of
research projects carried out in the 1920's and l930's, including that of
Yaglou.'· 5 This research investigated the ventilation rates required to
keep body-generated odors below an acceptable level in rooms with
comfortable levels of temperature and humidity. It was found that the
required ventilation rates varied considerably, depending on the
cleanliness of the subjects and how many were present in the chamber.
Researchers also found that C02 concentration was not a good
indicator of the ventilation rate above 5 L/s (JO cfm) per person; the
C02 concentration was almost always lower than expected for a given
ventilation rate. However, below 5 L/s (IO cfm) per person the
discrepancies’ were not so great, and in fact the current rationale for
the 2.S L/s (S cfm) per person minimum outside air requirement is
based on C02 concentration. The amount of C02 produced by an
individual depends on the diet and the activity level. 6 A representative
value of C02 production by an individual is 0.0055 Lis (0.011 cfm).
When a steady state is reached in a ventilated space in which no
removal mechanisms for C02 exist other than ventilation, the
concentration of C02 is given by: C1 = C0 + F/Q (1) where C1 =
concentration of C02 inside the space. C0 = concentration of C02
outside the space. F = generation rate of C02 . Q = ventilation rate
(outside air only). Current ASH RAE standards assume that 0.2H'o C02 is
an acceptable limit. Since the outside concentration of C02 is 0,.030'/o,
the minimum ventilation rate is: 0.25 = «;l.03 + (0.0055 x 100)/Q Q = 2 ..
s Lis (5 cfm)
Ventilation and Infiltration (kinetic energy loss mechanisms are
dominant) then a measurement of flow through the building shell can
be used to calculate the effective orifice area which would show the
same pressure-flow characteristic. Fan pressurization-depressurization
measures a property of a structure that varies little with time and is
independent of weather. It is a useful measurement for comparing the
tightness of buildings. There is, however, no direct means for
converting leakage rate to infiltration rate. If the leaks are of relatively
the same size and uniformly distributed over the structure, the
infiltration rate will be about one-half the leakage rate for a pressure
difference equal to the infiltration pressure difference. Further
discussion presented in the discussion of infiltration models.

Q7. Write notes on the following, with addition of case

studies.
(A). building form optimization for solar gain.
ANSWER:
Solar gain is short wave radiation from the sun that heats a building,
either directly through an opening such as a window, or indirectly
Very broadly, solar gain can be beneficial in cooler climates when it can
be used as a passive way of heating buildings. ... Low-e coatings on
glazing can also increase the retention of solar gains by increasing the
proportion of re-radiated long-wave infrared radiation that is reflected
back into the interior. Very broadly, solar gain can be beneficial in
cooler climates when it can be used as a passive way of heating
buildings. Low-e coatings on glazing can also increase the retention of
solar gains by increasing the proportion of re-radiated long-wave
infrared radiation that is reflected back into the interior.
Solar gain is the name given to the increase in temperature in a space,
object or structure due to solar radiation, i.e. the heat from the sun. ...
A building can retain this solar gain by having high thermal mass or can
avoid it by using reflective materials and insulation.
In the severe cold zones of China, solar radiation is one of the most
important issues in architectural design. The design seeks to make
buildings receive more direct sunlight within the limits of the user’s
comfort and simultaneously save energy and space. So far in China, the
design of solar radiation has usually been qualitative, not quantitative,
and it is often implemented by architects with experience or those
following convention. This rough and rigid design approach is not
accurate or efficient, particularly in the design of free-form buildings,
which comprise a class of irregular-form buildings popular in current
architectural design. Moreover, solar radiation is not the only thing that
needs to be considered; shape coefficient and space efficiency should
also be considered in free-form building design.
The reduction in solar gains on the building envelope, in particular due
to direct solar irradiation, leads to a significant theoretical reduction in
energy consumption not only in warm but also in mild regions, as
shown in the cases of study considered. We found that the optimal
form of the building, obtained with a mathematical approach, depends
in general on the latitude and that there already exists some examples
in modern architecture. In particular, the theoretical optimal forms
have a particular characteristic, i.e. the sections of the building parallel
to the average ecliptic have a constant bi-dimensional curvature, and
then they are circular. As a result, useful guidelines to building
designers in the common professional practice could be given at the
 early decision-making stage: in order to minimize direct irradiation on
the envelope, those particular sections should be as compact as
possible. In the case of a rectangular plan, the results show that an
optimal form of the building can reduce direct solar gains by up to 20%
without necessarily reducing the total solar gains. Therefore, the
solutions found are also useful to reduce energy consumption of a
building with a glassed envelope, even in mild and cold regions. Other
insights may be gained by integrating the analytical approach used here
with numerical approaches, in order to address the problem of
optimizing energy performance in more complex scenarios, in order to
go beyond some assumptions of our theoretical approach.

(B). avoiding solar gain through building and site design.

ANSWER:
Solar heat gain can be reduced by:
1. Horizontal shading.
2. Limiting the area of openings.
3. Orientating openings away from the sun path.
4. Reducing solar transmittance through openings, for example by
reflective glazing. ...
5. Purging heat gains by the introduction of ventilation.
6. Solar gain is the name given to the increase in temperature in a space,
object or structure due to solar radiation, i.e. the heat from the sun. In
buildings this heating is the result of short-wave radiation heating the
interior of a building directly through an opening such as a window or
indirectly heating the fabric of the structure or both.
7. A building can retain this solar gain by having high thermal mass or can
avoid it by using reflective materials and insulation. Both have their use
depending on the heating needs of the building and whether the
building requires heating or not.

Solar gain is short wave radiation from the sun that heats a building,
either directly through an opening such as a window, or indirectly
through the fabric of the building. Solar design (or passive solar design)
is an aspect of passive building design that focusses on maximising the
use of heat energy from solar radiation.

Solar gain is a particularly effective form of

passive heating as radiation from the sun is predominately short-
wave infrared radiation which is able to pass
through glazing and heat the internal fabric of the building. The long-
wave infrared radiation that is re-radiated by the heated fabric of
the building is not able to pass back out through the glazing. This results
in heat accumulating in the interior, sometimes referred to as the
'greenhouse effect'. See Thermal optical properties for
more information.

Very broadly, solar gain can be beneficial in cooler climates when it can
be used as a passive way of heating buildings. However, too much solar
gain can cause overheating and for this reason, Part L of the UK building
regulations places restrictions on the amount of glazing that can be
used in buildings. Overheating as a result of solar gains can be a
particular problem in warmer climates. However, the situation is
complicated by the variation in conditions throughout the day and year
which can mean that solar gain can be beneficial in the morning and
evening, or during the winter, but can be problematic during the middle
of the day or in the summer.

(C). trees , landscape and opening role in avoiding direct solar

gain.

ANSWER:
Solar gain is short wave radiation from the sun that heats a building,
either directly through an opening such as a window, or indirectly
through the fabric of the building. Solar design (or passive solar design)
is an aspect of passive building design that focusses on maximizing the
use of heat energy from solar radiation. Solar gain is a particularly
effective form of passive heating as radiation from the sun is
predominately short-wave infrared radiation which is able to pass
through glazing and heat the internal fabric of the building. The long-
wave infrared radiation that is re-radiated by the heated fabric of
the building is not able to pass back out through the glazing. This results
in heat accumulating in the interior, sometimes referred to as the
'greenhouse effect'. See Thermal optical properties for
more information. Very broadly, solar gain can be beneficial in cooler
climates when it can be used as a passive way of heating buildings.
However, too much solar gain can cause overheating and for this
reason, Part L of the UK building regulations places restrictions on the
amount of glazing that can be used in buildings. Overheating as a result
of solar gains can be a particular problem in warmer climates. However,
the situation is complicated by the variation in conditions throughout
the day and year which can mean that solar gain can be beneficial in
the morning and evening, or during the winter, but can be problematic
during the middle of the day or in the summer. Relatively straight-
forward design solutions such as brises can be used to allow low-
level winter sun to enter a building, but to shade higher, summer sun.
Other solutions, such as planting deciduous trees in front
of windows can be effective as leaf cover in the summer will
shade glazing from solar radiation, whereas in the winter sunlight is
able to pass between the bare branches and enter the building.
Thermal mass in the building's interior can be used to even
out variations in solar radiation, storing gains accumulated during the
middle of the day and releasing them slowly, providing an ongoing heat
source during cooler times of the day. An example of the use of thermal
mass is a tromped wall,There are many different reasons to want to
control the amount of sunlight that is admitted into a building. In warm,
sunny climates excess solar gain may result in high cooling energy
consumption; in cold and temperate climates winter sun entering
south-facing windows can positively contribute to passive solar heating;
 and in nearly all climates controlling and diffusing natural illumination
will improve daylighting.

Well-designed sun control and shading devices can dramatically reduce

building peak heat gain and cooling requirements and improve the
natural lighting quality of building interiors. Depending on the amount
and location of fenestration, reductions in annual cooling energy
consumption of 5% to 15% have been reported. Sun control and
shading devices can also improve user visual comfort by controlling
glare and reducing contrast ratios. This often leads to increased
satisfaction and productivity. Shading devices offer the opportunity of
differentiating one building facade from another. This can provide
interest and human scale to an otherwise undistinguished design.

To properly design shading devices it is necessary to understand the

position of the sun in the sky during the cooling season. The position of
the sun is expressed in terms of altitude and azimuth angles.
The altitude angle is the angle of the sun above the horizon, achieving its
maximum on a given day at solar noon.
The azimuth angle, also known as the bearing angle, is the angle of the
sun's projection onto the ground plane relative to south.
An easily accessed source of information on sun angles and solar path
diagrams is Architectural Graphic Standards, 12th Edition, available from
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Publishers.
Shading devices can have a dramatic impact on building appearance. This
impact can be for the better or for the worse. The earlier in the design
process that shading devices are considered they more likely they are to
be attractive and well-integrated in the overall architecture of a project.
solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building
components including:

 Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows;

  Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins;
 Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves;
 Low shading coefficient (SC) glass; and,
 Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable
louvers
An effective way of harnessing the renewable energy resource of the
sun is through the application of passive solar design principles to new
developments. It is based on the concept of minimising the energy
needs of a building by making the best use of solar gain. This reduces
the need for energy to heat and light buildings, which in turn minimises
CO2 emissions and energy bills for future residents. It is, however, also
important to avoid excessive solar gain during the summer which can
cause overheating and increase the energy demand for cooling.
Passive solar gain works by allowing solar radiation to enter a building
through its glazing providing natural light and thermal energy which can
be absorbed into the floor and walls. The thermal energy absorbed
during the day is reradiated at night into the living space, reducing
diurnal fluctuations in temperature. To facilitate this process a number
of complementary passive solar gain features need to be incorporated
into the design of both the site layout and individual buildings.
Buildings need to be orientated within 30° of south to gain the full
benefit of passive solar energy. Buildings orientated within 30° to the
east will benefit from the morning sun while buildings orientated within
30° to the west will receive the late afternoon sun (see Figure 4.1).
Rectangular shaped blocks with a west-east emphasis will facilitate
optimal south-facing front or rear building layouts.
The overshadowing of new buildings by neighbouring buildings, trees
and other site obstructions can undermine solar gain. It is therefore
important to ensure that trees and tall garden walls or fences do not
unduly overshadow facades, and that adequate space is provided
between buildings. Detailed information on how to calculate building
spacing distances can be found in the Energy Savings Trust’s guidance
entitled “Sustainable Site Layout: An introduction to creating a
sustainable housing development”