2

Earth's sub-
sytsem

Geosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

Hydrosphere

Trophosphere surface
Crust Producers
water

Mantle Stratosphere Ground Consumer

water
Core Mesosphere Decomposer

Inner Outer
Thermosphere Scavenger
Core Core
3

Exospher
e
 What is a Mineral?

A mineral:
 is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid

 has an ordered internal arrangement of atoms

 has specific physical properties that are either fixed or

that vary within some defined range.
 has a definite chemical composition that may vary within
specific limits

Quartz Amethyst

Amethyst is South Carolina’s state mineral.

copyright©Dr. Richard Busch West Chester University

Geology was a language
● Minerals = Letters of the Alphabet
● Rocks = Words
● Mineralogy – the study of minerals
● Mineralogist – Someone who studies
minerals, their composition, uses and
properties

5
6
 How Do Minerals Grow?

 New minerals are forming everyday on the Earth’s surface, in the Earth’s crust, and
deep within the Earth’s interior.
 Minerals form from molten rock and volcanic magma within the Earth’s interior and
crust. In these environments, changes in temperature and pressure and chemical
composition influence the type of minerals which form, the size of their individual
crystals, and their growth rate.
 Minerals grow from saturated solutions in rock cavities. Differences in temperature,
chemical composition, and the saturation content of the solution influence the type
of minerals which form, the size of their individual crystals, and their growth rate.
 The arrangement of atoms during crystal formation determines what the mineral will
be and what crystal shape it will have.
 The crystal form is one of several characteristics that Geologists use to identify
different minerals.

7
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Mineral Properties
Minerals have distinctive that
geologists use to identify and describe them.
There are 7 major physical properties of minerals:
A variety of different minerals.
 1. Color
 2. Streak
 3. Hardness
 4. Cleavage
 5. Crystalline Structure
 6. Transparency or
 Diaphaneity
 7. Magnetism
 8. Tenacity
 9. Luster
 10. Odor
 11. Specific Gravity Copyright©Dr. Richard Busch 8
1. Color
- The usual and most generic way to identify minerals
easily. It is a result of how the minerals absorb or reflect
light. However, this property may not be used in
identifying minerals that are translucent to transparent
minerals, because there may be trace amounts of other
minerals in them. Because of similarities and varieties of
minerals, color is the least reliable property to identify
minerals.

9
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Color
 Mineral color is determined by how the crystals absorb and reflect light. Although color is
easy to recognize, it is often misleading.
 Minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, halite, and calcite occur in a wide variety of colors, and
other minerals, such as olivine, malachite, and amphibole have fairly distinctive colors.
 Variations in a mineral’s color may be the result of impurities in the atomic structure of the
crystal or the presence of a particular chemical when the crystal formed.
 Because some minerals can occur in several colors, color is generally not a good characteristic
for describing and identifying minerals.

Different Colors of Calcite

Different Colors of Fluorite Different Colors of Quartz

Image courtesy of the USGS

copyright@Stonetrust, Inc

copyright@Stonetrust, Inc

Image courtesy of the USGSImage courtesy of the

Albert Copley Oklahoma
copyright@Stonetrust, Inc
University Archives
10
 Color
MINERAL MINERAL MINERAL MINERAL COLOR
COLOR
Brown, green, Black
Augite Biotite Black, Brown or green
or Purple

Calcite Pearlescent and Pale Dolomite Colorless, pale

Colors pink, brown or gray

Feldspar Yellow, White, Hematite Metallic Gray or Black

Pink, Green or
Gray
Hornblende Green, yellow, brown Limonite Black, brown or yellow
and black

Sulfur Pale Gold 1

2. Streak
– it is the color of the mineral in its pulverized
form. For mineralogists to further identify a
mineral in circumstances in which there are
trace particles inside them, they would
pulverize the mineral to get their true color. In
this case, the color of the mineral becomes more
apparent and clearer. However, pulverizing
minerals is a tedious process and the minerals
themselves may lose their integrity.
12
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Streak
 Streak refers to the color of a mineral’s powdered form left behind after it is
scraped or rubbed across a porcelain streak plate.
 A mineral may appear one color and then produce a streak with a different
color.
 A mineral’s streak color is a more reliable identification characteristic than
the minerals perceived surface color.

Even though the mineral pyrite is gold in

13
Photo: SCGS
3. Hardness – this refers to the measure of a
mineral’s resistance to scratching.

To measure the relative hardness of minerals,

the Moh’s scale is used. It is said that the
harder the mineral is, the more resistant it is
to scratch.

14
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Hardness
Standard 3-3.14
Standard 3-3.17

 Hardness is the ability of a mineral to resist abrasion or scratching on its

surface.
 One way geologists measure hardness is using a relative scale referred to as
Moh’s scale of mineral hardness which ranks 10 common minerals along a
scale from 1-10 (1 refers to the softest minerals while 10 refers to the hardest
mineral).
 Geologists measure a mineral’s hardness by scratching the surface of a
mineral using minerals of known hardness, or by scratching the surface
using a variety of other hardness indicators such as fingernails, pennies,
or glass.

Talc
Talc is a soft mineral that you can scratch with your fingernail, and has a hardne

15
Copyright©Dr. Richard Busch
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Moh’s Scale of Mineral Hardness

Hardness of Common Minerals: Common Scratching Tools:

Softest  Talc
 ....your fingernail has a
Gypsum 3-Calcite 4-Fluorite 5-Apatite
------------------------------------

 hardness of 2.5
 Orthoclase ....a penny has a hardness of about 3.5

 Quartz ....glass and a steel nail have nearly equa
 ....a streak plate has a hardness of 6.5

Topaz
 Corundum 10-Diamond

Hardest 

16
4. Cleavage and Fracture
- are used to describe how minerals break into
smaller pieces.
Cleavage is the tendency to break along planes of
weakness and it produces flat, shiny surfaces. It is a
break along a plane of weakness in the crystal lattice.

Fracture is when the mineral breaks in no consistent

manner. This is because of equal bond strength in all
directions. A mineral exhibits fractures when it breaks
in a certain direction that has no cleavage.

17
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Cleavage, cont.
 One direction of cleavage (one
plane) Feldspar: Two Cleavage Planes
 Mineral Example: Micas (muscovite)
Two directions of cleavage (two planes) plane one:
 Mineral Example: Feldspar

plane two:
 Three directions of cleavage (three planes)
Cubic : Mineral Example: Galena
Rhombohedral: Mineral Example: Calcite
Courtesy United States Geological Survey

 Four directions of cleavage (four planes) Galena: Three Cleavage Planes

Mineral Example: Flourite
Plane one:
Calcite: Three Cleavage Planes
Plane one: Plane two:

Plane two: Plane three:

18
Copyright©Dr.Richard Busch
Plane three: Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc
Table
of
Conte
nts
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Fracture
 Fracture refers to the non-planar breakage of minerals.

Minerals that break along fractures (as oppose to cleavage planes) do
not exhibit predictable weakness along specified bonds.
 Fractures may be described as splintery, uneven, or conchoidal.

Conchoidal Fractures on a Quartz Mineral

19
copyright©Dr. Richard Busch
5. Crystalline Structure or the Crystal
Lattice determines how the crystal of a
mineral is arranged. A crystal solid is said
to form a regular repeating 3-
dimensional crystal lattice, while an
amorphous solid forms an aggregate that
has no order or arrangement.

20
6. Transparency or Diaphaneity
- indicates the extent how much light
can pass through the mineral. It can be said
that the transparency is dependent on the
thickness of the mineral.

21
7. Magnetism
- indicates the ability of a mineral
to attract or repel another
mineral. (e,g. Magnetite).

22
8. Tenacity
- is the level or resistance
of minerals to stress such
as crushing, bending,
breaking, or tearing.

23
9. Luster
- refers to the reaction of the mineral
when a light strikes. It determines how
brilliant or dull the mineral is. The mineral
can have a metallic, a pearly, glassy, or dull
luster.

24
Standard 3-3.1
Standard 3-3.2

Luster
 Luster refers to how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.
 There are two main types of luster: metallic and non-metallic:
 Minerals with a metallic luster are described as shiny, silvery, or having a metal-like
reflectance.
 Non-metallic minerals may be described as resinous, translucent, pearly,
waxy, greasy, silky, vitreous/glassy, dull, or earthy
 Luster may be subjective, and thus is not always a reliable identifier

Pyrite: Metallic, Halite :

Shiny Luster Non-Metallic Translucent Luster
Copyright© Dr. Richard Busch Copyright©Dr. Richard Busch Copyright©StoneTrust, Inc.

25
10. Odor
- is a distinct smell by a mineral that is
usually released through a chemical
reaction when subject to different
conditions such as water, heat, air or even
friction. Sulfur for example may smell like
a lit-match and sometimes smell like
rotten eggs when it is heated.

26
11. Specific Gravity
- is a measure of the density of a
mineral. It is a ratio of how heavy the
mineral is by its weight to water. Specific
gravity is used specifically when two
minerals have the same size or same color.
The specific gravity of each mineral can
distinguish them apart from other
minerals.

27
Directions: Look for the terms regarding
Physical Properties of minerals in the
word search below and define them
using your own words in a separate
sheet of paper. Look for the terms
regarding Physical Properties of
minerals in the word search below and
define them using your own words in a
separate sheet of paper.

28
29
 Minerals are classified by their chemical composition and internal c

There are 7 Major Mineral Groups:

Silicates
Native Elements
Halides
Carbonates
Oxides
Sulfates
Sulfides

30
1. Silicate class
– The largest and the most abundant
group containing silicon and oxygen
with some aluminum, magnesium, iron,
and calcium. Some minerals are
feldspar, quartz, pyroxene, mica, garnet,
olivine, and amphibole.

31
 Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4-4)

Oxygen atoms Quartz

Silicon atom

Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc. 32
2. Carbonate class
– is mostly found deposited in marine
environments Minerals belonging to this
group are from remains of shells of dead
plankton or marine life. Other places in which

carbonates can be found are areas where there

is dissolution of soluble rocks such as caves
where stalagmites and stalactites are formed.
This class also includes nitrate and borate
minerals 33
 Dolomite Calcite

34
Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc. Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc.
3. Sulphate Class – the minerals that form
in areas with high evaporation rates and
where salty waters slowly evaporate.
During the process of evaporation, once
the salty water evaporates, what is left are
minerals such as sulphates and halides.
Some of the most common sulphate
minerals are anhydrite, Celestine, barite,
and gypsum.

35
 Barite Gypsum

36
Image Courtesy of the USGS Image Courtesy of the USGS
4. Halide class
- contains natural salts and includes
fluorite, halite, sylvite and sal-ammoniac
components. These minerals usually form
in landlocked bodies of water such as the
Dead Sea or the Great Salt Lake. Minerals
in this class usually have low hardness,
may be transparent, have good cleavage,
have low specific gravities and usually
poor conductors of electricity (when not
dissolved in water). 37
Halides consist of halogen elements, chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), fluorine (F), an
Some examples include Halite (NaCl) and Flourite (CaF2).

Halite Fluorite

Copyright©Stonetrust, Inc. Image courtesy of USGS

38
5. Oxide Class
- A diverse mineral group that contains
minerals such as hematite and gemstones
such as chrysoberyl and spinel. These
minerals are relevant to dating because
they contain clues about the history of the
Earth’s magnetic Field. These minerals are
formed as precipitates close to the surface
of the Earth or as products of oxidations of
other minerals due to weathering.
39
 Hematite

Courtesy National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

40
6. Sulphide Class
- contains economically
significant metals such as copper,
lead, and silver. These minerals
are mined for electrical wiring,
industrial materials, and other
construction materials.
41
7. Phosphate class
- contains minerals that have
phosphorus in them.
The phosphates are considered as
an important biological mineral
that is found in both teeth and
bones of many animals.
42
8. Native element class
– Contains metals and intermetallic
elements (gold, silver and copper),
semimetals, non-metals (e.g.,
antimony, bismuth, graphite, Sulphur)
or natural alloys and some
components of few rare meteorites.

43
Gold Silver

44
Image Courtesy of the USGS Image Courtesy of the USGS
Directions:
Solve the crossword
puzzle with the
knowledge based on the
Chemical Properties of
Minerals.
45
46
 Resources and References

Blackburn, W.H. and Dennen, W.H., 1988, Principles of Mineralogy: Iowa, WCB

Klein, C. and Hurlbut, C.S.Jr., 1985, Manual of Mineralogy (20th Ed.): John Wile

47