1

English/Khmer Physics Glossary

A

English Term Khmer Term

Aberration
1. A defect in the image formed by a lens or a
RBak(Gaebra:süúg)
curved mirror. The two primary aberrations are:
(i) chromatic aberration and (ii) spherical
!>vibtþikñúgrUbPaBEdlbegátI edayLg;TI b¤kBa©ke; kag. RBakTI mYymanBIrKw ³
aberration. Secondary aberrations are (iii) (i) RBakBN’ nig (ii) RBakEs‘V. RBakTIBIrKW (iii) GasÞIma:Tic (iv) kUma: (v)
astigmatism; (iv) coma; (v) distortion; (vi)
curvature of field. In chromatic aberration the kMhUcrUb (vi) kMeNagEdn. këúgRBakBN’rbU PaBvtÜBú ½T§C¿uvéjedayRhVgB; N’
image of an object is surrounded by coloured
fringes because of the different extent to which edaysarKMlat xus²KñaeBlBnWøcaMgpøatBIEkv. eKGacEktMrvU vaedayeRbI
light is refracted by glass. It can be corrected by
using an achromatic doublet (made of two lens
Lg;TIBIrEdlmansnÛsSn_xusKëabiTP¢ab;Kaë . këgú RBakEsV‘kaMBnWø Rsbqøgkat;
elements of different kinds of glass). In tMbn;xageRkAkBa¨kEsV‘ eBlecjBIkBa¨kk; at;kM nMuRtg;cnM ucmYyEdlenACét
spherical aberration, parallel light passing
through the outer zones of a spherical lens Lg;TICagBnWøqøgkat;tMbnxagkñúg. @> bMlas;TITnM gkñúgTItaMgpáay edaysar
comes to a focus at a point closer to the lens
than light passing through the inner zones. 2. clnarbs;EpndÍC¿u víjRBHGaTitü. BnWøhak;dUcCaecjBIcMnucmYyEdlpøas;TI
The apparent displacement in the position of a
star as a result of the earth’s motion around the
bnicþ tamTisedAclnarbs;paá y. bMlas;TImMu a  v/c EdlvCael,ÓnrgVil
sun. Light appears to come from a point that is
slightly displaced in the direction of the star’s
C¿urbs;EpndI ehIycCael,ÓnBnøW.
motion. The angular displacement a  v/c,
where v is the orbital speed of the earth and c is
the speed of light
Absolute
Not dependent on or relative to anything else.
dac;xat
minGaRs½yelI b¤ minTak;TgeTAnwgGIVTaMgGs; .
Absolute refractive index (Symbol n)
The absolute refractive index of a medium is
snÞsSn_bMEbrdac;xat (nimtµi sBaaØn)
the ratio of the speed of electromagnetic
radiation in a vacuum to the speed of the
snÞsSn_bMEbrdac;xaténmCÆdæanmYYy KWCapleFobénel,Ónrbs;BnWøeGLic
radiation in the medium. (See relative refractive RtUma:ejTickñgú suBaØGakaseTAnwgel,ÓnénBnøkW gñú mCÆdæan. ¬emIl relative
index).
refractive index) .
Absolute temperature
Also called Kelvin temperature; the number of
sItuNðPaBdac;xat
degrees Celsius above absolute zero measured
in Kelvin (K). (See Kelvin).
ehAfasItuNPð aBEklvink¾)anEdr cMnnY GgSaEslsIusxag elIsnU üdac;xat
RtUv)aneKkMnt;CasItuNðPaBEklvin (K). ¬emIl Kelvin)
Absolute value (modulus)
The square root of the sum of the squares of the
tMéldac;xat¬m:Udul¦
real numbers in a *complex number; for
example, the absolute value of the complex
rwskaerénplbUkénkaercMnYnBitkñúgcMnYnkMupíøc tYya:gdUcCatM
number z  x  iy is |z|  (x 2  y 2 ) . éldac;xaténcMnYnkMpu øíc z  x  iy KW |z|  ( x  y ) .
2 2
 2

Absolute zero
Zero degrees Kelvin; the lowest temperature
sUnüdac;xat
attainable: – 273.16. It is the temperature at
which the kinetic energy of atoms has its lowest
sUnüGgSaEklvin KWCasItuNPð aBTabbMputrhUteTAdl; -273.16 . vaKWCa
possible value, although even at absolute zero it sItuNPð aBenARtg;cMnucEdlfamBlsIuenTicénGatUmGacmantMélTabbMptu
is not possible for the kinetic energy of
molecules to be zero. This is a prediction of eTaHCaenARtg;sUnüdac;xat k¾eday k¾famBlsIeu nTicm:UelKulminGacesIµ
quantum mechanics
sUnüEdr. enH KWCakarBüakrN_rbs;emkanickgTic.
Absorption
1. The conversion of wave energy into heat
sMrUb
energy as the wave passes through a medium. 1. bMElgfamBlrlkeTACafamBlkMedA kalNarlkqøgkat;mCÆdæan
2. The take up of a gas by a solid or liquid, or
the take up of a liquid by a solid. mYy. 2.sMrUbyk]sµn½ mYYyedayGgÁFaturgw b¤ GgÁFaturavb¤k¾srM UbGgÁFaturav
edayGgÁFaturwg.
Absorption spectrum
A dark line spectrum superposed on a
s,iúcsMrUb
continuous white light spectrum, produced by
absorption of certain wavelengths by the
ExSbnÛat;s,icú exµAEdl®tYtenAelIs,icú BnøBW N’sCab;²Këa. vaCasMrbU EdlekIt
medium through which the light passes. eLIgedaysMrbU ènCMha‘nrlkCak;lak;mYyqøgkat;mCÆdæanEdlBnøWqøgkat;.
Abundance
The ratio of the number of atoms of a particular
Gab‘uydg;
isotope of an element to the total number of
atoms of all the isotopes present.
pleFobéncMnYnGatUmTaMgLayrbs;GIusUtUbPaKl¥ti énFatumYyeTAnwgcMnYn
GatUmsrubénvtþmanGIsu UtUbTaMgGs;.
a.c. A.C
(See alternating current)
( emIl alternating current)
Acceleration (Symbol a)
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of
sMTuH (nimitþsBaØa a)
velocity with time: a = v/t. The velocity of a sMTuHKWCaGRtabMErbMrlY énel,ÓneFobnwgeBl. sUmkt;sKM al;fa el,Ón
body can change if either the magnitude of the
velocity changes or its direction changes (or rbs;GgÁFatumYyGacERb®bYlRbsinebIm:UDul énvicu T½rel,ÓnERb®bYl b¤
both). In calculating acceleration it is often
necessary to consider the vector nature of
TisedAvaERbRbYl¬b¤ERb®bYlTaMg BIr¦. kñgú karKNnasMTuHCajwkjab;
acceleration. cMa)ac;RtÚvBinti üFmµCati víucT½rsMTuH.
Acceleration of free fall (Symbol g)
The acceleration of a body falling freely in the
sMTuHTnøak;esrI ¬nimiµtsBaaØ g¦
earth’s gravitational field. The magnitude of the
gravitational acceleration close to the surface of
sMTuHénGgÁFatumYyFøak;esrIkúñgEdnTMnajrbs;EpndI. m:UDulrbs;sMTuHTMnaj
the earth is 9.8 ms-2, and is independent of the enACítépÞEpndWKW 9.8 ms ehIyvaminGaRs½y nwgma:s;rbs;GgÁFatueT.
-2

mass of the body.

Accelerator
An apparatus for increasing the kinetic energy
Gak;eselra:T½r
of charged particles, used for research in
nuclear and particle physics.
briFansMrab;begánI famBlsIuenTicénpg;bnÞúk. eKeRbIvasMrab;RsavRCavkñúg
rUbvéTüanuyekøEG‘ nig rUbviTüapg;.
Acceptor
A substance that is added as an impurity to a
GasibT½r
semiconductor material because of its ability to
accept electrons from the valence bands,
sarFatuminsuT§EdlbEnßmeTArUbFatusmW IkugDúcT½r edaysar vaGacTTYl
causing p-type conduction. ykeGLicRtugBIsm<½nv§ a:Lg; bNþaleGaymankarcMlgRsTab;p.
 3

Accommodation
The process by which the focal length of the
karsMrbsMrYl
eye is changed so that clear images of objects
over a range of distances are focused on the
d¿Nak;kalEdlRbEvgkMnuEM Pñkpøas;bþÚr eBlenaHrUbPaBc,as;rbs;vtßúbrþÚ
retina. TItaMgenARtg;erTInEPñkvíj.
Accretion disc
A disc-shaped rotating mass formed by
ragDIs
gravitational attraction. ma:sv; ílmanragCaDIs ekIteLIgedaykMlaMgTMnajcUl.
Accumulator
A type of voltaic cell, or battery that can be
GaKuy
recharged by passing a current through it from
an external d.c. supply.
RbePTfµBilv:ulta b¤ GaKuyEdlGacsakeLIgvij edayeGaycrnþqøgkat;
vaBIkarpþld; .cBIxageRkA.
Achromatic lens
A lens that corrects for chromatic aberration by
Lg;TIGaRkUma:Tic
using a combination of two lenses made of
different kinds of glass, whose dispersions
KWCaLg;TEI dltMrvU sMrab;RBakBN’ edayeRbIbgúÀMLg;TIBIr EdleFIVBIEkv
cancel, but their refractions do not. Thus the epSgKña élya:gNa[KµanbnSay nig KµanbM Ebr. dUecñHRbEvgkMnMurbs;
focal length of the lens is independent of the
colour of the light being focused. Lg;TIminGaRs½ynwgBN’BnWtø Mrg; eTArkenaHeT.
Acoustics
1. The study of sound and sound waves. 2. The
GakUsÞic
characteristics of a building, such as an 1.karsikSaBIsMelg nig rlksMelg. 2. karsagsg;dUcCa svndæanCaedÍm
auditorium, with regard to its ability to enable
speech and music to be heard clearly within it. edaysg;ya:gNaeFIVeGaykarEføgsunrÞ kfa b¤ bTePøgGaclan;lWya:gc,as;
For this purpose there should be no intrusive
echoes or resonances and the reverberation time enAkñúgenaH KWeFIkV eMu GaymansMelgxÞr b¤ ersUNg;.
should be near the optimum for the auditorium.
Action at a Distance
The direct interaction between bodies that are
RbtikmµBIcMgay
not in physical contact with each other. We can
classify forces into two types: contact forces
GnþrkmµpaÞ l;rvagGgÁFatuTaMgLayEdlrUbragminb:HKña. eyIgGacEbgEck
and field forces. Examples of field forces are kMlaMgeTACaBIrRbePTKW kMlaMgb:HnigkMlaMgEdn. kMlaMgEdnmandUcCa
the gravitational force and the electric force.
kMlaMgTMnaj nig kMlaMgGKIÁsnICa edÍm.
Active device
1. An electronic device such as a transistor that
]bkrN_skmµ
is capable of amplification. 2. An artificial 1. ]bkrN_eGLicRtÚnicdUcCaRtg;sus I þrEdlGacBRgIkeGay xøagM )an. 2.
satellite that receives information and
retransmits it after amplification. 3. A radar pÝayrNbsib,nimtµi EdlGacTTYlBt’mannig bBa¢nÙ Bt’maneRkayBIBRgIk.
device that emits microwave radiation and
provides information about a distant body by ]bkrN_ra:daEdlGacbeBa¨j BnWømI®kUrlk ehIypþl;Bt’manGMBIcgM ayvtÜú
receiving a reflection of this radiation.
edaykarTTYl cMNaMgpøatBIkaMBnWøenH.
Activity (Symbol A)
The rate of decay of a radioactive substance,
kMrwtskmµ¬nimµitsBaaØA¦
defined as the number of decays of atoms of a
radioactive material per second, measured in
GRtarlYysarFatuviTüúskmµ eKkMnt;vaCacMnYnrlYyGatUmrUbFatuvíTüúskmµ
bequerels, Bq. kñúgmYyvinaTI manxñatKitCaEbK½rEr:l (Bq).
 4

Adiabatic process
Any process, such as a change in pressure or
dMeNIrGadüa)aTic
volume, that occurs within an insulated system
in which heat can neither enter nor leave the
dMeNIrNamYy dUcCabMErbMrYlsMBaF b¤ bMErbMrlY maDEdlekIteLIgenAkñúg
system. In general, an adiabatic change RbB½n§Rtemac EdlkñúgenaHkMedAminGaccUl b¤ minGacecjBIRbB½n§. CaTUeTA
involves a fall or rise in temperature of the
system. For example, if a gas expands under bMlas;bþÚGadüa)aTicTak;Tg nwgsIutuNðPaBekIneLIgb¤fycuH. ]TahrN_
adiabatic conditions, its temperature falls
because work is done against the retreating ebI]sµn½ rIkeRkam lkçx½NGÐ adüa)aTic enaHsItuNPð aBrbs;vafycuH eday
walls of the container. If a gas is compressed
under adiabatic conditions, the walls do work
sarkmµnþRtÚv)aneFIVedÍm,ITb;CBa¢aMgepÍg. ebI]sµ½nrYmeRkamlkçx½NÐGadüa
on the gas and the temperature of the gas )aTic CBa¢aMgminbeBa©jkmµneþ lI]sµ½neT ehIysItuNPÐ aB]sµ½nekIneLIg.
increases.
Admittance (Symbol Y)
The reciprocal of impedance. (see
GadmItg;¬nimµitsBaØaY¦
conductance). cMras;énGaMeb:dg;. (emIl conductance)
Aerial (antenna)
The part of a radio or television system that
Gg;Etn
transmits or receives a signal. EpñkénRbB½n§vTi üú b¤ TUrTsSn_ EdlbBa¢nÜ b¤ TTYlsIuBaaØ.
Aerodynamics
The study of the motion of gases (particularly
GaeGrUDINamic
air) and the motion of solid bodies in air.
Aerodynamics is particularly concerned with
karsikSaGMBIclna]s½µn¬CaBiessxül;¦ nig clnaénGgÁ Faturwgkñgú xül;.
the motion and stability of aircraft. Two crucial GaeGr:UDINamicTak;TgCaBiessCamYycl na nig lMnwgénkarehaHehIrrbs;
parameters in the aerodynamics of aircraft are
drag and lift. The drag on an aircraft wing is a ynþehaH. )a:ra:Em:tsMxan; BIrkñúgGaeGr:UDINamicénkarehaHehIrrbs;
combination of a viscous force and air
turbulence at high speed. The lift force on the ynþehaHKW karrt;enAelIpøÚv nig karehaHeLIg. karekorenAelIsøabynþ
wing of an aircraft results from the design of
the wing that causes the air to flow over the
ehaH ekIteLIgedaykMlaMgsi¥tnigxül;kcY edayel,Ónx<s;. kMlaMgehaH
upper surface of the wing with a greater speed eLIgelIsøabynþehaH ekItmkBITMrg;søabEdleFIVeGayxül;pøas;TIEpñkxag
than it flows under the lower surface. This
causes the air pressure on the upper surface to elIépÞsaø bedayel,ÓnFMCagxül;pøas;TI EpñkxageRkamépÞsøab. buBVehtu
be less than the pressure on the lower surface,
hence the lift. enH eFIVeGaysMBaFxül;elI EpñkxagelIépÞsøabtUcCasMBaFelIépÞEpñkxag
eRkam dUcenH ehIyeFIVeGayynþehaHehaHeLIg.
Aeronautics
The branch of aerodynamics concerned with the
GaeGr:UNUTic
design, construction and operation of aircraft
and rockets.
EmkFagrbs;GaeGrUD: INamicTak;Tgnwgkarrcna/ karsg; nig RbtibtiþkarN_
ynþehaH nig r:ukEkt.
Aerosol
A colloidal dispersion of a solid or a liquid in a
l,ayxül;
gas. The commonly used aerosol sprays contain
an inert propellant liquefied under pressure. The
karEjkCatiGn§wlénGgÁFaturwg b¤ GgÁFaturavkñúg]sµ½n. CaTUeTAeKeRbIl,ay
use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has been xül;kñúgkMb:ug)aj;fñaM EdlkñúgeKBRgaveRkam sMBaF. kareRbIkørU:púøyGr:kU abUn
criticised on the grounds that these compounds
persist in the air and lead to depletion of the (CFCs)RtÚv)aneKTietonenA elIdÍ edaysarsmasFatuTaMgenH zítenAkñúg
ozone layer.
xül; ehIyeFIeV GayGs;RsTab;GUhSÚn.
 5

Age of the earth

The time since the earth emerged as a planet of
the sun, estimated by dating techniques to be
about 4.6  109 years. The oldest known rocks
on the earth are estimated by their radioactive
GayuEpndI
ry³eBlKitcab;taMgBIEpndÍelcecjrUbrageLIgCaPBmYyrbs;RBHGaTitü.
tamkar)a:n;RbmaNEpndImanGayuRbEhl 4.6  10 qña.M tamkar)a:ns; aµ n
9

age to be about 3.5  109 years old. The earth is

older than this because of the long time it took tamvíTüúskmµ)aneGaydwgfa fµmanGayucMNas;bMputenAelIEpndIKW 3.5 
10 qña.M EpndI manGayucas;CagenH edaysarvaRKb;dNþb;edayFatuRt
to cool. 9

Cak;Gs;ry³eBlya:gyUr.
Age of the universe
A time determined by the reciprocal of the
GayucRkvaL
Hubble constant to be between 10 and 20
billion years. The calculation of the Hubble
ry³eBlEdlkMnt;edaymYyPaKefrhubl KwmanGayuenøaH !0nig20Ban;
constant, and hence the estimated age of the lanqñaM. eKKNnaefrhubl ehIy)a:n;RbmaN GayucRkvaL edayEp¥k
universe depends on which theory of
cosmology is used. elIRTwsþIelakFatuvTí üa.
Air
The gas that surrounds the earth. The major
xül;
constituents of air are nitrogen (  80%), and ]sµn½ EdlenACMvu ijEpndI. PaKeRcInmanGasUt (80%) nig GuksIuEsn
oxygen (  20%).
(20%).
Albedo
The ratio of the radiant flux reflected by a
GalebdU
surface to that incident on it. pleFobPøcú caMgpøatedayépÞeTAnwgPøúccaMgb:HelIva.
Algebraic sum
The total of a set of quantities paying due
plbUkBiCKNit
regard to sign; thus the algebraic sum of 3 and –
4 is – 1.
karbUksMnubM rimaNTaMgLayedayKitBIsBaØa dUecñHplbUkBi CKNitén 3
nig – 4KWesIµ –1.
Algorithm
A method of solving a problem involving a
Gal;háÚrIt
finite series of clearly defined steps. A flow
chart is a visual representation of an algorithm.
viFIedaHRsaycMenaTmYyY EdlTak;Tgnwges‘rIkMnt; edayman C¿hanc,as;
If no algorithm is possible, a heuristic solution las;bnþbnÞab;. høÚqat¬düaRkamEdlmanlMdab; c,as;las;¦KWCatMNag
has to be sought.
eGayGalhárÚ It. ebIminGacedaHRsay tamC¿hanGal;háÚrtI )aneT eKRtÚv
edaHRsaytamvíFIepSg.
Alloy
A material consisting of two or more metals or
sMelah³
a metal and a non-metal. rUbFatuEdlmanelah³BIr b¤ eRcIn b¤ke¾ lah³mYy nig Gelah³mYy.
Alnico
A trade name for a series of alloys, containing
GalnIkU
iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt and copper used
to make permanent magnets.
eQµaHC¿nYjsMrab;GMbUrsMelah³EdlmanEdk/ GluymIj:Úm/ nIEkl/ kU)al;
nig s<an; EdleKeRbIsMrab;eFIeV mEdkGcié®nþ.
 6

Alpha particle
A helium-4 nucleus emitted by a larger nucleus
pg;Gal;hVa
during a type of radioactive decay known as
alpha decay. As a helium-4 nucleus consists of
éNVye:U GlüÚm$EdlbeBa©jedayéNVy:UFMCagkñgú MLúgeBl bnSayvíTüúskmµ
2 protons and 2 neutrons bound together as a eKehAvafabnSayGal;hVa. éNVye:U GlüÚm$manRbÚtug@niwgNWRtúg@cg
stable entity, the loss of an alpha particle
involves a decrease in nucleon number of 4 and sm<½n§Kaë ya:gs‘b; kar'at;bg;pg;Gal;hVaTak;TgnwgkarfycuHcMnYnnuyekøGug
decrease of 2 in the atomic number, for
example, the decay of a uranium 238 nucleus cMnYn$ nig fycuHcMnYnGatUm2. ]TahrN_ bnSayèNVyG:U y‘u ra:njI :Ùm @"(
into a thorium-234 nucleus. A stream of alpha
particles is known as alpha-radiation.
eTACaéNVy:UfUrü:mÚ @#$. cMhaypg;Gal;hVaKWCakaMrsIµGal;hVa.
Alternating current (a.c.)
An electric current that reverses its direction
crnþqøas; (crnþ A.C)
with a constant frequency. If the graph of
current against time has the form of a sinusoidal
crnþGKÁsI nIEdlTisedArbs;vaRcaseTAvijeTAmkCamYyeRb kg;efr. ebI
variation, the current is said to be sinusoidal. Rkabrbs;crnþeFobnwgeBlbegáIt)anCabMErbMrlY sIunuysUGtIu enaHeKehA
The magnitude of a.c. current is either given as
its peak value I0 or its root mean square value crnþ CasIunuysUGIud. m:DU ulcrnþ a.c GacesIµnwgtMélx<sb; Mptu I b¤ tMél
0

Irms = I0/ 2 . The instantaneous value of a rwskaer mFümrbs;va I  I / 2 . tMélxN³rbs;crnþsnIu uysUGuId

rms 0
sinusoidal current is given as i  I0sint, where
 is the angular frequency of the current.
KWeGayeday i  I sint EdlCaeRbkg;mMurbs;crnþ.
0

Alternator
An alternating voltage generator consisting of
Gal;ETNaT½r
coils that rotate in a magnetic field. The
changing magnetic flux through the coils
CnitabMlas;tg;süúgqøas; EdlmanbUb‘ÍnvilkëúgEdnma:ej Tic. kalNaman
induces an alternating voltage in the coils. The bMErbMrYlPøúcma:ejTicqøgkat;bUb‘nÍ naM[man tg;süúgqøas;enAkëgú bUb‘Ín.
voltage is transferred to an external load via a
commutator. tg;süúgRtÚv)aneKbBa¢nÚ mkbnÞkú eRkAtamry³kMmu :uytaT½r.
Altimeter
A device used to measure height above sea
Gal;TIEm:t
level. The device can either be an aneroid
barometer or a radar system.
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,IsMrab;vas;kMBs;xagelInIv:UsmuRT. ]bkrN_enH
GacCa)arU:EmtGaeNr:UGutI b¤CaRbB½nr§ a:da.
AM (amplitude modulation)
The periodic signal to be transmitted is
eGGwm ¬karERbRbÜlGMBøITut¦
superposed onto a carrier wave so that the
amplitude of the carrier wave increases or
sIuBaØl;xYbRtÚv)anbBa©Úneday®tYtCamYyrlkbBa¢nÚ edIm,IeGayGMBIøTutén
decreases as the signal amplitude increases or rlkbBa¢nÚ ekIneLIgb¤fycuH kalNaGMBøITtu sIuBaØal;ekIneLIg b¤ fycuH
decreases. (See frequency modulation). When
an A.M. signal is received it is detected by (emIl frequency modulation) eBlTTYl)ansIuBaØal;A.MvaRtÚv)an
rectification using a diode, then the original
signal is retrieved by filtering out the high- cab;rcY EktRmÚvedaydüÚt eBlenaHsIBu aØal;edÍm)anmk edayeRcaH)an
frequency carrier eRbkg;x<s;.
Ammeter
An instrument that measures electric current. In
GMEBrEm:t
the moving coil ammeter, the heart of the
instrument is a sensitive galvanometer, which is
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;crnþGKÁIsnI. këúgGMEBrEm:tEdlmanbUbn‘Í cl½t eBlenaH
a current-carrying coil supported in a magnetic GMEBrEm:tedItYCahÝalva:NUEm:tEdlCabUb‘nÍ pÛúkcrnþkñúgEdnma:ejTic.
field. A shunt resistor is placed in parallel with
the galvanometer to decrease its sensitivity and edIm,IbnßyPaBrs eKeRbIersIusþg; sWntCaExñgCamYyháalva:NUEm:t ehIy
allow large currents to be measured without
damaging the galvanometer. Gacvas;crnþFMeday minxUcháalva:NEU m:t.
 7

Amount of substance (Symbol n)

A measure of the number of entities in a
substance. The entities may be atoms,
molecules etc. The SI unit of amount of
substance is the mole. One mole of a substance
contains 6.02  1023 entities.
cMnYnsarFatu (nimitþsBaØa n)
karkMNt;cMnYnEdlmanenAkñúgsarFatumYy. cMnYnTaMgenaH GacCaGatUm/
Cam:eU lKul.l. xñatGnþrCatirbs;cMnYnsar FatuKmW :Ul. mYym:Ulén
sarFatuman 6.02  10 Pav³.
23

Ampere
The S.I. unit of electric current, defined in
GMEBr
terms of the force between two currents, or as
the number of coulombs of charge passing a
xñat SI rbs;crnþGKÁÍsnI RtUv)aneKkMnt;CaGnuKmn_énGnþr kmµkMlaMgrvag
point in one second. crnþBIr b¤ CacMnYnKULMúénbnÞúkEdlqøgkat;cMnucmYykñúgmYyvinaTI.
Ampere hour (Symbol A.h)
A unit of charge equal to the quantity of charge
GMEBrem:ag (nimitsþ BaØa A.h)
flowing through a conductor passing a current xñatrbs;bnÞkú esInµ wgbrimaNénbnÞúkEdlpøas;TIqøg kat;GgÁFatuclM g eday
of one ampere in one hour. Q  It  1Ah 
3600 coulombs. crnþmYyGMEBrkñúgry³eBlmYy ema:g. Q = It  1Ah = 3600 KULMú.
Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s law provides a relation between
c,ab;GMEBr
current and magnetic field. One formulation of
the law, in terms of the line integral of the
c,ab;GMEBrpþln; UvTMnak;TMngrvagcrnþ nig Ednma:ejTic. c,ab;manrUbmnþmYy
magnetic field B around a circle is EdlCaGnuKmn_GaMgetRkalbnÞat;énEdn ma:ejTic BC¿uvíjrgVgK; W
 B.dl   0 I encl . For a long wire carrying a
 B.dl   I . cMeBaHExScMlg EvgpÞúkcrnþ I rUbmnþenHeTACa B 
current I this gives B  0I/2r where r is the
0 encl

distance from the wire.  I/2r EdlrCacMgay BIExScMlg.

0

Ampere’s Rule
This rule relates the direction of a magnetic
viFanGMEBr
field to the direction of the current causing the
field. The rule states that if the electric current
víFanenHTak;TgTisedArbs;Ednma:ejTiceTAnwgTisedAcrnþ EdlbNþal
is moving away from an observer the direction eGaymanEdn. víFanenHeBalfaebIcrnþGKIsÁ nI pøas;TIecjBIGñksegát
of the circular field lines is clockwise, and if the
electric current is moving towards an observer enaHTisedArbs;rgVgb; nÞat;EdndUcRT nicnaLikar ehIyebIcrnþGKIsÁ nI
the direction of the circular field lines is
counter-clockwise. pøas;TIeTArkGñksegát enaH TisedArbs;rgVgb; nÞat;EdnRcasRTnicnaLikar.
Amplifier
A device that increases the strength of an
GMBøI
electrical signal by drawing energy from an
external power source. An amplifier receives a
]bkrN_EdlbegáInGaMgtg;sIuetsIuBaØal;GKÁIsnI edayTajykfamBlBI
small input signal and uses energy from the RbPBGnuPaBBIxageRkA. GMBTIø YTYlsIBu aØal;GnIu Put¬sIuBaØal;cUl¦tUc rYceRbI
power source to increase the amplitude of the
signal, which then passes into an output device. famBlBIRbPBGnuPaBedÍm,IbegIná GMBIøTtu sIBu aØal; bnÞab;mkqøgkat;cUleTA
The gain of the amplifier can be defined as the
ratio of the amplitude of the output signal to the kñúg]bkrN_ eGAPut¬]bkrN_edatecj¦. kMenInBRgIkGackMnt;esIµngw
amplitude of the input signal. pleFobénGMBIøTutsIuBaØal;ecjeTAnwgGMBIøTtu sIuBaØal;cUl.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of an oscillating
GMPøITut
particle or wave from its equilibrium position. bMlas;TIGtibrmaénGgÁFatulMeyal b¤ rlkBITItaMglMnwgrbs;va.
Analogue signal
A continuous variation of voltage against time,
sIuBaØal;dUc b¤ sIuBaØal;GaNaLÚk
which contains information that can be
transmitted from one point to another. (See
bMErbMrYlCab;²Këaèntg;süúgeFobnwgeBl EdlmanBt’manGacbBa¢nÙ BIcnM cu
digital signal). mYyeTAcMnucmYyeTot. ¬emIl digital signal).
 8

Analyser
A device used in measuring the nature of
]bkrN_viPaK
polarised light, often consisting of a sheet of
Polaroid material. If the incident light is
]bkrN_eRbIkñúgkarvas;FmµCatiénb:UlBnWø Cajwkjab;manbnÞHrUbFatu
polarised, (perhaps by passing through a b:UElr:UGIud. ebIBnWcø aMgb:HEbkEx£k¬edayqøgkat; ]bkrN_¦ GaMgtg;seIu t
polariser), the intensity of light emerging from
the analyser depends on the orientation of the BnWøecjBI]bkrN_vPí aKGaRs½yelI lMgakén]bkrN_vPí aKeFobeTAnwg
analyser relative to the polariser. The final
intensity is given by I = I0cos2, where  is
]bkrN_bMEbk. GaMgtg; sIueTeRsceGayeday I = I cos  EdlKWCa
0
2

the angle between the plane polariser and the mMurvagbøg;]b krN_bMEbk nig ]bkrN_víPaK. ]bkrN_vPí aKGaceRbIedÍm,I
analyser. The analyser can be used to determine
if the incident light is polarised and can also kMnt; ebIBnWcø aMgb:HRtÚv)anEbkExJk ehIyk¾GackMnt;bøg;b:UlkmµénBnWø
determine the plane of polarisation of the
incident light. caMgb:H)anEdr.
Analytical geometry (coordinate geometry)
A form of geometry in which the position of a
FrNImaRtviPaK ¬FrNImaRtkUG½redaen¦
point in space is measured with reference to a
system of coordinate axes. In a 2-dimensional
TMrg;FrNImaRtkñúgkrNIEdlTItaMgéncMncu mYykñúglMhRtUv)aneKkMnt;eday
Cartesian system, the axes are labeled x, y. A tMruyeFobeTAnwgRbB½n§énG½kSkUG½redaen. kñgú RbB½n§kaetsüagvimaRt@KW x,
curve is represented by an equation relating x
and y, for example y = x2. y . ExSekagtMNageday smIkarmYyTak;Tg x nwg y ]TahrN_ y  x . 2

Anastigmatic lens
1. An objective lens for an optical instrument in
Lg;TIGaNasÞIemTic
which all aberrations, including astigmatism, 1. Lg;TICak;lak;¬minlMeGog¦rbs;briFanGubTic Edlkñúg enaHRBak/
are reduced greatly. 2. A spectacle lens
designed to correct astigmatism. It has different karRBwlEPñk RtÚv)ankat;bnßyya:gxøaMg. 2. Lg;TIsMrab;tMrUvEPñkRBwl.
radii of curvature in the vertical and horizontal
planes. vamankaMkMeNagxusKñatambøg; edknigbøg;Qr.
Anemometer
An instrument for measuring wind speed,
GaeNmU:Em:t
usually consisting of a number of cups attached
to a central vertical spindle so that the flow of
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;el,Ónxül;. CaFmµtarYmmanEBgmYycMnnY cgP¢ab;eTAnwg
air causes the spindle to rotate. The instrument dMku Naþl edIm,I[xül;bk;ehIyeFIV[dMuvli . ]bkrN_enHGacdak;tMeLIg
can be designed so that it also indicates the
wind direction. ya:gNa edIm,IR)ab;BITisedA xül;pgEdr.
Angle of incidence
The angle to the normal at which a light ray is
mMucMNaMgb:H
incident on the surface of a medium. mMupÁúMeLIgedaykaMcaMgb:HelIépÞCamYYynwgbnÞat;EkgeTAnwgépÞ.
Angle of reflection
1. The angle to the normal at which a light ray
mMucMNaMgpøat
is reflected from the surface of a medium. The 1. mMp u ÁeúM LIgedaykaMcaMgpaøtBIépÞeTAnwgbnÞat;Ekg. mMcu MNaMg pøatesInµ wgmMu
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence. 2. The angle between a wavefront cMNaMgb:H. 2. mMurvagrlkmuxnigépÞEdlvab:H. niymn½yTaMgBIrenH
and a surface that it strikes. These two
definitions are equivalent KWsmmUlKña.
Angle of refraction
The angle to the normal at which a light ray
mMucMNaMgEbr
leaves the interface between two media. The
relation between the angle of incidence i and
mMpMu ÁeúM TAnwgbnÞat;Ekg Rtg;cMnucEdlkaMBnøWecjBIépÞEjkrvag mCÆdæanBIr.
the angle of refraction r, called Snell’s law, is TMnak;TMngrvagmMucaMgb:H nig mMucaMgEbr ehAfa c,ab;Esñl [eday
given by: n1sini  n2sinr. (See refraction).
TMnak;TMng: n sin  n sin ¬emIl refraction¦.
1 1 2 2
 
Angstrom ( A ) Gg;Rsþúg ( A )
A unit of length equal to 10-10 metre, sometimes
used to measure the wavelength of light. xñatRbEvgesIµnwg10 Em:t CYnkalRtUv)aneKeRbIsMrab;vas;
–10

CMha‘nrlkBnø.W
 9

Angular displacement (Symbol ) bMlas;TImMu (nimµitsBaaØ )

The angle, measured in radians, through which
a body has rotated.
Angular velocity (Symbol )
The rate of change of angular displacement 
with time:   t, measured in rads–1.
mMuKitCara:düg; KWCamMuEdlGgÁFatu)anvilqøgkat;.
viucT½rel,ÓnmMu (nimitþsBaaØ )
bMErbMrYlbMlas;TImMueFobeTAnwgeBl ³   t xñatvaKitCa rads .
–1

Angular acceleration (Symbol ) sMTuHmMu (nimitþsBaØa )

The rate of change of angular velocity  with
time:   t , measured in rads–2. bMErbMrYlviTu ½rel,ÓnmMu  eFobeTAnwgeBl³   t xñatvaKitCa rads–

2
.
Angular frequency (Symbol ) eRbkg;mMu (nimitþsBaaØ )
The rate of change of phase angle, measured in
rads-1. It is related to frequency f by: f and bMErbMrYlmMupas xñatrbs;vaKitCa rads . vamanTM nak;TMng eTAnwgeRbkg; f
-1

to period T by  = 2/T.
: f nigxYbeday 2/T.
Angular momentum (Symbol L)
The product of the linear momentum p of a
mUm:gbrimaNclna ¬nimitþsBaaØL¦
body and the perpendicular distance of the body
from an axis: L = r  mv. Angular momentum
plKuNénbrimaNclna p énGgÁFatungw cMgayEkgénGgÁ FatuBIG½kS ³
can also be written as the product of the angular L  r  mv . GacsresrCaplKuNénviucT½r el,ÓnmMuénGgÁFatu nig
velocity of a body and its moment of inertia: L
= I. m:Umg: niclPaBrbs;vak¾)anEdr L  I .
Anion
A negatively charged ion, i.e. an ion that is
Gaj:úg
attracted to the positive anode in electrolysis. GIyu :ugmanbnÞúkGviC¢man CaGIyu :ugGacTajeTAnwgGaNUtviC¢ mankñúgGKÁIsnI
viPaK.
Anisotropic
Denoting a medium in which the physical
minGIusURtUb
properties are different in different directions.
Compare isotropic.
bBaa¢k;BImCÆdæanmYyEdlmanlkçN³ rUbepSgBIKña cMeBaH TisedAxusKña.
eRbobeFob isotropic
Annihilation
The destruction of a particle and its antiparticle
brisUnü
accompanied by the creation of radiant energy,
(gamma radiation.) The energy of the gamma
karbMpaø jénpg;mYy nwg bdipg;rbs;va ehIyRtUvbMElgeTA [køayeTACa
radiation is related to the total mass of the two famBlrsIµ ¬ehAfakaMrsµIhÁama:¦. famBlhÁa ma:Tak;Tgnwgma:s;srubtam
particles through Einstein’s equation: E  mc2.
ry³smIkarGaMgsþaj E  mc . 2

Annulus
The plane figure formed between two
GanuLas
concentric circular planes of different radius. bøgr; UbPaBEdlekIteLIgrvagbøg;rgVg;BIrmanp©itrYmKñaEtmankaMepSgKña.
Anode
A positive electrode. In electrolysis anions are
GaNUt
attracted to the anode. In an electronic vacuum
tube the anode attracts electrons from the
eGLicRtUtviC¢man. kñúgGKIÁsnIvíPaK Gaj:gú TajeTAxagGaNYd. kñúgGKIsÁ nI
cathode, therefore electrons flow from the bMBg;sBu aØakasGaNUdTajeGLicRtúgBI katUd dUecñHeGLicRtúgpøas;TI
vacuum tube to the external circuit from the
anode. In flowing from the cathode to the anode BIbMBg;suBaØakaseTAeTAkan; esoKIVeRkABIGaNUd. kñúgkarpøas;TIBIkatUdeTA
the electrons lose electrical potential energy
and, since they travel in a vacuum, gain an GaNUd eGLicRtug)at;bg;famBlb:tU g;Esül ehIyedaysarvapøas;TIkñúg
equal quantity of kinetic energy. suBaØakas enaHvaekInbrimaNesIµKañ nUvfamBlsIuenTic.
 10

Anthropic principle
The principle that the observable universe has
eKalkarN_GanRdÚBic
to be as it is, rather than any other way,
otherwise we would not be able to be here and
eKalkarN_EdlGacsegátcRkvaL)anRbesICageKalkar N_epSgeTot
observe it. m:üagvíjeToteyIgminGacenATIenHehIysegátemIlva)aneT.
Antilogarithm
(See logarithm)
cMras;LÚkarIt
emIl logarithm
Antinode
(See stationary wave)
Gg;TINUt
emIl stationary wave
Anti-parallel vectors
Vectors directed along the same line, but in
viucT½rpÞúyKña
opposite directions. vicu T½rEdlmanTistambeNþaybnaÞt;dUcKña EtmanTisedApÞúyKña.
Antiparticle
A subatomic particle that has the same mass as
bdiPaKl¥it
another particle and equal and opposite values
of some other property. For example the
PaKlit¥ )anmkBIkarbMEbkGatUm.vamanma:s;dUcPaKli¥td¾éTeTotEdr
positron, the antiparticle of the electron, has the EtmansBaØapÞúyKñanigmanlkçN³xøHeTotxusKña . ]TahrN_
same mass as the electron, but an equal and
opposite charge. b:UsIuRtugKWCabdiPaKlit¥ rbs;eGLicRtug vaman ma:sd; UceGLicRtugEdr
manbnÞkú esIµKñaEtmansBaØapÞúyKña.
Aperture
The effective diameter of a lens or mirror. The
rgVH
ratio of aperture to focal length is called the
relative aperture, the reciprocal of which is
Ggát;p©itCak;lak;énLg;TI b¤kBa©k.; pleFobénrgVHeTAnwgcM
called the focal ratio, or f-number of the lens. A gaykMNMu ehAfargVHeFob b¤GacehARcaseTAvijfaCapl eFobkMNMu b¤
large aperture gives a greater light-gathering
power, and also reduced diffraction effects that cMnYn f énLg;TI. rgVHFMpþl;eGayGnuPaBRbmUl p¿þúBnWøkan;EtFMEdr
blur the image, however it may lead to greater
aberrations. ehIyk¾bnßyplDIR)ak;süúgEdleFIVeGay rUbPaBRBwl
eTaHCaya:genHk¾edayvaGacnaMeGaymanRBak kan;EtFM.
Aqueous
A solution in water.
l,ayTwk
l,ayenAkñúgTwk.
Arc sin, cos, tan Arc sin, cos, tan
(See inverse trigonometric functions).
emIl inverse trigonometric functions
Archimedes’s principle
The principle states that when a body is
eKalkaN_GasIuEm:t
partially or totally immersed in a fluid, the
upthrust (buoyant force) is equal to the weight
eKalkarN_eBalfa eBlGgÁFatumYyRtUv)aneKdak;RtaMmyY Epñk b¤
of fluid displaced. To prove this principle, we RtaMTaMgRsugkñúgGgÁFaturav eBlenaHGgÁFatumankM laMgedaleLIg
consider the equilibrium of an elemental
volume of fluid within the bulk of the fluid. The kMlaMgedaleLIgenHesIµngw TMgn;rbs;GgÁ FaturavEdl)anpøas;TI.
buoyant force acting on this fluid element is
equal to the weight of the element, thus if the edÍm,IbgðajeKalkarN_enH eyIg
element of fluid is replaced by a submerged
object of exactly the same size and shape, then
BinitülMnwgénmaDvtßúmYydak;enAkñúgGgÁFaturav. kMlaMgd¿
the buoyant force on this object is also equal to eNalmanGMeBIelIGgÁFaturavesIµnwgTMgn;rbs;FatuenaH dUc
the weight of fluid displaced.
enHebIFaturbs;GgÁFaturavC¿nYsedayRCmucvtßúEdlmanTMhM nigmaDdUcKña
enaHkMlaMgGENþtelIvtßeú nHk¾esIµnwgTMgn;GgÁ FaturavEdlC¿nsY enaHEdr.
 11

Argand diagram
(See complex number)
düaRkamGahág;
emIl complex number
Argument (of a function)
1. The quantity to be operated on by the
GaKuym:g; ¬énGnuKmn_¦
function. For example in the expression 1. brimaNEdlRtUv)aneFIVRbmaNviFIedayGnu Kmn_. ]TahrN_ kñúgkenSam
sin(30)  0.5, 30 is the argument. 2. A
sequence of logical propositions based on a set sin(30)  0.5, 30KWCaGaKuym:g. ; 2.
of premises and leading to a conclusion.
sVtúI énsMeNIrtkáEdlGaRs½yelIsnM MudMbUg ehIyQaneTA rkkarsniñdæan.
Arithmetic mean
(See average)
mFümnBVn§
emIl average
Arithmetic progression (series) (AP)
A series of numbers in which there is a
s‘VúÍtnBVn§ (AP)
common difference between terms. For
example 2, 5, 8, etc. is an AP with an initial
es‘rèI ncMnYnTaMgLay Edlkëgú enaHmanplsgrYmrvagtYrni mYy².
value, a , of 2 and a common difference, d, of 3. ]TahrN_ @/ %/ * / >>> KWCa AP EdlmantMéledIm aesI@µ nig
The nth term is given by an  a  (n – 1)d. The
sum of n terms is given by (i) Sn = n[2a  (n – plsgrYmd esI#µ . tYrTInKWCaGnuKmn_manrag
1)d]/2, or (ii) Sn  n(a + an)/2. a  a  (n –1)d . plbUkénntYreGayeday S  n[2a  (n – 1)d]/2 b¤
n n

S  n(a  a )/2.
n n

Armature
The rotating coil of an electric motor or
Gama:T½r
generator wound on an iron core. bUbn‘Í rgVilènm:TU ½rGKÀsI nI b¤ CnitaEdlrMuelIsÙëlEdk.
Artificial intelligence (AI)
A field of computing concerned with the
bBaØasib,nimiµt (AI)
production of programs that perform tasks that
require intelligence when performed by people.
EpñkKNnaTak;TgCamYykarbegIátkmµvíFIEdlmanlkçN³v½y
These tasks include playing games, such as qñateBlelgCamYymnusS. El,gTaMgenHmandUcCaGuk/ begItá KMerag/
chess, forming plans, understanding languages,
reasoning, learning and so on. yl;Pasar/ manehtupl/ kareron.l.
Associative law
The mathematical law stating that the value of
c,ab;p¿þú
an expression is independent of grouping of the
numbers, symbols or terms in the expression.
c,ab;KNitvíTüaEdleBalfa tMélénkenSammYyminGaRs½y karp¿þúcMnnY /
The associative law for addition states that the nimitþsBaØa b¤ tYrkñúgkenSameT. c,ab;pú¿cþ MeBaHkar bUkeBalfa
numbers may be added in any order. The same
goes for multiplication. However, the cMnYnTaMgLayGacbUktamlMdab;Nak¾)an.
associative law does not hold for subtraction
and division. Compare: commutative law, c,ab;enHk¾Gnuvtþ)anEdrcMeBaHRbmaNvíFIKN u . eTaHCaya:g enHk¾eday
distributive law. c,ab;pmþú¿ inGacGnuvtþceM BaHRbmaNvíFIdk nig Rb maNvíFIEck)aneT.
eRbobeFo commutative law, distributive law.
Astigmatism
A lens aberration in which when rays in
GasÞIma:Tic ¬karxUcEPñk¦
one plane are in focus, those in another pane are
not. Astigmatism in the eye results when the
BRgakLg;TI Edlkñgú enaHeBlkaMrsµIzti kñgú bøgm; YyKWCakMNMu
eye lens is not spherical but cylindrical. ÉkaMBnøWepSgeTotminkat;tamkMNuM. GasIÞma:Tci enAkñúgEPñk
ekItmankalNaEkvEPëkminEmnCaEsV‘ EtragCasIuLaMg.
Astrometry
The measurement of the positions of celestial
taramaRt
bodies on the celestial sphere. karkMNt;TItaMgTaMgLayrbs;taraenAelIEsV‘esLiesÛìl.
 12

Astronomical telescope
(See telescope)
EkvyittaraviTüa
emIl telescope
Astronomical unit
(Symbol AU)
xñattaraviTüa (nimitsþ BaØa AU)
The mean distance between the earth and the
sun. 1 AU  149 597 870 km (499 light
cMgaymFümrvagEpndI nig RBHGaTitü.
seconds). That is, it takes light from the sun 499 1 AU = 149 597 870 km ¬$((vinaTIBnøW¦ mann½yfaRBH
seconds to reach the earth.
GaTitücMNayeBl$((vínaTIedÍm,IbBa¢nÚ BnWømkdl;EpndÍ.
Astronomy
The study of the universe beyond the earth’s
taraviTüa
atmosphere. The main branches are: astrometry,
celestial mechanics, and astrophysics.
karsikSaBIcRkvaLenAeRkABIbriyakasrbs;EpndI. saxasM
xan;²rbs;taravíTüaKW : taramaRt/ emkanicesLiesÞól nig tararUbvíTüa.
Astrophysics
The branch of astronomy dealing with the
tararUbviTüa ¬rUbviTüasikSaBI páayTUeTA¦
physics of celestial bodies, (stars and galaxies),
and the intervening regions of space.
EpñkéntaramaRtEdlTak;TgnwgrUbviTüaéntara¬páay nig háaLak;sIu¦
RBmTaMgtMbn;GnþraKmn_énlMh.
Asymmetry
A state of not having parts that correspond in
minsIuemRTI
size, shape or position on either side of a
dividing line.
PaBEdlKµanEpñkEdlsIuKñanwgvimaD ragÁ b¤ TItaMgelIEpñkmçag
eTotEdlx½NðedaybnÞat;.
Asymptote
A line that a curve approaches, but only touches
GasIumtUt
at infinity. bnÞat;EdlExSekagxiteTACit b:Eu nþb:HKñaenAGnnþ.
Atmosphere
1. A unit of pressure equal to 1.03 25 pascals.
Gatm:UEsV‘
This is equal to 760.00 mm Hg. 2. (See earth’s 1. xñatsMBaFmantMélesIµ!>0#@%)a:saá l; ehIyesIµnwg&^0 mIlIEm:t)ar:t.
atmosphere)
2. emIl earht’s atmosphere
Atmospheric pressure
The normal force per unit area exerted by the
sMBaFGatm:UEsV‘
weight of the earth’s atmosphere at a point. At
sea level the atmosphere will support a column
kMlaMgEkgkñúgmYyxñatépÞ EdlbeBa©jedayTMgn;énbriya
of mercury about 760 mm high, or a column of kasEpndIRtg;cMnucmYy. Rtg;nIv:UsmuRTmYyGatm:UEsV‘mantM
water 10.3 m high.
élRbEhlnwgkMBs;srsr)art&^0mm b¤ RbEhlnwgkMBs; ssrTwk !0/#
m.
 13

Atom
The smallest part of an element that has all the
GatUm
properties of the element. Atoms consists of a
small dense nucleus of protons and neutrons
EpñktUcbMputénFatumYyEdlmanenARKb;FatuTaMgGs;. GatUmmanéNVy:UtUc
surrounded by orbiting electrons. In a neutral mYy EdlmanRbUtugnigNWRtugehIyeGLicRtug pøas;TIelIKnøgCMuvij.
atom the number of electrons equals the number
of protons, so the overall charge is zero. The kñúgGatUmNWt cMnnY eGLicRtugesIµcMnYnRbÚtug dUecñHbnÞúksrubesIµsUnü.
electronic structure of an atom refers to the way
in which the electrons are arranged about the TMrg;eGLicRtÚnicén GatUmmYy sMedAdl;sNþab;Fñab;eGLicRtugC¿vu íjéNVy:U
nucleus, and in particular, the energy levels that
they occupy. Each electron can be characterised
nig CaBiess sMedAdl;nIvUf: amBlEdlvaRKb;RKg. eGLicRtug nimYy²Gac
by a set of quantum numbers as follows: (1) mansMnMucMnYnkgTicdUcteTA : (1) cMnYnkgTicemn KWCanIvf:U amBlRKwH. (2)
The principle quantum number n gives the main
energy levels. (2) The orbital quantum number cMnYnkgTicG½rb‘Ít¬rgVilC¿u¦l EdlRKb;RKgm:Um:g;brimaNclnaéneGLicRtug.
l, which governs the angular momentum of the
electron. (3) The magnetic quantum number m, (3)cMnYnkgTic ma:ejTicm EdlRKb;RKgfamBleGLicRtugkñúgEdnma:ej
which governs the energies of electrons in an
external magnetic field. (4) The spin quantum
TiceRkA. (4) cMnYnkgTics<Inm EdlbBa¢ak;BIs<Inrbs;eGLicRtugnimYy².
s

number ms, which gives the spin of the

individual electrons.
Atomic bomb
A nuclear weapon in which an explosion is
RKab;EbkGatUm
caused by nuclear fission. Two sub-critical
masses of a fissile material (enriched uranium-
GavuFbrmaNUEdlGacpÞúH)an edaysarRbtikmµbMEbkéNVy:U. sarFatu
235 or plutonium-239) are brought together viTüúskmµrgBIr G‘uyra:nIjÙm-@#% b¤Pøyú tUnIjÚm: 239 bBa©ÚlKñapÞHú eLIgbMEbk
explosively to form a supercritical mass.
)anCama:s;d¾eRcInGs©arü.
Atomic clock
An apparatus for measuring time that is based
naLikaGatUm
on periodic phenomena within atoms or
molecules.
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;eBl EdlEp¥kelI)atuPUtxYbenAkñúgGa tUm b¤ m:eU lKul.
Atomic energy
(See nuclear energy)
famBlGatUm
emIl nuclear energy
Atomic mass number (Symbol A)
The number of nucleons, (protons plus
cMnYnma:s;GatUm ¬nimitþsBaaØ A¦
neutrons), in the nucleus of an atom. cMnYnnuyekøGug ¬RbUtug bUk NWRtug¦enAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUm.
Atomic mass unit (symbol a.m.u. or u)
A unit used to give the mass of atoms,
xañtma:s;GatUm (nimitþsBaaØ a.m.u b¤ u)
molecules and sub-atomic particle, equal to
exactly 1/12th of the mass of the atom of the
xñatEdleRbIsMrab;vas;ma:s;GatUm m:UelKul nigpg;EdlbMEbkbnþbnÞab;mk
isotope carbon-12 and is equal to 1.66  10 – 27 eTotvaesIµ nwg 1/12 énm:as;GatUmGIusUtUbkabUn!@ehIyesIµnwg1.6610
th – 27

kg, and is sometimes called the unified mass

unit. kg CYnkaleKehA vafaxñatma:sr; Ym.
Atomic number (proton number) (Symbol Z)
The number of protons in the nucleus of an
cMnYnGatUm b¤ cMnYnRbÚtug ¬nimitþsBaaØ Z¦
atom, also equal to the number of electrons in a
neutral atom.
cMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUm vak¾esIµnwgcMnnY eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmNWt
Edr.
Atomic pile
An early form of nuclear reactor using graphite
kMenInGatUm
as a moderator. TMrg;dMbUgènerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘edayeRbIRkaPItCam:eU dra:T½r.
 14

Attenuation
1. A loss of intensity suffered by sound,
tMhy
radiation etc. as it passes through a medium,
caused by absorption or scattering.
!> kMhatGaMgtg;sIuetedaysarsMelg b¤ rsIµ eBlvaqøgkat;mCÆdæanmYy
2. The drop in voltage or current experienced bNþalmkBIsMrbU b¤ bnSay. @> karFøak;cuHtg;süúg b¤ crnþ EdlbeBa©j
by a signal as it passes through a circuit.
edaysIuBaØal;kalNavaqøgkat;esoKV.I
Audibility
The limits of audibility of the human ear are
sNþab;lW
between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. With
increased age the upper limit falls considerably.
kMrwtsNþab;lWénRtecokmnusSKWcenøaHRbEhl 20 Hz nig 20 kHz.
kalNaGayukan;EtekIn kMrtw sNþab;fycuHKYr eGaykt;sKM al;.
Audio-frequency
A frequency that is audible to the human ear.
eRbkg;esat
eRbkg;EdlRtecokmnusSGacsþab;l.W
Aurora
The luminous phenomenon seen in the night
GUr:Ura:
sky in high latitudes, occurring most frequently
near the geomagnetic poles. The aurora is
)atuPUtBnøWgayemIleXIjenAeBlemXggwtkñúgry³kMBs;x<s;PaKeRcInekIt
caused by the interaction of the solar wind eLIgCajwkjab;enACitb:lU ma:ejTicPUmi saRsþ. GUrUr: a:KCW abuBVehtubgáeLIg
(charged particles) streaming from the sun with
atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere. edaysarGnþrkmµénxül; RBHGaTitü¬PaKlit¥ manbnÞkú ¦bk;BIRBHGaTitü
edaymanGatUm nig m:UelKulkñúgbriyakasxagelI.
Autotransformer
A transformer that has a single winding that is
GUtURtg;sVma:T½r
tapped at different points to provide both the
primary and secondary circuits.
Rtg;sVma:T½rEdlmanrbMuEtmYy biTP¢ab;eTAnwgcMnucepSg² edÍm,ITTYl)anTaMg
esoKIVbzm TaMgesoKIVmFüm.
Average (mean)
1. The arithmetic mean of a set of n numbers is
mFüm
the sum of the numbers divided by n. For
example the arithmetic mean of 2 and 3 is
!> mFümnBVn§énsMncMu MnnY n KWCaplbUkéncMnnY TaMgGs;Eck [ n. ]TahrN_
(2+3)/2=2.5. 2. The geometric mean of a set of mFümnBVn§én @ nig # KW (2+3)/2 =2.5. @> mFümFrNImaRténsMnMucMnYn n
n numbers is the nth root of their product. The
geometric mean of 2 and 3 is 2  3  2.45.
mYy KWCab£sTI n énpl KuNrbs;va. mFümFrNImaRtén @ nig # KW
2  3  2.45
Avionics
The study and development of electronic
GavIy:Unic
circuits and devices used in aeronautics.
Avionics has become of great importance since
karsikSanigvDÆkmµénesoKIVeGLicRtÚnicnig]bkrN_TaMgLayEdleKeRbI
the advent of the space age. kñúgGakasyan. GavÍy:UniceTACamansar³ sMxan;xøaMgcab;taMgBImanyan
Gavkas.
Avogadro’s number( Symbol NA)
The number of atoms or molecules in one mole
cMnYnGav:UkaRdÚ ¬nimitþsBaaØN ¦A

of substance. NA = 6.02252 x 1023. cMnYnénGatUm b¤ m:eU lKulkñúgmYym:UlénsarFatu. N = 6.02252 x 10

A
23

Avogadro’s law
Equal volumes of all gases at the same pressure
c,ab;Gav:UkaRdÚ
and temperature contain the same number of
molecules. 22.4 liters of a gas contain 6.02252
]sµn½ TaMgGs;manmaDesIKµ añ enARtg;sBM aFdUcKña nig mancMnYnm:UelKul
x 1023 molecules. dUcKña. @@/$lIRtén]sµn½ man6.02252  10 m:eU lKul.
23
 15

Axis
1. One of a set of reference lines used to locate
G½kS
points on a graph or in a coordinate system. 2. 1. ExSbnÞat;éntMruymYy®tUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IedAcMnucTaMgLay enAelIRkab b¤
A line about which a body rotate.
enAkñúgRbB½n§kUG½redaen. 2. bnÞat;EdlGgÁ FatuvilC¿uvij.
B
Back e.m.f
An electromotive force (voltage) that opposes
kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkrRTrRTg;
any change in current flow in a circuit
containing *inducance.
kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkr¬tg;süúg¦EdlpÞyú nwgbMErbMrYlbMlas;TIcrnþkñúgesoKIV
EdlmanGaMgDuctg;.
Background radiation
Low intensity ionising radiation present in the
kaMrsIµEbkeRkan
atmosphere as a result of cosmic radiation and
the presence of radioisotopes in the earth’s
GaMgtg;sIuetkaMrsIRµ sTab;eRkamEdlmanenAkñúgbriyakas edaysar
rocks, soil and atmosphere. cMhaykaMrsIeµ lakFatu nig vtþmanénvíTüúGIusUtUb kñúgfµrbs;EpndÍ/ PaBkxVk;
nig briyakas.
Backup
A resource that can be used as a substitute in
EbkGab; (PasareRbIkúñgkmµvíFIkMBüÚT½r¦
the failure of a component, or loss of data in a
computer file.
RbPBEdlGaceRbICaC¿nYseBlEdlsmasFatumYymindMeNIr kar b¤
)at;bg;Tinñn½ykñúghValkMuBüÚT½r.
Balance
An accurate weighing device. The simple beam
CBaI¢g
balance cnsists of two pans suspended from a
centrally pivoted beam. Known masses are
]bkrN_fgøW TMgn;)anCak;lak;. CBaIg¢ smBaØmanfasBIdak;BüÜrsgxag
placed on one pan and the body to be weighed Fñwmkl;Rtg;cMncu kNþal. edaysÁal;ma:s;mYy dak;enAelIfasmçag GgÁFatu
is placed in the other. When the beam is exactly
horizontal the two masses are equal. RtÚvfwøgdak;elIfasmçageTot. eBlFwmñ manlMnwgtambnÞat;edkehIy
enaHmann½yfama:s; TaMgBIresIµKña.
Ballistic galvanometer
A moving-coil *galvanometer designed for
háalva:NUEm:t)alIsÞic
measuring charge by detecting a surge of
current. It has a heavy coil with very light
háalva:NEU m:tEdlmanbUb‘nÍ cl½t eKeFIVelIgsMrab;vas;bnÛúk edaykarbegIÝn
damping. When a surge of current is passed crnþ. vamanbUb‘ÍnF¶nm; YyEdlmanGMBIøTtu fycuHticbMptu . eBlcrnþxøaMg qøg
through the coil, the initial maximum deflection
is proprtional to the total charge that has passed kat;bUb‘Ín edpéøcsüúgGtibrma edÍmsmmaRteTAnwgbnÛúksrub Edl)anqøg
through the coil.
kat;bUb‘Ín.
Ballistic pendulum
A device used to measure the velocity of a
e)a:l)alIsiÞc
projectile, such as a bullet. A large mass, (a
block of wood) is suspended from a horizontal
]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;vas;el,ÓnRKab;)aj; dUcCaRKab;kaMePIgø Ca edÍm.
bar and the angle through which this mass is ma:sF; MmYy¬d¿ueQI¦RtÚv)aneKdak;BüÜrBIr)aedk ehIymMuEdlma:s;enHRtÚv
displaced when it is struck by the projectile in
flightenables the momentum and hence the rMkwleBleK)aj;vaedayRKab;)aj;kúgñ bri maNclnaEdlGacehaH)an
velocity of the projectile to be calculated by
sucessive application of the laws of ehtudUecñHehIyel,ÓnRKab; )aj;GacKNnaedayGnuvtþc,ab;rkSabrimaN
conservation of linear momentum and of
energy.
clnaRtg; nig c,ab;famBl.
 16

Ballistics
The study of the flight of projectiles, especially
)alIsÞic
those that have a parabolic flight path from one
point to another. Ballistics can be extended to
karsikSaBIkarehaHehIrrbs;RKab;)aj; CaBiessRKab;)aj; EdlmanKnøg
the case where air resistance provides a drag ehaHCa)a:ra:bUlBIcnM cu mYyeTAcMncu mYyeTot. karsikSa)alIscÞi GacQan
force usually proprtional to the square of the
speed of the projectile. In such cases, numerical eTAdl;krNIEdlkMlaMgTb;rbs; xül;Edlpþl;nUvkMlaMgTajCaFmµtakMlaMg
methods of solution usually replace analytical
methods. enHsmamaRteTA nwgkaerénel,Ónrbs;RKab;)aj;. kñúgkrNIdUcenH
víFICaelxénd¿eNaHRsayGacC¿nYsedayvíFIvPí aKvíj.
Balmer series
See hydrogen spectrum
es‘rI)alm½r
emIl hydrogen spectrum
Band theory
The theory that, in crystals, electrons fall into
RTwsIþsm<½n§
allowed energy bands, between which lie
forbidden bands. Although free-electron theory
RTwsIþEdlfa¬kñúgRKIsþal;¦eGLicRtugFøak;cUleTAkñúgsm<½n famBlenAcenøaH
can explain the electrical properties of sm<½n§r)aMg. eTaHbIRTwsþeI GLicRtugesrIGac Bnül;lkçN³GKIÁsnIrbs;rbU
materials, to understand fully the nature of
electrical conduction, free-electron theory must Fatuke¾ day k¾edÍm,Iyk;eGaykan;Etc,as;GMBIFmµCatiénkarcMlgeGLicRtug
be modified to include the effect of the crystal
lattice in which the electrons move. Band RTwsIþeGLic RtugesrIRtÚvEtbBa¢ak;eGayc,as;GMBIplénbNþajRKIsþal; Edl
theory modifies the free-electron treatment by
including a regular periodic potential resulting
eGLicRtugpøas;TIkñúgenaH. RTwsIþsm<½n§bBa¢ak;RbRBwtþkmµeGLicRtugesrIeday
from the positive ions in the lattice. rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgb:Utg;EsülxYbniy½t ekItecjBIGIuyg:u víC¢mankñúgbNþajpg.
Bandwidth
1. The frequency range over which a radio
rlkkMrwt
signal of specific frequency spreads. In a
modulated carrier wave it includes the range of
!>kMrwteRbkg;EdlGacrt;cenøaHsIuBaaØl;vTi üúénbnSayeRbkg; Cak;lak;.
frequencies occupied by the modulating signal kñúgkarbBa¢nÚ tamrlk manrYmTaMgkMrwteRbkg; EdlRKb;RKgedaysIuBaØal;
on either side of the carrier wave. 2.The range
of frequencies over which the gain of the bþÚrtanelIEpñkTaMgsgxagénrlkbBa¢nÚ . @> kMrwténeRbkg;EdlGacrt;cenøaH
amplifier reaches a specific fraction of the
maximum gain. 3.The range of frequencies over kMenInénGMBøIeTA dl;kMenInPaKGtibrma. # kMrtw éneRbkg;EdlGacrt;cenøaH
which the antenna can transmit without
significant mismatch.
cMnucmYyEdlGg;EtnGacbBa¢nÜ )an eBlrlkkMrwtRtÚvKña.
Bar
A c.g.s. unit of pressure equal to 105 pascals,
)ar
equivalent to a bout 750 mm Hg, or 0.987
atmosphere. The millibar (100 Pa) is commonly
xñat c.g.srbs;sBM aF esInµ wg 10 )a:saá l; Rbhak;RbEhl nwg 750 mm
5

used in meteorology. Hg b¤ 0/&(% Gatm:EU sV‘. mIlI'arRtÙv'aneKeRbI CaTUeTAkëúg]tunyi mvéTüa.

Barometer
The device for measuring atmospheric pressure.
)ar:UEm:t
The mercury barometer consists of a glass tube
about 800 mm long, sealed at one end and filled
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;sMBaFGatm:UEsV‘. 'ar:UEmt'ar:tmanbMBg;EkvmYyman
with mercury. The weight of the mercury RbEvgRbEhl 800 mm biTcugmçag ehIy dak;bMeBjeday)ar:t. TMgn;
column is balanced by the weight of the
atmosphere. énsrsr)ar:tmanlMnwgedayTMgn;ènGatm:EU sV‘.
Baryon
A hadron with half-integral spin. Nucleons
)arIy:ug
(protons and neutrons) comprise a subclass of
baryons.
GaRdugEdlmans<InknøHGaMgetRkal. nuyekøGug¬RbÚtug nigNWRtug¦
)anmkBIkarbMEbk)arIyg:u .
 17

Base
1. The number of different symbols in a number
eKal
system. In the decimal system the base is10; in
the binary system it is 2. 2. The number that
!> cMnYnénsBaaØepSg²kñgú RbB½n§cMnYn. kñúgRbB½n§TsPaKeKal rbs;vaKW!0
when raised to a certain power has a logarithm kñúgRbB½n§eTVPaK b¤ RbB½n§)ajNarImaneKal@. @/ cMnYnEdlekIneLIgtam
equal to that power. For example 103= 1000 
log101000 = 3. In this example the logarithm is sV½yKuNmanLÚkarItvaesInµ wgsVy½ KuNenaH. ]TahrN_ 10 =1000  3

log 1000 = 3. kñg ú ]TahrN_enH LÚkarItKWCaLÚkarIteKal!0.

to the base 10.
10

Base unit
A unit that is defined arbitrarily rather than
xñatRKwH
being defined by simple combinations of other
units. For example, the ampere is a base unit in
xñatEdlkMnt;)anedayeQµaHCaCagkMnt;)anedaybnSMénxñat epSg².
the SI system defined in terms of the force ]TahrN_ dUcCaGMEBrCaxñatRKwHkñúgRbB½n§SI vaCa GnuKmn_énkMlaMgEdl)an
produced between two current-carrying
conductors, whereas the coulomb is a derived begIátrvagGgÁFatucMlgBIrpÞúkcrnþ GKIÁsnI. cMENkÉKULvMú íjKWCaxñatkMlay
unit, defined as the quantity of charge
transferred by one ampere in one second. vakMnt;edaybri maNbnÞúkEdl)anpøas;TIedaycrnþmYyGMEBkñúgmYyvínaTI.
Battery
A number of electric cells joined together. The
GaKuy
charge capacity of a battery is expressed in
ampere hours.
cMnYnfµBilGKÁsI nItP¢ab;Kña. ka)a:sueI tbnÞúkénCnitaKWsEM dgecjCaGMEBr
ema:g.
Baud
A unit for measuring the rate of transmitting
bUd
signals/information in a computer or
communications system. When the signal is a
xñatsMrab;vas;kMrwtbBa¢nÚ sIBu aØal;¬Bt’man¦këúgkMuBüÙT½r b¤këúgRbB½n§KmnaKmn_.
sequence of bits, the baud rate is given in bits eBlsIBu aØal;CasIVútènb‘Ít enaHkMrwtbUd[Cab‘tÍ këgú mYyvénaTI(bps).
per second (bps).
Beam
A group of rays moving in an organised
)ac;BnWø
manner. It may consist of particles (e.g. an
electron beam) or of electromagnetic radiation
RkumkaMBnWpø aø s;TIkúñgreboberobcMc,as;las;. vaGacmanpg; ¬)ac;BnWøeGLic
(e.g. a radar beam). Rtúg¦ b¤ GacmancMhayrsIµeGLicRtÚma:ej Tic¬]TahrN_ )ac;BnWøra:da¦.
Beats
A periodic increase and decrease in loudness
b‘Ít
heard when two notes of slightly different
frequency are sounded together.
xYbekInnigcuHkñúgbnøWsMelg eBlEdleNaTBIrmaneRbkg;Rbhak;RbEhl
KñarYmsMelgbBa©ÚlKña.
Becquerel (Symbol Bq)
The SI unit of radioactivity. 1 Bq = 1 decay per
EbK½rErl (nimitþsBaØa Bq)
second. xñatSIrbs;víTüúskmµ. 1 Bq  1 bnSaykñúgmYyvínaTI.
Bel
Ten *decibels
Ebl
db;edsIuEbl.
Bending moment
The algebraic sum of the moments of all the
m:Um:g;rbt;
vertical forces about any point or section of a
horizontal beam under load. See moment of a
plbUkBiCKNiténm:mU :gk; MlaMgQrTaMgGs;eFobcMnucNamYy b¤eFobEpñk
force. énG½kSedkeRkambnÞúk. emIl moment of force
 18

Bernoulli’s principle
A principle which states that the pressure in a
eKalkarN_ Eb‘nUyI
moving fluid is least where the speed of the
fluid is greatest. The principle is a consequence
eKalkarN_EdleBalfa kñúgGgÁFaturavpøas;TI sMBaFkan;EttUceBlEdl
of the law of the conservation of energy. By el,Ónrbs;GgÁFaturavkan;EtFM. eKalkarN_ enHKWCaví)akénc,ab;rkSa
equating the work done by the pressure forces
at both ends of a section of fluid moving in a famBl. edayeRbobeFobkmµnþ Edl)aneFIVedaykMlaMgsMBaFRtg;cgu TaMg
tube to the change in the total energy of the
section it can be shown that p + ½v2 + gy =
sgxagénEpñkrbs; GgÁFaturavpøas;TIkgñú bMBg;eTAnwgbMErbMrYlfamBlsrub
constant. énEpñk ehIyvabgðajeGayeXIjfa p  ½v  gy  efr.
2

Beta decay
A type of weak interaction in which an unstable
bnSayEbta
atomic nucleus changes into a stable nucleus
with the same mass number but different proton
RbePTGnþrkmµexSay EdlkëúgenaHèNVy:UGatUmmins‘b;bMElgeTACaéNVy:U
number. The change involves the conversion of s‘b; edaymancMnnY ma:sd; UcKña b:Eu nþmancMnnY ®bUtugepSgKña. bMErbMrYlTak;Tg
a neutron into a proton with the emission of an
electron, called a negative beta particle, or the eTAnwgkarbMElgNWRtugeTACaRbUtugnigbeBa©jeGLicRtug eKehAvafapg;Eb
convention of a proton into a neutron with the
emission of a positron, called a positive beta taGviCm¢ an b¤bMElgRbUtugeGayeTACaNWRtug nigbeBa©j b:sU RIu tug eKehAva
particle. fapg;EbtaviC¢man.
Betatron
A particle accelerator which accelerates
EbtaRtug
electrons up to very high energies. The
changing magnetic field in the accelerator sets
BenøÓnpg;EdlCaeGLicRtug[sÞúHeTAdl;famBlmYyya:g x<s;. bMErbMrlY
up a circular electric field which accelerates the Ednma:ejTickñúgBenøÓnbegáIt)anCaEdnGKÁIsnIvg; EdleFIV[eGLicRtugsÞúH.
electron.
Beta particle
An electron or positron emitted during *beta
pg;Ebta
decay. A stream of beta particles is known as
beta radiation.
karbeBa©jeGLicRtúgb¤RbÚtugkñgú GMLúgeBlbnSayEbta. cMhaypg;Ebta
RtÚv)aneKsÁal;fakaMrsIµEbta.
Big bang
The cosmological theory that all matter and
karpÞúHb‘ÍkEbg
energy in the universe originated from a state of
enormous energy and density at a particular
tamRTwsþeI lakFatuvíTüaeBalfa ral;rUbFatungi famBlTaMg Gs;kñúgcRkvaL
instant of time, estimated to be 15-18 billion manedÍmkMenItmkBIsNæanfamBlnigkMlaMgd¾FMsem,ImenARtg;xN³eBl
years ago.
mYyRbmaN!%-!*Ban;lan qñaMknøgeTA.
Billion
Formerly in the UK, one million milion, 1012,
Ban;lan
but the US meaning of one thousand million,
109, has been adopted worldwide.
CaTUeTAkñúgRbeTsGg;eKøsesIµngw lanlan(10 ) EtGaemricvíj esInµ wgBan;
12

lan(10 ) RtÚv)aneKTTYlykTUTaMgBiPBelak.
9

Bimetallic strip
A strip made of two metals of different
bnÞHeTVrelah³
expansivity, riveted together so that the strip
bends when heated. If one end is fixed the other
bnÞHelah³BIrmankMrwtrIkbeNþayxusKña dak;pÁ¿úclU Kña edIm,I [vaekageBl
end can be made to open or close switch, as in a RtUvkMedA. ebIcgu mçagenAnwg enaHcugmçageTotGacbegáIt)anCakugtak;biT b¤
thermostat.
ebIk dUcenAkñúgETm:Usaþ t.
 19

Binary notation
A number system using only two digits, 0 and
sBaaØNTiVFa
1. Instead of units, tens, hundreds, and so on, as
used in the decimal system, digits in the binary
RbB½n§cnM YnEdleRbIEtBIrxÞg;b:eu NÑaH KW ! nig 0. CaC¿nYs[ xñat: db;/ ry/ >>>
system represent 1 (20), 2 (21), 4(22), 8(23) . . . EdleRbIkñúgRbB½n§TsPaK xÞg;TaMgLay kñgú RbB½n§TFiV atageday 1, (2 ), 0

Because 0 and 1 can be represented by a closed

or open switch, binary notation is widely used 2(2 ), 4(2 ), 8(2 ), …. eday 0 nig ! Gactagedaykugtak;biT b¤ ebIk
1 2 3

in the digital computer.

eTIbsBaaØN TViFaRtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAkñgú kMuBüÚT½rDIKtI al;.
Binary stars
A pair of stars linked by their mutual
páayTiVFa
gravitational forces, revolving about their
common centre of mass.
KUpaá yEdlpþKúM ñaedaykMlaMgTMnajeTAvijeTAmkrbs;vavilC¿u
vijp©itma:sr; Ymrbs;va.
Binding energy of a nucleus
The energy associated with the strong nuclear
famBlsm<½n§éNVy:U
force binding protons and neutrons together in
the atomic nucleus. Binding energy is
famBlrYmCamYykMlaMgnuyekøEG‘xøaMg cgsm<½n§RbÙtugnigNWRtugbBa©ÚlKñakñúg
equivalent to the mass defect which arises when éNVy:UGatUm. famBlsm<½n§smmUleTAnwgma:se; dhVci EdlekItmaneBl
nucleons bind together to form a nucleus.
Because a bound system has negative potential nuyekøGugcgsm<n½ §clU KñaedÍm,IbegIátéNVy.:U edayRbB½n§sm<½nmanfamBl
energy, when protons and neutrons bind
together in a nucleus their mutual potential b:Utg;EsülGvíC¢man eBlRbÚtugnigNWRtugcgsm<½nc§ UlKñakñúgéNVy:UfamBl
energy decreases as does their combined mass,
thus the binding energy of a nucleus leads to a
b:Utg;Esülrbs;vanimyY ²fycuH kalNavap¿þúma:s;cUlKña dUecñHfamBlsm<½n
mass deficit in the nucleus. énéNVyn:U aMeGayma:s;kúñgéNVy:UfycuH.
Binding energy of a satellite
The energy required to overcome the earth’s
famBlsm<½n§énpáayrNb
gravitational attraction and enable the satellite
to escape into space. For the satellite to escape
famBlEdlpþl;edIm,ICMnHkMlaMgTMnajcUlrbs;EpndI ehIyGac[páayrNb
the influence of the earth’s gravitational field its ecjputeTAkñúglMh. edÍm,IeGaypáayrNb ecjputBI\Ti§BlEdnTMnajdÍ
kinetic energy at the surface of the earth must
be equal to or greater than its (negative) famBlsIeu nTicrbs;vaRtg;épÞrbs;EpndÍRtÚvesIµb¤FMCagkMlaMgTMnaj
gravitational energy.
¬GvíCm¢ an¦rbs;va.
Binoculars
Optical instrument for viewing an object in
b‘ÍNUKuEl (Ekvywtb‘N Í KU Eu l)
magnification with both eyes; for example, field
glasses and opera glasses. Binoculars consist of
]bkrN_GubTicsMrab;emIlvtßúedayEPñkTaMgBIr ]TahrN_ dUcCa field glass
two telescopes containing lenses and prisms, nig opera glassCaedÍm. b‘N Í KU uElman EkvqøúHBIrEdlmanLg;TInigRBIs
which produce a stereoscopic effects as well as
magnifying the image. vaGacbegItá eGaymanpl ]raTsSn_ dUcCaBRgIkrUbPaBCaedÍm.
Binocular vision
The ability to produce a focused image of the
KMehIjb‘ÍNUKuEl
same object simultaneously on the retinas of
both eyes. This permits three-dimensional
KMehIjEdlEPñkTaMgBIrGacepþatcMvtßúEtmYy. KMehIjenHGaceGayeXIjbI
vision and contributes to distance judgment. TMhM nig pþln; UvkarvíPaKcMgay)aneTotpg.
Binomial theorem
A rule for the expansion of a binomial
RTwsIþeTVrFa
expression (an expression consisting of the sum
of two variables raised to a given power). The
c,ab;sMrab;BnøatkenSameTVrFa¬kenSamEdlmanplbUkénBIrGefrrYcelIk
general binomial expression (x + y)n expands sV½yKuNcMnYnNamYyEdleKeGay¦. kenSam eTVrFaTUeTA (x  y) n

to xn + nxn – 1y + [n(n – 1)/2!]xn – 2y2 + … yn.

GacBnøateTACa : x  nx  [n(n – 1)/2!]x y  …  y .
n n–1 n–2 2 n
 20

Biomechanics
The applications of the principles of
CÍvemkanic
*mechanics to living systems, particularly those
systems that have coordinated movements.
karGnuvtþne_ KalkarN_emkaniceTARbB½nk§ arrs;enACaBiessGnuvtþeTARbB½n§
EdlmanclnasMrbsMrYl.
Biprism
A glass prism with an obtuse angle that
b‘ÍRBIs
functions as two acute-angle prisms placed
base–to-base. A double virtual image of a
RBIsEkvEdlmanmuMTalmYyCaGnuKmn_énRBIsEdlmanmMuRsYcBIr edaydak;
single source is thus formed. The device was )atTl;nwg)at. rUbPaBRtÜtKña)anmkBIRbPBmYy. ]bkrN_enHbegIáteLIg
invented by Fresnel to produce two coherent
sources for interference experiments. edayeRbsENl edÍm,I begIátRbPBkUeGr:gB; IsMrab;karBiesaFn_ GaMgET
ehVr:g;.
Bit (binary digit)
Either of the digits 0 and 1 as used in the binary
b‘Ít (xÞg;TFiV a)
notation. manxÞg; 0 nig ! eRbIkñúgsBaaØNTiVFa.
Black body radiation
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
kaMrsIµGgÁFatuexµA
black body. It extends over the whole range of
wavelengths, and the distribution of energy
karbeBa©jkaMrsµIeGLicRtUma:ejTicedayGgÁFatuexµA. vabnSayelIkMrtw
over this range has a characteristic form with a CMhanrlkTaMgmUl ehIyEbgEckfamBlelIkrM wtenH manlkçN³CaTMrg;
maximum at a wavelength which depends on
the temperature of the black body, moving to mYymantMélGtibrmaenARtg; CMhanrlkmYyEdlGaRs½yelIsItuNPð aBén
shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures.
GgÁFatuexµA bMlas;TIChM anrlkkan;EtxøIkalNasItuNðPaBkan;Etx<s.;
Black hole
A stellar object of such large mass that it has
reNþAexµAggwt
experienced an extreme gravitational collapse.
Its density is so great and its radius so small
GgÁFatudUcpáay manma:s;FMvabeBa©jkMlaMgRsUbTajya:gxøaMg. dg;seIu t
that its escape velocity at the surface of the rbs;vaFMbMput ehIykaMrbs;vatUcNas;EdleFIV[el,ÓnputTMnajRtg;épÞr
black hole is greater than the speed of light,
thus no electromagnetic radiation can be eNþAexµAFMCagel,Ónrbs;BnøW dUcenHehIyKµankaMrsIµeGLicRtÚma:ejTicNa
emitted from a black hole.
GacecjBIreNþAexµA ggwtenH)aneT.
Bohr theory
Bohr postulated that an electron in a hydrogen
RTisþIb½r
atom can revolve in certain circular stable
orbits, with a definite energy associated with
b½rsnµt;d¿bUgfa eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsneFIVclnavg;kúëgKnøgmYys‘b;
each orbit, without emitting energy, contrary edaymanfamBlkMnt;mYycgsm<½nn§ wgKña rvagKnøgnimYy²edaymincaM)ab;
to classical electromagnetic theory. Classical
theory predicts that an orbiting electron, which beBa©jfamBl. RTwseIþ nH pÞyú BIRTIseIþ GLicRtUma:ejTickøasicu . tamRTwsIþ
must have a centripetal acceleration, should
radiate electromagnetic energy and collapse køasiucTayfakarvílC¿uvíjéNVyr:U bs;eGLicRtúgRtÚvmansMTuHcUlpí©t Edl
into the nucleus, thus all atoms should be
completely unstable. According to Bohr an
bMPayfamBleGLicRtÚma:ejTicrYcehIybt;cUleTAkñúgéNVy:U dUcenHeFIV
atom radiates energy only when it makes a eGayGatUmTaMgGs;KµanlMnwgs‘b;. tamb½r bMPayfamBlEtenAeBlNa
transition from one stable orbit to another, at
the same time emitting (or absorbing) a photon Edlvapøas;TIBIGrb‘tÍ lMnwgmYy eTAkan;Grb‘tÍ mYyeTotb:eu NÑaH ehIykñgú eBl
with an energy and frequency given by hf = Ei
–Ef. He also postulated that the angular CamYyKñaenaH EdrvabeBa©j¬b¤RsUbyk¦pUtugedayfamBlnigeRbkg;[
momentum is quantised, being equal to an
eday hf  E – E . Kat;)ansnµt;eTotfa m:Umg: brimaNclKWCabrimanmYy
integral number n of h/(2):
i f

rmv  nh/(2). This theory gave good results in kMnt; ehIyesIµnwgcMnYnnrYmbBa©ÚlKña rmv  nh/(2). RTwseIþ nHpþl;nUv
predicting the lines observed in the hydrogen
spectrum
lT§pll¥kñúgkarTsTay ExSbnÞat;kúgñ s,úicGIRu dUEsn.
 21

Boiling point
The temperature at which the saturated vapor
cMnucrMBuH
pressure of a liquid equals the external
atmospheric pressure. As a consequence,
sItuNPð aBEdlsMBaFcMhayEq¥trbs;GgÁFaturavesIµnwgsMBaFGatm:EU sV‘xag
bubbles form in a liquid being heated, and the eRkA. CacugeRkayeK)anTMrg;rBM uHkñgú GgÁFaturaveGayekþA ehIysItuNPð aB
temperature remains constant until all the water
has been converted to steam. rkSa efrrhUtdl;TwkTaMgGs;køayeTACacMhay.
Boltzmann constant, symbol k.
The ratio of the universal gas constant (R) to
efrbulsµan ¬nimitþsBaØa k¦
the Avogadro constant (NA). It may be thought
of therefore as the gas constant per molecule: k
pleFobefr]sµ½ncRkvaL(R)eTAnwgefrGav:kU aRdÚ(N ). dUcenHvaGaccat;Tuk
A

= R/NA. Caefr]sµ½nkñúgmYym:UelKul : k  R/N .A

Boolean algebra
A form of symbolic algebra which provides a
BiCKNitb‘UlIn
mathematical procedure for manipulating
logical relationships in symbolic form.
TMrg;nimitþsBaaØBiCKNitEdlbegáIteLIgedayTMrg;KNitviTüa sMrab;eRbIkúñg
TMnak;TMngtkávTi üa.
Boundary layer
The thin layer of fluid formed around a solid
RsTab;r)aMg
body or surface relative to which the fluid is
flowing. Adhesion between the molecules of
RsTab;GgÁFaturavesIþgB½T§C¿uvíjGgÁFaturwgb¤B½T§Cv¿u íjépÞGgÁFaturwg EdlTak;
the fluid and that of the surface causes the TgeTAnwgGgÁFaturavkMBugpøas;TI. karCab;Kañ rvagm:UelKulGgÁFaturavnwgépÞ
molecules of the fluid closest to the surface to
be stationary relative to it. GgÁFaturwg eFIVeGaym:UelKulGgÁFaturavxitya:gCíteTAnwgépÞlMnwgeFobeTA
nwgva.
Bound state
A system in which two or more parts are bound
sNæancgsm<½n§
together in such a way that energy is required to
separate them. An example of a bound state is a
RbB½n§EdlmanEpñkBIrb¤eRcIncgsm<½n§cUlKña tMélya:gNatMrUvkareGayman
molecule formed from two or more atoms. By famBledÍm,IbMEbkva. ]TahrN_énsNæansm<½n§ KWm:UelKulEdlbegÍtá
convention, when the parts are completely
separated they possess zero mutual potential eLIgBIGatUmBIrb¤eRcIn. tamkarsnµt; eBlEpñkTaMgLayEbkecjBIKñaman
energy, thus a bound state must have negative
potential energy. b:Utg;EsülsUnü erog²xøÜn dUecñHsNæansm<½n§RtÚvmanfamBlb:tU g;EsülGví
C¢man.
Boyle’s law
The volume V of a gas at a constant temperature
c,ab;b‘y
is inversely proportional to its pressure p: pV =
constant
maD V rbs;]sµ½nenARtg;sMBaFefrRcassmamaRteTAnwg sMBaF p rbs;va³
pV  cMnYnefr.
Bragg’s law
c,ab;ERbk
When a beam of X-rays (wavelength ) strikes
a crystal lattice in which the layers of atoms or eBl)ac;kaMrsIµX(manC¿hanrlk))aj;cUlbnÞHRKIsþal; EdlkñúgenaH
ions are separated by a distance d, the
maximum intensity of the reflected ray occurs RsTab;GatUmb¤GIuyg:u xÞatecj)ancMgayd GaMgtg;sIuetGtibrmarbs;kaMBnWø
when sin = n/2d, where  (known as the caMg)aøtekItmaneBl sin  n/2d Edl¬mMuERbk¦ KWCamMubMeBjrbs;
Bragg angle) is the complement of the angle of
incidence and n is an integer. The law enables mMucaMgb:H ehIyn CacMnYn Kt;. c,ab;enHGackMnt;TrM g;RKIsþal;)anya:geRcIn.
the structure of many crystals to be determined.
Brass
A group of alloys consisting of copper and zinc.
Tg;Edg
A typical yellow brass might contain about 67%
copper and 33% zinc.
RkumsMelah³Edlmanlays<an;nigsgásI. RbePTTg;EdgelOgGacman
lays<an;RbEhl67%nigsgásI33%.
 22

Breakdown
The sudden passage of a current through an
xUc
insulator. The voltage at which this occurs is
the breakdown voltage.
crnþqøgkat;cUlGIusLU g; Edltg;süúgenAeBlenaHKWCatg;süúgxUc.
Breaking stress
See elasticity
karbMEbkkMlaMgsgát;
emIl elasticity
Breeder reactor
See nuclear reactor
erGak;T½rbegIátkUn
emIl erGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘
Bremsstrahlung (German: braking radiation).
The X-rays emitted when a charged particle,
Rbim®sþaLaMg
especially a fast electron, is rapidly slowed
down when a metal target is bombarded by
kaMrsIµXbeBa©jBIPaKlit¥ manbnÞúk CaBiesseGLicRtugelOn kaMrsIµenH
electrons. The collisions are inelastic with all bg¥g;el,ÓneBleGLicRtugbukpÞaMgelah³. kar Tgicá enHKWCaTgicá xÞat
the kinetic energy of the electrons converted
into X-radiation. edayfamBlsIeu nTicTaMgGs;rbs;eG LicRtugbMElgeTACakaMrsIµX.
Brewster’s law
States that the degree of polarisation of light
c,ab;Rb‘ÚsÞ½r
reflected from a transparent surface is a
maximum when the refracted ray is at right
c,ab;eBalfa dWeRkb:Ulkmµrbs;BnøWcaMgpøatBIépÞmCÄdæanføa mantMél
angles to the reflected ray. The Brewster angle Gtibrma kalNakaMBnøWbMEbrEkgeTAnwgkaMBnøWcaMg pøat. mMuRM bU‘s½rÛ B KWCa
B is given by: tanB  n, where n is the
refractive index of the material. mMu[eday³ tanB  n Edl n KWCa snÞsSn_bMEbrénmCÆdæan.
British thermal unit (Btu)
The heat energy required to raise the
xñatkMedAGg;eKøs (Btu)
temperature of 1lb of water through 1F. One
Btu is equivalent to 1055 joules.
famBlkMedAEdlpþl;[ edIm,I[sItuNPð aBTwkmYyepan ekIn)an 1F. !
Btu smmUleTAnwg !0$$ s‘Ul.
Bronze
Any of a group of alloys of copper and tin,
sMrwt
sometimes with lead and zinc added. RkumsMelah³Edlmanlays<an;nigsMN)a:haMg CYnkaleKlaysMN nig
sgásbI Ba©ÚlKña.
Brownian motion
The random motion of microscopic particles
clnaeR)an
when suspended in a fluid medium, caused by
the bombardment of the particles by the
clnaKµansNþab;Fñab;énpg;mIRkUsÚáBic eBldak;kúgñ mCÄdæan GgÁFaturav.
continually moving molecules of the fluid. m:UelKulGgÁFaturavpøas;TI\tQb;Qrb:Hnwgpg; TaMgLayeFIVeGayekIt
manclnaenH.
Brush
An electrical contact to a moving commutator
R)as;
on a motor or generator. karb:HtamGKIÁsnIeTAnwgkMmu uytaT½rpøas;TIkúñgm:UT½rb¤ma:sIunePIgø .
Bubble chamber
A device for observing the nature and
db)ab;b½l
movement of atomic particles, and their
interaction with radiations. It is a vessel filled
]bkrN_sMrab;segátemIlFmµCati nig clnarbs;pg;GatUm RBmTaMgsegát
with a superheated liquid through which emIlGnþrkmµCamYykaMrsI.µ dbenHdak;bMeBj edayGgÁFaturavmankMedAx<s;
ionnising particles move and collide. The paths
of these particles are shown by strings of EdlGaceGaypg;GuyI :ugpøas; nigTgiácKña. Knøgrbs;pg;TaMgenHbgðajeday
bubbles, which can be photographed and
studied. BBuHExS EdlGaceGayeKftnigykmksikSa)an.
Bulk modulus
The ratio of the pressure on a body to its
m:UDul)alk_
fractional decrease in volume. pleFobénsMBaFelIGgÁFatumYyeTAnwg tMhyPaKrbs;va enAkñúgmaD.
 23

Bunsen burner
A laboratory gas burner consisting of a vertical
bMBg;kMedA)an;sWn
metal tube into which the gas flows. A hole in
the side of the tube allows air to be sucked into
bMBg;keM dA]sµ½nkñúgTIBiesaFn_. bMBg;enHrYmmanbMBg;elah³ mYydak;bBaÆr
the flow of gas, since the pressure in the EdlenAkñúgenaH]sµn½ Gacpøas;TI)an. rn§enAxagbMBg;Gac[xül;RsUbcUl
flowing gas is less than atmospheric pressure,
and the air-gas mix is ignited. eTAkñgú bMBg;)an edaysarsMBaFkëúg]sµ½npøas;TItUcCagsMBaFGat;m:UEsV‘
enaHl,ayxül; nig]sµn½ k¾eqHeLIg.
Buoyancy
The upward thrust on a body immersed in a
GENþt ¬dMenal¦
fluid. This force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced.
kMlaMgRcaneLIgelI kalNaeKRCmuCvtßúeTAkñúgGgÁFaturav . kMlaMgGENþt
esIµnwgTMgn;rbs;GgÁFaturavEdl)anpøas;TI.
Bypass capacitor
A capacitor providing a low impedance path in
kugdg;saT½r)aypas
an electronic circuit. The value of the capacitor
can be chosen to provide a predetermined
kugdg;saT½rEdlpþl;KnøgGaMeb:dg;TabkñúgesoKIVeGLicRtÚnci . tMélkugdg;
frequency response. saT½r GaceRCÍserIsedÍm,IeGaydwgCamunnUveRbkg; RtÚvKña.
Byte
A subdivision of a word in a computer. It
ébt_
usually consists of 8 bits. A word may consist
of 32 or more bits processed as a single unit.
EpñktUc²énBakümYykñúgkMBüÙT½r. CaFmµtavaman(b‘tÍ . BakümYyGacman
"@ b‘tÍ b¤elIsBIenHdMeNIrkarCaÉktaEtmYy.
C
Caesium clock
An atomic clock that depends on different
naLikaressüÚm
energy states of the caesium atom to produce a
signal whose frequency is very precisely
naLikarGatU EdlGaRs½yelIsNaßnfamBlepSgKñarbs;GatUmessüÚm
defined. edIm,IbegátI sIBu aaØl;mYyEdlmaneRbkg;kMnt; ya:gCak;lak;bMptu .
Calculus
Calculus treats a continuously varying quantity
KNitviPaK b¤ KNitKNna
as if it consisted of an infinitely large number of
infinitesimal (vanishingly small, but never zero)
KNnabnþrhUtRKb;brimaNGefr RbsinebIvamancMnnY bMErbMrYltUc²CaeRcIn
changes. The essential function of differential rab;minGs;¬cMnnY tUcGacecal)an EtcMnYnenH minsUnüeT¦. tYnaTIsMxan;én
calculus is to determine the rate of change of
one quantity with respect to another, that is the karKNnaDIepr:g;Esül KWkMnt; bMErbMrYlbrimaNmYyeFobeTAnwgbrimaN
gradient of a function. This operation is called
differentiation. The maximum and minimum mYyeTot mann½yfaCaRkadüg;b¤CaedrIevénGnuKmn_mYy. RbmaNvíFIenH
values of a quantity can also be found by
differentiation. At a maximum or minimum
ehAfaDIepr:gE; sül. tMélGtibrma nigGb,brmaénbrimaNmYyGackMnt;
point of a function the derivative of the function edaykareFIeV drIev. Rtg;cMnucGtibrmab¤Gb,brmaénGnuKmn_ CacMnucEdl
is zero. Integral calculus is the inverse
operation. Its essential function is to find the manedrIevesIµsUnü. karKNnaGaMgetRkal KWCaRbmaNviFIRcasBIedrIev.
area under a curve. This operation is called
integration. For example, in order to find tYnaTIsxM an;rbs; vaKWkMNt;RklaépÞxageRkamExS ekag. RbmanvíFIenHehA
velocity v from a displacement-time, s-t, graph,
we differentiate the s-t function; in order to find
faGaMgetRkal. ]TahrN_ edIm,IkN M t;v BIRkabbMlas;TI-eBl¬Rkab s-t)
a change in displacement s from a v-t graph eyIgeFIVedrIevGnuKmn_ s-t edIm,IkMnt;bMErbM rYlbMlas;TIs BIRkab v-t
we integrate the v-t function. In this case the
t2 eyIgRtUveFIVGaMgetRkalGnuKmn_ v-t. kñúgkrNIenHGaMgetRkalKW
integral is written s   vdt . t2
t1 sresrCaTMrg; s   vdt .
t1
 24

Calorie
cgs unit of heat, now replaced by the joule (one
kaLÚrI
calorie is approximately 4.2 joules). It is the
heat required to raise the temperature of one
kaLÚrIKCW axñatkMedAkñúgRbB½n§C.G.S Etmkdl;\LÙveKC¿nYs edays‘lU
gram of water by 10C. In dietetics, the Calorie víj¬mYykaLÚrIRbEhlesI#µ >@s‘Ul¦. vaKWCakMedAcaM)ac;sMrab;stI uNðPaB
or kilocalorie is equal to 1,000 calorie.
TwkmYyRkamekIn)an1 C. kñúgkarsi kSaGMBIGahareKsnµt; !KILÚkaLÚrI 
0

!000kaLÚr.I
Calorimeter
A device to measure the thermal properties of a
kaLÚrIEm:Rt
material, such as specific heat, latent heat etc. ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;lkçN³kMedArbs;sarFatu dUcCakMedA ma:s; kMedAeltin
CaedÍm .l.
Camera
An optical instrument used to record an image
kaemra: (ma:snIu ft)
of an object. It consists of a light-proof box
with a convex lens at one end, an aperture, a
]bkrN_GubTiceRbIedIm,IftykrUbPaBrbs;vtß.ú vamanRbGb;RsUbBnøWEdl
shutter and film. To take a photograph, the manLg;TIe)a:gmYyenAcugmçag GaEBT½r snÞHBnøW nig hVIúl. edIm,IftrUb snÞH
shutter is briefly opened and the image of the
object is stored on the film. The intensity of BnøWRtUvebIk ehIyrUbPaBrbs;vtßú RtÚv)anpþti TukenAkñúghVIúl. ma:sIunft
light available, the film speed, and the aperture
of the lens determine the length of the exposure. RtÚvkarGaMgtg;suIetBnøW el,ÓnhVúIl ehIyGaEBT½rLg;TIkMnt;RbEvgKMehIj.
A simple camera has a fixed shutter speed and
aperture, chosen so that on a sunny day the
ma:sunI ftgaymanel,ÓnsnÞHBnWøngi GaEBT½rnwg élya:gNaeGay
correct amount of light is admitted. eBlmanBnWøéf¶manbri maNBnølW µmRKb;RKan;.
Canada balsam
A transparent resin used to cement different
)alsamkaNada
lens elements together in a compound lens. The
balsam has a refractive index similar to that of
C½rføamüa:geKeRbIsMrab;biTLg;TIepSgKña[eTACasmasFatuLg;TImYy.
the lenses. )alsammansnÞsSn_bMEbrRbhak;RbEhlnwg Lg;TIEdr.
Canal rays
Streams of positive ions produced in a gas
kaMrsµIkaNal;
discharge tube. (See cathode rays). srésGIy:ugviCm¢ an EdlekItenAkñúgbMBg;epÞr]sµ½n. emIl cathode rays
Candela (cd)
The S.I. unit for measuring luminous intensity.
kg;edla (cd)
xñat S.IsMrab;vas;GaMgtg;sIuetBnøW.
Capacitance
The property of a capacitor that describes its
ka)a:suIet
capacity to store charge. The capacitance C is
given by C = Q/V, where Q is the charge
lkçN³énkugdg;saT½rEdlbBaa¢k;BIsmßPaBpÞúkbnÞúk. ka)a: sIeu tC[eday ³
separation and V is the voltage difference across C = Q/V, EdlQCabnÞúkEdlpÞúk ehIy V Caplsgb:t U g;Esülqøgkat;
the capacitor.
kugdg;saT½r.
Capacitor
An arrangement of conductors separated by an
kugdg;saT½r
insulator (dielectric) used to store charge or to
bypass unwanted high frequency current in
kardak;GgÁFatuclM gXøatBIKñaedayGIusULg;¬DIeGLicRTic¦ eKeRbIvasMrab;
alternating circuits. Capacitors used as circuit pÞúkbnÞúk b¤ eRbIsMrab;eCosvagcrnþEdlmaneRb kg;x<sk; gñú esoKIVcrnþqøas;.
elements have two conducting plates separated
by the dielectric. The simplest form has two kugdg;saT½rRtÚv)aneKeRbICaFatuesoKIVEdlmanbnÞHGgÁFatucMlgBIr dak;
rectangular conducting plates (area A) separated
by a dielectric (thickness d, permittivity ). The
XøatBIKñaedayDIeG LicRTic. kugdg;saT½rsmBaØmanbnÞHelah³BIrragctu
capacitance of such a conductor is A/d. ekaNEkg¬manRklaépÞA¦XøatBIKañ edayDIeGLicRTic¬man kMras;d,
EBmITIveÍ t¦. ka)a:seIu trbs;kugdg;saT½renHKW ad
 25

Capacitor microphone
A microphone consisting of a capacitor with a
kugdg;saT½rmIRkÚpUn
steady voltage applied across its plates. One
plate is fixed, the other is moved by the
mIRkUpUnEdlmankugdg;saT½r ehIymantg;süúgCab;qøgkat; bnÞHrbs;va.
pressure of the sound waves. The movements of bnÞHTImYyenAnwg bnÞHTIBIrcl½tkalNamansM BaFénrlksMelg.
the plate cause a variation in the capacitance,
hence also a variation in the charge on the clnabnÞHeFVIeGayka)a:sueI tERb®bYl ehIynaMeGaybnÞúkelIbnÞHERb®bYl
plates, hence an alternating current is produced
which is converted to a time varying voltage eFIVeGaymancrnþqøas; EdlnaMeGayvabMElgeTACatg;süúgERb®bYl
which is then amplified. rYcehIyk¾ BRgIksIBu aØal;eGayFM.
Capillarity
(See surface tension)
kaBIElrIet
emIl surface tension
Capillary
A tube of small diameter, such as is used in a
bMBg;qµa
mercury thermometer. The narrowest type of
blood vessel is also called a capillary.
bMBg;EdlmanGgát;p©ítUc dUcCabMBg;EdleRbIkñúgETm:UEm:t)a: r:t. bMBg;srés
QamtUccegáótk¾ehAfabMBg;qµaEdr.
Capture
Any of various processes in which a system of
cab;yk
particles absorbs an extra particle. There are
several examples in atomic and nuclear physics.
d¿eNIrmüa:gEdlkñúgenaHRbB½n§pg;RsUbpg;bEnßmeTot. man]TahrN_
For instance, a positive ion may capture an CaeRcInkñúgrUbvíTüaGatUm nig rUbvéTüanuyekøEG‘. tY ya:gdUcCa GIyu :ugvíCm¢ an
electron to give a neutral atom or molecule
Gaccab;eGLicRtugedÍm,IkøayCaGa tUmNWt b¤ m:eU lKul.
Carat
A measure of the purity of gold. Pure gold is
kara:t
described as 24-carat gold. 14-carat gold
contains 14 parts in every 24 of gold, the
rgVas;sMrab;vas;massuT§. massuT§KWCamas@$kara:t. kñúgmas!$kara:t
remainder usually being copper. man mas@$kara:tcMnYn!$PaK ehIyPaKEdl enAsl;KWCas<an;.
Carbon cycle
A series of nuclear reactions in which four
siuckabUn
hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium
nucleus with the liberation of energy, two
RbtikmµnuyekøEG‘CabnþbnÛab; EdlkñúgenaHéNVy:UGatUmGIuRdÚEsnbYn
positrons, and two neutrinos. The process is pþc¿ú UlKñabegÍátCaéNVy:UeGlüÚmmYy edayrMedaHfam Bl/ b:UsIuRtugBIr nig
believed to be the source of energy in the core
of stars and to take place in six stages. In this NWRTINUBIr. eKeCÓfad¿eNIrkarenHCaRb PBfamBlkñúgsñÚlpáayTaMgLay
series carbon-12 acts as if it were a catalyst,
being reformed at the end of the series. See ehIyRbRBiteTAR)aMmyY d¿ Nak;kal. kñúgRbtikmµbnþenH ebIkabUn12man
stellar evolution. tYnaTICakata lIkr enaHenAxagcugRbtikmµvanwgbegItá CakabUnvíj.emIl
stellar evolution
Carbon dating
The method of determining the ages of
GayukabUn
biological specimens such as fossils. When a
plant is living it takes in a small fixed fraction
viFIkMNt;Gayurbs;FatumanCIvti TaMgLay dUcCapUsIulCa edÍm. eBlEdl
of C-14 with the C-12 as part of photosynthesis. rukçCatimYyenArs;vamansmasPaKpSMelIg edayC-14 edaymanC-12
When it dies the C-14 decays at a known rate,
and the ratio of C-14 to C-12 allows the age of CaEpñkmYyénpUtUsMeyaK. eBl vagab;eTAvij C-14 k¾rlYy edayeyIg
the specimen to be determined.
sÁal;ry³kalénkar rlYy nigsÁal;pleFob C-14 eTAelI C-12 naM[eyIg
Gac sÁal;Gayurbs;FatuEdleyIgcg;rk.
 26

Carnot cycle
The most efficient cycle of operations for a
siuckakNU
reversible heat engine. The cycle consists of
four operations on the working substance in the
siucEdlTTYl)anlT§pll¥bMputéndMeNIrkarfamBlkMedA rWEu vsIub ¬kMedA
engine. 1. Isothermal expansion at Rcas¦. sicu enHmanbYnd¿Nak;kald¿eNIrkarkñúgma:sIun. 1. karIkGIusEU Tm
thermodynamic temperature T1 with heat Q1
taken in. 2. Adiabatic expansion with a fall in Rtg;sItuNPð aBETm:DU INamicT edayRsUbkMedAQ . 2. karIkGadüa)a:Tic
1 1
temperature to T2. 3. Isothermal compression at
temperature T2 with heat given out. 4. Adiabatic edaysItuNPð aBfy cuHeTAT . 3. karrYmGIusUETmRtg;stI uNPð aBT eday
2 2

compression with a rise of temperature back to

T1.
beBa©j kMedAecjeRkA. 4. karrYmGadüa)a:TicedaybegIná sItuNPð aB Rtlb;
eTAT víj.
1

Carrier wave
An electromagnetic wave of specific frequency
rlkbB¢Ún
which enables information to be transmitted
and received. The information is superimposed
rlkeGLicRtUma:ejTicmaneRbkg;Cak;lak; EdlGacbBa¢nÙ nigTTYlBt’man
on the carrier by means of modulation, and read 'an. eKbBa¢nÙ Bt’mantamrlkFatuGakas tamry³karbþrÚ tan ehIyGñk
off the carrier by detector.
TTYlGanBt’manTaMgenaHeday edEfkF½r¬]bkrN_cab;sIuBaØal;¦.
Cartesian coordinates
A system used in analytical geometry which
kUG½redaenkaetsüag
allows the position of a point to be determined
with reference to two or three coordinates axis.
RbB½n§EdeKeRbIkñúgFrNIviPaK EdlGacdak;TItaMgéncMnucmYyedIm,IkMNt;
In a two-dimensional system the vertical axis is edayeRbItMruyG½kSkUG½redaenBI @ b¤ #. kñgú RbB½n§vmí aRtBIr G½kSQrKWCaG½kS
the y-axis and the horizontal axis is the x-axis.
The point at which the two axes intersect is y ehIyG½kSedkCaG½kS x. cMnc u G½kSTaMgBIrkat;KñaKWCacnucKl; b¤ cMncu 0.
called the origin, O. Any point P is located by
its perpendicular distance from the two axes. cMnucPNazít kñgú lMhenH vaRtÚvmancMgayEkgBIG½kSTaMgBIr. cMgayBIG½kS
The distance from the x-axis is called the x ehAfaGredaen cMgayBIG½kSyehAfaGab;ss Iu . TItaMgrbs;PbBa¢ak;Ca
ordinate; the distance from the y-axis the
abscissa. The position of P is indicated elx edaysresrtMélxnigykñúgvg;RkckCa lMdab;XøatBIKñaedayek,ós:
numerically by enclosing the x- and y- values in
parentheses, in that order, separated by a P(x, y).
comma: P(x, y).
Cassegrain telescope
(see telescope)
EkvyitkasieRKon
¬emIl telescope¦
Catastrophe theory
A branch of mathematics dealing with the
RTwsIþmhnþray
sudden emergence of discontinuities, in contrast
to *calculus, which is concerned with
saxarénKNitvíTüaEdlTak;TgnwgkarekIteLIgPøamnUvPaBdac;EdlpÞyú Kña
continuous quantities. nwgKNitvíPaKEdlTak;TgeTAnwgbrimaN Cab;²Kña.
Catenary
A curve formed when a heavy chain or rope is
katinNarI
suspended from two points. ExSekagEdlekIteLIgenAeBlEdlRcvak; b¤ ExSBYrF¶n;RtUv)aneKBüÜrBI
cMnucBIr.
Cathode
A negative electrode. In electrolysis cations are
katUd
attracted to the cathode. In vacuum electronic
devices electrons are emitted by the cathode
eGLic®tUdGviCm¢ an. kñúgeGLic®tUlIs kacugTajeTAxagkatUd.
and flow to the anode. However, in a primary kñúg]bkrN_eGLicRtÚnicsuBaØakas eGLic®tug beBa©jedaykatUd
cell, the cathode is the electrode that
spontaneously becomes negative during ehIypøas;TeI TAGaNUd. eTaHCaya:genHk¾eday kñúgfµBild¿bUg katUdKWCa
discharge, and from which therefore the
electrons emerge. eGLicRtÚdkøayeTACaGvíC¢ manedayxøÜnÉgkñgú eBlbenÞrbnÞúk dUcenHehIy
eFIVeGayekIt maneGLicRtug.
 27

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

An instrument used to measure electrical
GUsIuy:UsáÚbkaMrsIµkatUd (CRO)
potentials or voltages that vary over time and to
display the waveforms of electrical oscillations
]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;vas;b:Utg;EsülGKIÁsnI b¤ tg;süúgEdlERb RbÜltameBl
or signals. Readings are displayed graphically nigeRbIedÍm,IbgðajTMrg;rlkrbs;lMeyalGKIÁ snI b¤ sIuBaØal;GKIÁsnI.
on the screen of a cathode-ray tube.
eyIgGaceXIjRkabelIeGRkg;rbs; bMBg;kaMrsIµkatUd.
Cathode ray
Electrons emitted by a cathode. (see canal ray).
kaMrsµIkatUd
karbeBa©jeGLicRtugedaykatUd ¬emIl canal ray ¦.
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
The device that provides the viewing screen in
bMBg;kMarsIµkatUd (CRT)
a CRO, television set or radar system, it
consists of an evacuated glass tube containing a
]bkrN_EdlbegáItrUbPaBenAelIeGRkg; enAkñgú CRO dUcCa TUrTsSn_ b¤
heated cathode and an anode. A high positive RbB½n§ra:da vamanbMBg;EkvbeBa©jrUbmYyEdl manka tUd nig GaNUdkMedA.
voltage on the anode accelerates the electrons
which strike the enlarged end of the tube. The kalNamantg;süúgviCm¢ an x<s; enAelIGaNUdmanxÞateGLicRtugCaeRcIn
end of the tube is coated with a fluorescent
material, to form a screen, so that the point at mkenABaseBjépÞxagcugbMBg;. xagcugbMBg;KWCaRsTab;EdlmansarFatu
which the electrons hit the screen becomes
luminous.
TUbeNGugekItelIgelIeGRkg; dUecñHcMncu EdleGLicRtugb:HeGRkg;eTAman
BnøW.
Cation
A positively charged ion, i.e. one which is
kacug
attracted to a cathode. GIyu :ugEdlmanbnÞkú viC§man mann½yvart;eTArkkatUd.
CD-ROM
Compact disc read-only memory: a device that
sIuDIr:m
provides read-only access to a large amount of Compact Disc Read-Only-Memory : Ca]bkrN_srM ab; GanTinñn½yFM².
data. For use in computer systems.
eKeRbIvakñúgRbB½n§kMuBüÚT½r.
Celestial mechanics
The study of the motions of and the forces
emkanicesLiesÞól
between the celestial bodies. It is based upon
Newton’s laws of motion and Newton’s law of
karsikSaclnanigkMlaMgrvagGgÁFatuesLiesÞól. emkanic enHEp¥kelI
gravitation. c,ab;clnarbs;elakjÚtun nig c,ab;TMnajsakl rbs;Kat;.
Cell
A system in which two electrodes of different
fµBil
materials are immersed in an electrolyte.
Chemical reactions at the two electrodes leave a
RbB½n§mYyEdlmaneGLicRtUdBIrmansarFatuepSgKña RtUv)aneKdak;RtaMkúgñ
negative charge on one electrode and a positive eGLic®tUlIt. RbtikmµKmi IenAelIeGLicRtUd TaMgBIrnaM[manbnÞúkGviCm¢ an
charge on the other, thus generating an e,m,f,
able to drive a current around a circuit. enAelIeGLic®tUdmYy ehIy bnÞúkviC¢manenAelIeGLicRtUdmYyeTot dUecñH
naMeGayekItmankMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkrEdlGacbBaa¢Úncrnþrt;CMuvji esoKV.I
Celsius scale
Temperature scale having 100 divisions
kMrwtEslsIus
between the melting point of ice, fixed at 0C, kMrwtsItuNPð aBEdlman !00cMENkrvagcMncu rlayTwkkk ¬TwkkkenA
and the boiling point of water, fixed at 100C.
See Fahrenheit scale. 0C¦ nig cMnc u rMBuHTwk ¬TwkBuHenA 100C¦.
Centre of curvature
The centre of the sphere of which a lens surface
p©itkMeNag
or curved mirror forms a part. The centre of
curvature is the centre of the circle, and the
p¨itEsVr‘ bs;èpÛLg;TI b¤ kBa©ke; kag. p©itkMeNagKWCap©iténrgVg; ehIykMa
radius of curvature is the radius of the circle. kMeNagKWCakaMrgVg.;
 28

Centre of mass
The point at which the whole mass of a body
p©itma:s;
may be considered to be concentrated. In a
uniform gravitational field the centre of mass is
cMnucEdlma:s;TaMgmUlrbs;GgÁFatuhak;dUcCamkpþú¿KñaRtg;cMnucenaH. kñgú Edn
the same as the centre of gravity. TMnajÉksNæan pí©tma:s;dUck¾Kañ nwgpí©tTMnajEdr.
Centrifugal force
An outward, fictitious (non-existent) force,
kMlaMgcakp©it
which appears to act on a body moving in a
circle. When the moon orbits the earth only one
kMlaMgTMng¬RbDit¦CamanGMeBIelIGgÁFatupaø s;TImanKnøgvg; vamanTisedACa
force acts on the moon, which is the kaMecjBIp©ítrgVg;. eBlEdlRBHc½nvÞ ílC¿uvij EpndÍ manEtkMlaMgmYyb:ueNÑaH
gravitational force exerted on the moon by the
earth. This force is the *centripetal force manGMeBIelIRBHc½nÞ kMlaMg enaHKWklM aMgTMnajEdlEpndÍbeBa©jelIRBHc½nÞ.
keeping the moon in orbit. An observer
swinging a stone in a circle feels an outward kMlaMgenHKW CakMlaMgcakpí©tedÍm,IrkSaRBHc½nÛeGayenAkëgú G½rb‘Ít¬eGayvíl
force acting on him which can be wrongly
interpreted to be an outward centrifugal force
C¿uvjí Epndͦ. Gñkcgd¿fu µehIyeyalvaragCargVg; Gñknwg manGarmµNf_ aman
acting on the stone, but there is no such force. kMlaMgTajecjeRkAmanGMeBImkelIGñk EdlGacbkRsayxusfamankMlaMg
cakpí©tmanGMeBIelIdf¿u µ EttamkarBitKµankMlaMgdUcenaHeT.
Centrifuge
A device that rotates at high speeds, causing
ma:sIunEjk
substances inside it to be thrown outwards. One
use is for separating mixtures of substances of
]bkrN_Edlvíledayel,Ónx<s; eFIeV GaysarFatuenAxagkñúgRtÚvxÞatecj
different densities. eTAxag. eKGaceRbIvasMrab;EjksarFatu Edlmandg;suIetxusKña.
Centripetal force
The centre-seeking force required to keep a
kMlaMgcUlp©it
body moving in a circle. kMlaMgrkSap©itEdlpþl;eTA[GgÁFatu edIm,IrkSava[pøas;TI enAkñgú Knøgvg;.
Centripetal acceleration
The acceleration of a body moving in a circular
sMTuHcUlp©it
path that acts radially towards the centre of the sMTuHrbs;GgÁFatumYypøas;TIkúñgKnøgvg;EdlmanGMeBIeq<aH Rtg;eTAkan;p©it
circle. The acceleration is given by a  v2/r,
where v is the speed of the body and r is the rgVg.; sMTuHenH[edayrUbmnþ ³ a  v /r Edl v KWCael,Ónrbs;GgÁFatu
2

radius of the circle. Even though the speed of

the body may be constant, there is a change of ehIy r KWCakaMrgVg;. eTaHbIel,Ón rbs;GgÁFatuefrk¾edayk¾enAEtman
velocity, hence an acceleration, because the
direction of the velocity vector is changing.
bMErbMrYl vicu T½rel,Ón Edr ehIyedaysarTisedAviucT½rel,ÓnERb®bYl
dUcenHnaM[eyIg)ansMTuH.
Chain reaction
A fission reaction that is maintained because
Rbtikmµbnþak;
neutrons released by the spitting of some
atomic nuclei themselves go on to split others,
RbtikmµpÞúHbMEbkEdlrkSabMEbkrhUt edaysarNWRtugEdl ekItf͵bMEbk
releasing even more neutrons. Such a reaction éNVyG:U atUmedayxønÜ va rYcehIybnþbMEbkteTAeTot edaybeBa©jNWRtug
can be controlled (as in a nuclear reactor) by
using moderators to absorb excess neutrons. f͵kan;EteRcInelIg². RbtikmµenH GacRtÜtRta)an¬dUcCaenAkñúgerGak;T½r
Uncontrolled, a chain reaction produces a
nuclear explosion (as in an atom bomb). nuyekøEG‘¦edayeRbIm:U edra:T½redÍm,IRsUbykNWRtúgelIs. RbtikmµenHmin
GacRtÜtRta)an¬dUcCaenAkñúgRKab;EbkGatUm¦eBlEdlRbtikmµenAEt
bnþbegÍÝtkarpÛúHnuyekøEG‘.
Change of phase (state)
A change in the state of matter from one phase,
karpøas;bþÚrRTg;RTay
(solid, liquid or gas), into another. The change
is accompanied by the evolution or absorption
karpøas;bþÚrsNaænrUbFatuBIRTg;RTaymYy ¬GgÁ Faturwg/ GgÁ Faturav b¤
of energy, even though it takes place at a ]sµn½ ¦eTARTg;RTaymYyeTot. vapøas;bþÚreday vivtþn_ b¤ edaysMrUbfamBl
constant temperature. (See latent heat).
eTaHCaenARtg;stI uNðPaBefrk¾ eday (emIl latent heat)
 29

Channel
A specified frequency band in which
b:us×þ
information is transmitted. karbBa¢nÚ jBt’mantamrlkkMrtw eRbkg;Cak;lak;.
Charge
A property, called electrical, of some
bnÞúk
elementary particles that gives rise to an
interaction between them, either attractive or
CalkçN³GKÁIsnI vaKWCaPaKl¥itmYykñúgcMenaMPaKli¥tdMbUg EdleFIV[ekIt
repulsive. Charge occurs in nature in two forms, manGnþrkmµrvagKñaeTAvijeTAmk vaGacTaj KñacUl b¤ GacRcanKñaecj.
called positive and negative. The charge on an
electron is defined as negative, on a proton as kñúgFmµCatibnÞkú ekItmanBIrRb ePTKW bnÞúkviCm¢ an nig GviC¢man. bnÞúkelI
positive. It is found experimentally that like
charges repel and unlike charges attract. The eGLicRtugkMnt; faCabnÞúkGvíC¢man elIRbUtugCabnÞúkvíCm¢ an. tamkarBi
magnitude of the interaction is determined by
*Coulomb’s law.
esaFn_eKsegáteXIjfa bnÞkú mansBaaØdUcKñaRcanKñaecj ehIybnÞkú man
sBaaØxusKñaTajKñacUl. m:DU ulénGnþrkmµkMnt; edayc,ab;KULMú.
Charge carrier
The entity that transports electric charge in an
GñkdwknaMbnÞúk
electric current. The nature of the carrier
depends on the type of conductor: in metals, the
GgÁPaBEdlbBa¢nÚ bnÞúkGKIsÁ nIkgñú esoKIVGKIÁsnI. FmµCatiénGgÁFatudwknaM
charge carriers are electrons; in bnÞkú GaRs½yelIRbePTGgÁFatucMlg: ebIkñúgelah³ eGLicRtugCaGñkdwknaM
*semiconductors the carriers are electrons (n-
type), or positive holes (p-type); in gases the bnÞkú ebIkúñgsWmIkugDucT½rvíj eGLicRtug(RsTab;-n) b¤hUlvíCm¢ an(RsTab;-
p)CaGñkdwknaM cMENkÉkñúg]sµ½n GIy u :ugvíCm¢ an nig eGLicRtugCaGñkdwknaM
carriers are positive ions and electrons; in
electrolytes they are positive and negative ions.
ebIkúgñ eGLicRtÚltI GIuyg:u víC¢man nig GIyu :ugGvíC¢manCaGñkdwknaM.
Charge density
1. The electric charge per unit volume of a body
dg;sIuetbnÞúk
(volume charge density). 2. The electric charge 1. bnÞk ú GKIÁsnIkñúgmYyxñatmaDénGgÁFatumYy¬dg;sIuetbnÞúk maD¦. 2. bnÞkú
per unit surface area of a body (surface charge
density). GKIÁsnIkúñgmYyxñatépÞénGgÁFatu¬dg;sueI t bnÞúképÞ¦.
Charles’s law
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant
c,ab;sal
pressure expands by a constant fraction of its
volume for each Celsius degree its temperature
maDma:s:efrén]sµ½nenAsItuNPð aBefrrIk)anRbPaKefr ral;keM nInsItuNPð aB
is raised. For an ideal gas this fraction is 1/273. GgSaEslsIsu nimYy². cMeBaH]sµ½nTUeTA RbPaKenHesIµ1/273. RbPaKenH
This can be expressed by the equation V = V0(1
+ T/273), where V0 is the volume at 0oC and V GacsMEdgedaysmIkar V  V (1  T/273) Edlkñgú enHV CamaDenA 0 C
0 0
0

is its volume at ToC. We can express this in the

following way: at constant pressure, the volume ehIyVCa maDenA T C. eyIgGacniyayfa: enAsMBaFefr maDrbs;
0

of gas is proportional to its absolute

temperature :V = kT, where k is a constant .
]sµn½ smamaRteTAnwgsItuNPð aBdac;xatrbs;va V  kT Edl kCacMnYnefr.
Choke (inductor)
A coil of high inductance and low resistance,
qUk¬GaMgDucT½r¦
used to block the passage of alternating current. bUbn‘Í EdlmanGaMgDuctg;xøaMg ehIymanersIusþg;tUc. eKeRbIvasMrab;Tb;sáat;
crnþqøas;.
Chromatic aberration
An optical aberration in a lens, (not a curved
bEgVrBN’
mirror), causing colored fringes around an
image as a result of light of different colors
PaBxusRtRktIénGubTickñúgLg;TI ¬minEmnkñúgkBa©ke; kag¦eFIV[manRbg;
being refracted by different amounts. The BN’CuvM ji rUbPaB EdlekItmkBIBnøWBN’epSgKëa caMgEbredaycMnYnbMEbr
difference in refraction results from the
difference of the wave speed for different xusKña. PaBxusKñakñgú cMNaMgEbrekItmkBIPaBxusKñaénel,Ónrlk Edl
wavelengths in the medium.
manC¿hanrlkxus² KñakñúgmCÄdæan.
 30

Chromium steel
Any of a group of stainless steels containing 8-
EdkEfbRkÚmJ:Úm
25% of chromium. Chromium steels are highly
resistant to corrosion and are used for cutlery,
RkumGMbUEdkEfmEdlminGaceRcHcab; Edlkñgú enaHmanlayRkUmÚ:mJ 8-25%.
ball bearings etc. EdkEfmRkUm:mJÚ CaEdkEdlTb;kareRcHcab; )anya:gx<s; ehIyeKeRbIvasMrab;
eFIVkaMbiTvHkat;/ eFIVRKab;XIø ¬RKab;mUlenAkñúgeRKOgemkanic¦CaedÍm.
Circle
A closed curve, every point on which is at a
rgVg;
fixed distance, (the radius), from the centre of
the circle. The diameter is a line that joins two
ExSekagbit RKb;cMnucEdlzitenAelIrgVg;mancMgayefrBI BIp©it¬kaM¦.
points on the circumference and passes through Ggát;p©ítKWCabnÞat;EdlP¢ab;BIrcMncu enAelIbri maRtehIykat;tampí©t.
the centre. The diameter is twice the length of
the radius. The circumference of the circle is Ggát;p©ítmanRbEvgesIµBIrdgkaM. brimaRtrgVg;esIµ2r RklaépÞ2r 2

equal to 2r; the area is 2r2, where  is a

constant with the value 3.141592. In analytic
EdlCacMnYnefrmantM él#>!$!%(@. kñgú FrNImaRtvíPaK smIkar
geometry the equation of the circle is given by rgVg;KWeGay eday x  y  r b¤ y   r  x . cMeBaHrgVg;Edl
2 2 2 2 2

x2 + y2 = r2, or y   r 2  x 2 . For a circle

with the centre at a point (h, k), the equation is
manpí©tRtg;cMnuc (h, k) smIkarKW (x – h)  (y – k)  r .
2 2 2

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.

Circular measure (the radian)
A method of measuring angles by treating them
rgVas;rgVg; (ra:düg;)
as the angle formed by a sector of a circle at the
circle’s centre. The unit of circular measure is
víFIvas;mMuRtUvcat;TukvaCamMubegIáteLIgedaycMerokrgVg;Rtg;pí©trgVg;. xñat
the radian, defined as the angle subtended at the rbs;rgVg;KitCara:düg;. ra:düg;KCW amMuRtg;p©ítrgVg; edaymanRbEvgGgát;FñeÚ sIµ
centre of a circle by an arc equal to the radius.
Since an arc of length r subtends an angle of 1 RbEvgkaM. edaysarFñRÚ bEvgr nig kaMRbEvgrbegIát)anmMu!ra:düg;
radian, the whole circumference, of length 2r, enaHbrimaRtrgVg;TaMgmUlEdl manRbEvg 2r RtÚvmanmMu 2r/r 
will subtend an angle of 2 r/r = 2 radians.
2ra:düg;. eday2 rad  360 dUcenH ! r:adüg; = 360/2.
Thus, 360 = 2 radians; 1 radian = 57.3o.
Classical physics
Theoretical physics up to approximately the end
rUbviTüakøasiuc
of the 19th.century, before the advent of
quantum physics and relativity; mostly
rUvTi üaRTwsIrþ hUtmkdl;cugstvtSTI!( muneBlmanQanmkdl;rUbviTüa
concerned with Newton’s mechanics and kgTic nig rUbviTüarWLaTIv rUbvíTüaCaeRcInTak;Tg nwgRTwsIþemkanicjÚtun nig
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. It may still
be applied with high precision to large-scale RTwsIþeGLicRtÚma:ejTicrbs;elak ma:kE; vl. rUbvíTüaenHenAEtGnuvtþCamYy
phenomena involving no very rapid relative
motion. The end of classical physics arrived )atuPUtTMhMFM² Edl Ca)atuPUTTak;TgeTAnwgclnaeFobmanel,ÓnyWt.
with Roentgen’s discovery of X-rays emitted
from the nucleus of atoms and Planck’s
TIbBa©b;énrUbvíTüakøasiuc)anmkdl;CamYynwgkarrkeXIjkaMrsIµXEdl
discovery of the discontinuous nature of beBa©jBIéNVy:UGatUmrbs;elakRoentgen nig karrkeXIj FmµCatidac;²én
radiation from a black body.
kaMrsIµecjBIGgÁFatuexµArbs;elak Planck.
Cloud chamber
A device for making visible the paths of
køavd¾qmb½r
ionising particles visible. The Wilson cloud
chamber consists of a container containing air
]bkrN_sMrab;emIlKnøgpg;GIuy:ug. køavd¾qmb½rv¾ IlsunbegÍtá eLIgedayepÍg
and ethanol vapour, which is cooled suddenly BIrmandak;xül;nigcMhayeGTINul EdlRt Cak;PøamedaykarrIkGadüa
by adiabatic expansion, causing the vapour to
be supersaturated. The excess moisture is )aTic eFIVeGaycMhayCasMeNImeCakCaM. sMeNImelIs)anFøak;elIGyIu :ug
deposited on the ions created by the ionising
radiation. The resulting tracks can be EdlbegItá eLIgBIkaM rsIµGIuyg:u eFIVeGayeKGacftrUbKnøgva)an.
photographed.
 31

Coal
A brown or black carbonaceous deposit derived
FüÚg
from the accumulation and alteration of ancient
vegetation. As the vegetation decomposed it
RsTab;Er:kabUnBN’etëatb¤BN’exµA'anmkBIkarRbmUlp¿þú nigkarERbkøayén
formed layers of peat. Under high pressure and rukçCatism½yburaN. eBlrukçCatirlYyvaekIt )anCaRsTab;CÍkMbs:u . eRkam
heat generated by the decomposition the peat
was transformed into coal. Coal is used as a sMBaFx<s; nig kMedA EdlekIt eLIgedaykarrlYyCÍkMb:su enaHkøayeTACa
fuel and in the chemical industry.
FüÚg. FüÚgRtÚv )aneKeRbICa\nÞn³ nig eRbIkúñg]sSahkmµKImI.
Coaxial cable
A cable consisting of a central conductor
ExSkabxUkesol
surrounded by an insulator, which is, in turn,
enclosed in and an earthed sheath of another
ExSkabEdlmanG½kSrYmKña B½T§C¿uvijeTAedayGIsu LU g; nig eRsabedaydI.
conductor. The central conductor and the outer GgÁFatucMlgenAkNþalnigGgÁFatuclM g xageRkAmanG½kSrYmKña. ExSkab
conductor are coaxial, (i.e. have the same axis).
Coaxial cables are used to transmit high xUkesolRtÚv)aneKeRbIedÍm,I bBa¢ÚnsIBu aØal;EdlmaneRbkg;x<s; edaysarva
frequency signals, as they produce no external
fields and are not influenced by them. minbegÍátEdn xageRkA ehIyvaKµan\Ti§BlelIKña.
Coefficient
1. A number by which a variable quantity is
emKuN
measured, e.g. in ax2 + bx + c = 0, a is the !> cMnYnmYyEdlkMNt;brimaNGefr ]TahrN_kúñgsmIkar ax  bx  c 
2

coefficient of x2 and b is the coefficient of x. 2.

A measure of a substance under specified 0 man a CaemKuNrbs; x ehIy b Caem KuNrbs; x. @> karkMNt;
2

conditions, e.g. coefficient of friction. sarFatueRkamlkçx½NCÐ ak;lak; ]TahrN_dUcCaemKuNkkitCaedÍm.

Coefficient of expansion (linear)
The fractional increase in the length of a
emKuNrIkbeNþay ¬lIenEG‘¦
specimen per unit rise in temperature. l/l)  kMenInPaKkñúgrgVas;RbEvgénsarFatukgñú mYyxñatkMenInsItuNð PaB  
 or, if the length of the specimen increases
from l1to l2 with a temperature increase of : l/l)   b¤ebIRbEvgénsarFatuekInBI l eTA l edaysItuNP
1 2 ð aBekIn)an
: l l (1+).
l2=l1(1+).
2 1

Coefficient of friction ()

The measure of the frictional force F resisting
emKuNkkit ()
the sliding motion of a body. It is defined as the
ratio of the frictional force to the normal force
rgVas;énkMlaMgkkit F EdlTb;clnarGilénGgÁFatumYy. vaCapleFob
acting on the body, often equal to the weight of énkMlaMgkkiteTAnwgkMlaMgEkgEdlmanGMeBI elIGgÁFatu(TMgn;GgÁFatu ).
the body. In this case   F / (mg).
kñúgkrNIenH  = F / (mg).
Coelostat
A device that enables light from the sun to be
kUeGLÚsþat
continuously reflected into the field of view of
an astronomical telescope or other instrument.
]bkrN_EdlGaceGayBnWøBIRBHGaTitücaMgpøatCab;eTAkñúg EdnKMehIyrbs;
It consists of a plane mirror driven so that it EkvywttaravíTüa b¤ eTAkñúg]bkrN_epSgeTot. ]bkrN_enHpS¿eLIgBI
rotates from east to west to compensate for the
rotation of the earth. kBa©kb; øg; EdGacvílBIekIteTA licedÍm,ITTU at;ceM BaHrgVilrbs;EpndÍ.
Coherent radiation
Two sources are said to be coherent if there is
kaMrsµIkUeGr:g;
constant (or zero) phase difference between
them.
RbPBBIrehAfaCaRbPBkUeGr:g; ebIvamanplsgpasrvagKñamantMélefr
¬rWsUnü¦.
Collector
see transistor.
kUlikT½r
emIl transistor
 32

Collimator
An optical device for producing a beam of
kUlIma:T½r
parallel radiation, usually light. This often
consists of a convex lens with the source of
]bkrN_]bTicsMrab;begátI )ac;BnøWRsb. CaFmµta]bkrN_ enHmanLg;TI
light at its focal point. e)a:gCamYyRbPBBnøWenARtg;cMnuckMnrMu bs;va.
Colour
The sensation produced when light of different
BN’
wavelengths falls on the eye. Although the
visible spectrum covers a continuously varying
kardwgekIteLIgenAeBlEdlBnWømanC¿hanrlkxusKñamkb:HnwgEPñk. eTaH
range of colours from red to violet, it is usually Cas,úicKMehIjERbRbÚlCab;BIBN’RkhmeTA BN’saV yk¾eday k¾CaFmµtava
split into six colours: Red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet. The wavelengths in the bMEbkeTACaR'aMmYyBN’KW Rk hm/ TwkRkÙc/ elOg/ èbtg/ exov nig
visible spectrum range from 740 nm at the red
end to 390 nm at the violet end. Light with BN’saV y. C¿han rlkkëgú s,úicKMehIjrt;BI750 nmRtg;cugBN’Rkhm
wavelengths greater than 740 nm is called
infrared, and light with wavelengths less than
eTA390nm Rtg;cugBN’exov.BnWøEdlmanC¿hanrlkFMCag740nmehAfa
390 nm is called ultraviolet. A mixture of all GaMgRhVaRkhm ehIyBnWøEdlmanC¿hanrlktUcCag390 nm ehAfa
these colours produces white light. The three
most common primary colours are red, blue and G‘ulRtasVay. l,ayBN’TaMgGs;enHbegIÝt'anCaBnWø BN’s. BN’emsMxan;
green. These three colours can be mixed to
produce every other colour, as is done in a bMputmanbIKW Rkhm/ exovnigèbtg. BN’TaMgbIenHGaclaycUlKëabegIÝt
colour television. For example, blue mixed with
green gives yellow.
'anCaBN’epSg²dUcEdl 'aneFIkV ëúgTUrTsSn_BN’. ]TahrN_ BN’exov
layCamYyébtgbegIÝt'anCaBN’elOg.
Colour temperature
The temperature of a non-black body at which
sItuNðPaBBN’
the energy distribution of the body
approximates that of the theoretical energy
sItuNPð aBénGgÁFatuminexµA Edlr)ayfamBlénGgÁFatu RbEhlnwgr)ay
distribution of a black body at the same famBltamRTwsrþI bs;GgÁFatuexµA enARtg;cMncu EdlmansItuNðPaB
temperature.
dUcKñaenaH.
Coma
An aberration of a lens or mirror in which the
kUma:
image of a point at the edge of the field of view
has the appearance of a comet.
bEgVrLg;TI b¤ kBa©k; élya:gNa[rUbPaBéncMnucmYyzitenARtg;EKmén
EdnKMehIjmanTMngdUcpáayduHknÞúy.
Combinations
See permutations and combinations
bnSM
emIl permutations and combinations
Combustion
A chemical reaction in which a substance reacts
kMubusüúg (cMehH)
rapidly with oxygen with the production of heat
and light. Such reactions are often free-radical
RbtikmµKWmIEdlkñúgenaHsarFatumanRbtikmµya:grh½sCamYy GuksIuEsn
chain reactions. edaybegIátkMedA nig BnWø. RbtikmµenHKWRbtikmµ bNþak;ra:DIkal;esrI.
Comet
A small body that travels around the sun in a
páayduHknÞúy
highly eccentric elliptical orbit. Some comets
have very long periods, some exceeding 100
GgÁFatutUcmYyEdlcrC¿uvíjRBHGaTitükñúgKnøgrgVílC¿uEdlman
000 years. Gicu sg;RTIseIu teGlIbya:gx<s;. páayduHknÞúyxøHmanxYb ya:gEvg/
xøHmanxYbbnþrhUtdl;!00 000qñaM.
 33

Common-collector connection
A technique used in the operation of some
kartP¢ab;kUlikT½rrYm
*transistors, in which the *collector is common
to both the input and output circuits, the input
víFIEdleKeRbIkñúgRbtibtiþkarN_énRtg;sIusrþ mYycMnnY EdlkñúgenaHkUlki T½r
terminal is the *base, and the output terminal is P¢ab;rmY KñaCamYyesoKIVGIunPutnigesoKIVeGAPutb:UlGIunPutKWCaRbPBedÍm
the *collector.
ehIyb:UleGAPutCakUlikT½r.
Common logarithm
See logarithm
LÚkarItTUeTA
emIl logarithm
Commutative law
The mathematical law that states that the value
lkçN³Rtlb;
of an expression is independent of the order of
combination of the symbols of numbers. For
c,ab;KNitviTüaEdleBalfa tMélrbs;kenSammYyminGaRs½yeTAtamlM
example: x  y  y  x and xy  yx, so addition dab;énbNþcúM MnYnsBaaØeT. ]TahrN_ ³ x  y  y  x ehIyxy  yx dUc
and multiplication are commutative. However x
– y  y – x, and x/y  y/x, thus subtraction and enHplbUknigplKuNman lkçN³Rtlb;. eTaHCaya:genHk¾eday x – y 
division are not commutative. Compare
y – x,ehIy x/y  y/x dUecñHpldk nig plEckKµanlkçN³Rtlb;eT.
associative law, distributive law.
Commutator
The part of an electric motor or generator
kuMmuytaT½r ¬karbBa¢Ün¦
through which connections are made from the
motor or generator to external circuits.
Epñkénm:TU ½rGKÁIsnI b¤ Cnita tamry³kartP¢ab;BImT:U ½r b¤ CnitaeTAesoKVI
eRkA.
Compact disc (CD)
A 120 mm diameter metal disc on which there
sIuDI
is a digital recording of information, providing
high-quality reproduction of music, speech etc.
faselah³EdlmanGgát;p©ít120mm EdleKGacftcMlg Bt’manDICfÍ l
The recording is protected by a thin sheet of edÍm,IrkSaePøgb¤sunrÞ kfa)aneRcIn. karftRtÚv)anrkSaedaybnÞHpøasÞic
plastic. The information is encoded in the form
of a spiral track of minute pits (indentations) esIþg. Bt’manTaMgLayB½T§C¿uvij CaTMrg;sëamragCaes<ìènExSbnÛat;naTIsgÝt;
impressed on the surface of the disc. These
indentations correspond to a changing sequence Cab;eTAelIèpÛfas ExSbnÛat;TaMgenHRtÙvKëanwgkarpøas;bþrÙ CabnþbnÛab;ènb‘Ít.
of *‘bits’. As the disc rotates, information is
retrieved from the disc by means of a low-
eBlfasvél Bt’manrt;ecjBIfastamry³kaMrsIµLaEh‘SmanGnuPaBexSay
powered laser focused on the track and )aj;eTAelIsañ m ehIykUdTiVFasgát;eTAelI sëamenaHeFIVeGayBt’manRtÙv
modulated by the binary code impressed on the
track. It is also possible to ‘burn’ data onto pøas;bþÚr. eKk¾GacsresrTinñ n½yenAelIsDIu I)anEdr dUecñHTinnñ ½yFM²Gac
CDs, thus enormous amounts of data can be
stored on CDs. This is now the most favoured pÞúkelIsDIu I)an. ví FIenHeKcUlcitþbMputkñúgkarpÞúkTinñn½ynaeBlbc©úb,nñ.
method of storing data.

Compass
A small magnet pivoted at its central point so as
RtIvis½y
to rotate in a horizontal plane. In the earth’s
magnetic field the magnet (called a compass
emEdktUcmYyRtÚv)aneKdak;kl;Rtg;p©ítrbs;va edÍm,IeGayvavíltambøg;
needle) aligns itself with the earth’s magnetic edk. kñgú Ednma:ejTicEpndÍemEdk¬ehAfam¢úlRtIvisy½ ¦rt;tMrg;edayxønÜ va
field so that its north-seeking pole points
approximately to the geographical north. tamEdnma:ejTicEpndI edaycg¥úlrkb:lU xageCIgEdlCaTiseCIgPUmisaRsþ.
However, the earth’s magnetic field drifts
considerably in direction over a period of time, eTaHCaya:g enHk¾eday Ednma:ejTicrbs;EpndÍrsat;tamTisedAelIGMLúg
so the magnetic compass is not wholly reliable.
Also, magnetic compasses suffer from being
eBlmYy dUecñHm¢úlemEdkminKYreGayeCO)anTaMgRsugenaHeT. m¢úlemEdk
affected by magnetic materials in their vicinity, k¾TTYlrgGMeBIBIsarFatuma:ejTickñgú tM bn;Ek,r²vaEdr ]TahrN_dUcCaenA
for example, on a ship, and to a large extent
they have been replaced by gyrocompasses. elInavaCaedÍm. edÍm,I eGay)anCak;lak;kñúgkarkMnt;PUmisaRsþ eKC¿unsY va
edayhIrÁ x:U ampas.
 34

Complementarity
The concept that a single model may not be
sV½ys½tbMeBjbEnßm
adequate to explain all the observations made of
atomic or subatomic systems. For example,
eKsnµt;fa KMrUmyY GacminlµmRKb;RKan;edÍm,IBnül;karsegátTaMgGs;Edl
electron diffraction, which is easily ekIteLIgedayRbB½n§GatUmb¤RbB½n§GatUmrgeT. ]TahrN_dUcCaDIR)ak;süúg
demonstrated, can only be explained by
assuming that the electron has wave-like eGLicRtug EdlGacbkRsay ya:ggayedayRKan;Etsnµt;fa eGLicRtug
properties, whereas the photoelectric effect can
only be explained by the particle-like behaviour manlkçN³Carlk cMENkÉplpUtUGKIsÁ nIvíjRKan;EtGacBnül;faeGLic
of electrons. The idea of two different, but
complementary concepts to treat quantum
RtugmanlkçN³Capg;. KMnitTaMgBIrenHxusKña b:uEnþCa karsnµt;bEnßmedÍm,I
phenomena was proposed by Niels Bohr. b®gÁb;esckI)þ atuPUtkgTic EdlCasMenIrrbs;enolb½r.
Complex conjugate
Symbol Z*, The quantity given by Z* = x – iy
kMupíøcqøas; (nimitþsBaØ Z ) *

when the complex number Z is given by Z = x brimaNeGayeday Z  x – iy EdlcMnYnkMupøcí Z eGay eday Z  x  iy

*

+ iy. The polar form of Z* is given by rcos–

irsin. In the Argand diagram, the complex
. TMrg;b:EU lrbs; Z KWeGayeday rcos – irsin. kñúgdüaRkamGahág;
*

conjugate of a complex number is a reflection

of the complex number about the real axis. The
kMupíøcqøas;qøúHcMnnY kMupcíø eFobG½kS Bit plbUknigplKuNénZnig Z epÞógpÞat;
*

sum and product of Z and Z* satisfy Z + Z* = Z  Z  2x ehIy ZZ  x  y CacMnn

* * 2 2
Y Bit.
2x, and ZZ* = x2 + y2, a real number.
Complex number
A number which has a real part x and an
cMnYnkMupøic
imaginary part iy, where i =  1 , and x and y cMnYnmYyEdlmanEpñkBitx nig Epknimµit iy Edl i   1 ehIy x nig y
are real numbers. The complex number has the
rectangular form: z  x  iy.
CacMnYnBit. cMnYnkMpu cøi manTMrg;ctuekaNEkg : z  x + iy . cMnnY kMupiøcGac
A complex number can be represented on an
Argand diagram in which the horizontal axis
tagelIdüaRkamGahág;k)¾ anEdr Edlkñgú enaHG½kSedktag[EpñkBit ehIy
represents the real part and the vertical axis the G½kS Qrtag[ EpñknimµiténcMnYnBit. TMrg;b:UEléncMnYnkMupcøi Gacsresr :
imaginary part of the real number. The polar
form of the complex number can be written: rcos  isin, Edl r KWCaGaKuym:g; b¤ m:UDuléncMnYnkMupøic ehIy : r =

x  y , nig mMb u ¤paseGay  tan (y/x). m:DU ulKWCabnÞat;P¢ab;

rcos + irsin, where r is the argument or 2 2 -1
amplitude of the number, given by: r =
x 2  y 2 , and the angle, or phase by  = tan- cMnuceTAKl;0 ehIyGaKuym:g;KCW amMu rvagbnÞat;nigG½kSx.
1
(y/x). The modulus is the line joining the point
to the origin and the argument is the angle
between the line and the x-axis.
Component vectors
Two or more vectors whose combined effect
kMb:Usg;viucT½r ¬viucT½rcMenalEkg¦
equals that of a given vector. In 2 dimensions
the x and y-components of a vector V are: Vx =
vicu T½rBIrb¤vuci T½reRcInEdlpÁÜbbBa¢lÚ KñaesIµnigviucT½rmYy. kñúgvi maRtBIr
Vcos and kMbU:sg;x nig yrbs;viucT½r V KW ³ V  Vcos nig V  Vsin.
x y
Vy = Vsin.
Compound
A substance in which the molecules are made
smasFatu
up of two or more different kinds of atoms, for
example sodium chloride NaCl. Note that a
sarFatumYyEdlkñgú enaHm:UelKulTaMgLaypÁúMKñabegátI )anCa RbePTGatUm
mixture of two elements is not the same as a BIrepSgKña b¤ eRcInRbePTepSgKña ]TahrN_ sUdüÚmkøra:t NaCl. sUmkt;
compound.
sMKal;fa l,ayFatuBIrmindUcKña nwgsmasFatueT.
 35

Compound microscope
An optical instrument used to produce an
smasFatumIRkÚTsSn_
enlarged image of a nearby object. It consists of
2 convex lenses, one of which, the objective,
briFanGubTicmYy RtÚv)aneKeRbIedIm,IbegáItrUbPaB[)anFMénvtßeú nAEk,r.
forms a real, inverted greatly enlarged image of vapS¿elIgedayLg;TIe)a:gBIr Lg;TImYy begItá rUbPaBBity:agFM Edl)anmk
the object, which is then observed through the
second lens, the eyepiece, which produces an BIvtßú ehIyeRkaymk emIltamry³Lg;TITIBIr eXIjrUbPaBrIkkan;Et
enlarged virtual image.
FMCagmun.
Compression
A region of a longitudinal wave in which
bENÑn
particles of the medium are closer together than
their normal spacing. (See expansion, or
tMbn;énrlkbeNaþy EdlenAkñúgenaHPaKl¥itTaMgLayénmCÆdæanxiteTA
rarefaction). Citekok²KñaCagcenøaHFmµtarbs;va. ¬emIl expansion b¤ rarefaction ¦.
Compression ratio
The ratio of the total volume enclosed in the
pleFobkMueRbsüúg (pleFobbENÑn)
cylinder of an internal combustion engine at the
beginning of the compression stroke to the
plEckénmaDsrubenAkñúgsIuLaMgbitCíténcMehHkñúgma:snIu Rtg;xagedIm
volume enclosed at the end of the compression bENÑneTAnwgmaDbitCítenAxagcugénbENÑn. cMeBaHma:suIneRbIsaMgpl
stroke. For petrol engines the ratio is 8.5-9:1.
For diesel engines it is in the range 12-25:1. eFobenHKW 8.5 – 9:1. cMeBaHma:sIuneRbIma:st‘U pleFobenHcenøaH12-25:1.
Compton effect
An increase in the wavelength of X-rays
plkMtun
scattered from free electrons, due the reduced
momentum of the scattered X-ray photons.
kMenInC¿hanrlkkaMrsIµXecjBIeGLicRtugesrI eFIVeGayfybrimaN
(Some momentum is transferred to the clnaénpUtugkaMrsIµX. brimaNclnaxøHbMElgeTA CaeGLicRtug. C¿han
electron). The wavelength of the X-rays is
inversely proportional to the momentum of the rlkrbs;kaMrsIµXRcassmamaRteTA nwgbrimaNclnaénpUtugkaMrsIµX dUecñH
X-ray photons, so a reduction in momentum
gives an increase in wavelength. This effect is a brimaNclnafycuH naMeGayekInC¿hanrlk. plenHbBa¢ak;ya:g c,as;fa
clear confirmation that in certain contexts
electromagnetic radiation is particle-like not
kaMrsIµ eGLicRtÚma:ejTicmanlkçN³Capg; minEmnmanlkçN³CarlkeT.
wave-like.
Computer
An electronic device that processes information
kMuBüÚT½r (KNitma:sIun)
according to a set of instructions, called the
program. The three components of a digital
]bkrN_eGLicRtUnci EdlbegáItRbtibtþikarN_Bt’manGaRs½ytamkarbegáIt
computer are the peripheral input/output kmµviFI. kuMBüÚT½rDICIflpSMeLIgeday smasFatubIKW ]bkrN_
devices, the memory and the central processing
unit (CPU), which controls the whole system. GIunPut/eGAPut/ mimm:rU I nig mCÆm NÐlRbtibtþikarN_Bt’man(CPU)
The input devices may be the keyboard,
magnetic floppy discs or CDs. The output EdlRtÜtBinitüRbB½n§TaMg mUl. ]bkrN_GIunPutGacCaXIb‘t/ høbPIDIsþ b¤
devices may be the monitor or printer. In a
digital computer, the input is in the form of
sIuDIrm: . ]bkrN_eGAPutGacCam:UnTI ½r b¤ RBInF½r. kñúgkMBüÚT½rDICÍfl
characters represented within the machine in ]bkrN_GIuPutmanTMrg;lkçN³dUckñúgma:suInsBaØaNTiVFa. CPU manesoKVI
binary notation. The CPU contains circuits for
manipulating the information. The CPU also sMrab;RbtibtiþkarN_Bt’man. CPUk¾man EpñknBVn§ nig tkávíTüapgEdr
contains the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which
performs operations, and a control unit. EdlGaceGayeKeFIVRbmaNvé FI nig RKb;RKgBt’man.
Concave
Curving inwards. A concave mirror is one in
pt
which the reflecting surface is formed from the
inner surface of a sphere. The concave mirror
ekagcUlkñúg. kBa©kp; tKWCakBa©k;mYyEdlépÞcaMgpøatekItmkBIépÞxagkñúg
causes parallel rays to converge to a focus. rbs;EsV‘. kBa¢kp; teFIV[kaMBnøWRsbrYmcUlKña Rtg;cMnuckMn.Mu
Condensation
The change of a vapour or a gas into a liquid,
kMnrejIs
accompanied by the evolution of heat. (See
latent heat).
karbMElgcMhay b¤ ]sµ½nTACaGgÁFaturav edaysarkMedA. ¬emIl latent
heat ¦
 36

Condenser
1. A set of lenses or mirrors used to concentrate
kugdg;Es‘
light diverging from a compact source. 2. A
device used to cool a vapour to cause it to
!> sMnMuLg;TI b¤ kBa¢k; EdleKeRbIsMrab;eFIV [BnøWrmY cUlKña EdlBnøWenH)an
condense to a liquid. mkBIRbPBtUcmYy. @> ]bkrN_myY eRbIsM rab;eFI[V cMhayRtCak;krCa
ejIseTACaGgÁFaturav.
Conductance
The reciprocal of electrical resistance, unit the
kugDuctg;
siemen, S. S = I/V cMras;énersIusgþ ;GKÁsI nI manxñatKitCaesmin S.S = I/V.
Conduction
1. The transmission of heat energy through a
karcMlg
material from a region of high temperature to a
region of lower temperature. In gases and most
!> karbBa¢nÚ famBlkMedAqøgkat;rUbFatuBItMbn;mYyEdlman sItuNðPaBx<s;
liquids, the energy is transmitted mainly by eTAtMbn;EdlmansItuNðPaBTab. kñúg]sµ½n nigGgÁFaturavCaeRcIn famBl
collisions between atoms and molecules, with a
transfer of energy from the high-energy RtÚv)anbBa¢nÚ edaykarTgiÁcKña rvagGatUmnigm:UelKul edaybBa¢nÚ famBlBI
molecules to the lower energy molecules. In
metals, heat conduction is predominately by m:UelKulEdl manfamBlx<s;eTAm:UelKulEdlmanfamBlTab. kñúgela
migration of fast-moving electrons, followed by
collisions between these electrons and ions. 2.
h³ karcMlgkMedAKwedaysareGLicRtugd¾eRcInelIslb; pøas;TIya:gelOn
The flow of charge (free electrons) under the rYcehIyeFIVeGayeGLicRtugTaMgenHTgÁci CamYyGIyu :ug. @> bMlas;TIénbnÞkú
influence of an applied electric field. A good
thermal conductor is also a good electrical ¬eGLicRtugesrI¦eRkam \T§iBlEdnGKÁIsnIeRkA. GgÁFatucMlgkMedAl¥KWCa
conductor, because they both have a high
concentration of free electrons. GgÁFatucMlgGKÁIsnIl¥ eRBaHvaTaMgBIrmankarbBa¢nÚ eGLicRtugesrIx<s;
dUcKña.
Conductivity
A measure of the ability of a material to
kMrwtcMlg
conduct 1. heat energy, 2. electric charge. In
thermal conductivity, for a block of material
karkMnt;smßPaBcMlgrbs;rUbFatu !> famBlkMedA @> bnÞkú GKÁIsnI.
with cross section A, the energy transferred per kñúgkMrtw cMlgkMedArbs;rUbFatumYyd¿Eu dlman muxkat;A famBlEdlbBa¢nÚ
unit time E/t, between faces a distance, l, apart
is given by kñúgmYyxñateBl E/t cMgay rvagmuxkat;TaMgBImanRbEvgl eGayeday E/t
E/t = A(T2 – T1)/ , where  is the  A(T – T )/l EdlCakMrt w cMlg ehIyT nigT CasItuNðPaBRtg;
2 1 2 1
conductivity and T2 and T1 are the temperatures
at the two faces. Electrical conductivity is the muxTaMgBIr. kMrwtcMlgGKIsÁ nIesIµnwgcMrasersIusIvÞ Íet.
reciprocal of resistivity.
Conductor
A substance that has 1. High thermal
GgÁFatucMlg
conductivity, 2. High electrical conductivity. sarFatuEdlman !>kMrwtcMlgkMedAx<s; @>kMrwtcMlgGKIÁsnIx<s;
Cone
A solid figure generated by a line inclined at an
ekan
angle from the vertical rotating about a fixed
point, the apex, so that its far end describes a
rUbsUldI EdlbgáelIgedaybnÞat;mYyeTBIkMBUlbegáIt)anmMumYyBIrgVilQr
circle. If the line joining the vertex of a cone to eFobcMncu nwgmYyEdlCacMnuckMBUl edayenAxagcugrbs;vaekos)anCa
the centre of the base is perpendicular to the
base, the cone is a right cone, which has a rgVg.; bnÞat;P¢ab;BIkMBUlekaneTA nwgpí©trbs;)at ebIbnÞat;enaHEkgeTAnwg
volume r2h/3, where r is the radius of the base )at enaHeK)anekan EkgmanmaD r h/3 EdlrCakaM)at h CakMBs;ekan.
2
and h the height of the cone.
 37

Conic section
A figure formed by the intersection of a plane
muxkat;ekan
and a cone. If the plane is perpendicular to the
axis of the cone, the figure is a circle. If the
rUbmYyEdlekIteLIgedaykarkat;Kañ rvagbøg; nig ekan. ebIbøg;EkgeTAnwg
plane is in inclined to the axis at an angle G½kSrbs;ekan rUbmuxkat;vaCargVg; ebIbøg;kat;bBaäti eTAnwgG½kSpÁ)Mú anmMumYy
greater than half the apex angle, the figure is an
ellipse. If the plane is inclined to the axis at an FMCagknøHmMukBM Ulekan eBl enaHrUbmuxkat;KCW aeGlIb. ebIbøgk; at;bBaäti eTA
angle equal to the half the apex angle the figure
is a parabola. If the plane is inclined to the axis nwgG½kSekan ehIypÁMú)anmMumYyesIµngw knøHmMukMBUlekan enaHrUbmuxkat;rbs;va
at an angle less than half the apex angle the
figure is a hyperbola.
KWCa)a:ra:bUl. ebIbøg;kat;bBaäti eTAnwgG½kSekanehIypÁMú)anmMmu YytUcCagknøH
mMukMBUlekan eBlenaHrUbmuxkat;rbs; vaKWCaGiuEBb:Ul.
Conjugate points
Two points on the axis of a lens corresponding
cMnucqøas;
to the positions of an object and its image
formed by the lens.
cMnucBIrelIG½kSrbs;Lg;TImYy RtUvKñaeTAnwgTItaMgvtßú nigTItaMgrUbPaBrbs;va
EdlbegItá edayLg;TI.
Conservation law
A law stating that the total magnitude of a
c,ab;rkSa
certain physical property of a system, such as
its mass, charge, energy or momentum is
c,ab;mYyeBalfa m:DU ulsrubénlkçN³ rUbrbs;RbB½n§mYy mandUcCama:s/;
unchanged even though there may be bnÞkú / famBl b¤ brimaNclnarbs;va minpøas;bþrÚ eT eTaHbImankarERb
exchanges of that property between different
parts of the system. For example, if we drop a RbÜllkçN³rvagEpñkepSg² énRbB½n§enaHk¾eday. ]TahrN_ ebIeyIg
soft mass to the ground, (i) gravitational
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, Tnøak;ma:sT; n;mYy eTAdI (i) famBlb:Utg;EsülTMnaj)anbMElgeTACa
then (ii) kinetic energy is converted to heat and
sound energy: the total energy is the same at
famBl sIeu nTic bnÞab;mk (ii) famBlsueI nTic)anbMElgeTACafam
every stage. BlkMedA nig famBlsMelg. famBlsrubKWdUcKñaRtg;RKb; dMNak;.
Conservative field
A field of force in which the work done in
EdnrkSa
moving a body from one point to another is
independent of the path taken. The force needed
EdnénkMlaMg EdlkñúgenaHkmµnþEdl)aneFIVedIm,I[GgÁFatumYypøas;TIBI
to move the body between these points is called cMnucmYyeTAcMnucmYyeTotminGaRs½ynwgKnøg Edl)ancreT. kMlaMgcaM)ac;
a conservative force. It follows that, in a
conservative force field, the total work done by edIm,Ipøas;TIvtßrú vagcMnucTaMgenH ehAfakMlaMgrkSa. kñúgEdnkMlaMgrkSakmµnþ
a force around a closed loop is zero. The work
done in moving a body from one point to srub Edl)aneFIV edaykMlaMgmYyCMuvji ExSbiTesIµsUnü. kmµnþEdl)aneFIV
another in a conservative field can be expressed
in terms of a potential function. For example, in
kñúgbM las;TIvtßúBIcnM ucmYyeTAcMncu mYyeTotkñúgEdnrkSa GacsMEdgCa
a gravitational field GnuKmn_énfamBlb:tU g;Esül. ]TahrN_ kñúgEdnTM naj W  mgy – 2
W = mgy2 – mgy1, where y2 and y1 are the
heights of the body relative to some specified mgy Edly nigy CakMBs;rbs;vtßeú Fob eTAnwgkMrwtCak;lak;NamYy.
1 2 1
level.
Constant
A fixed quantity in a relation between variables
efr b¤ cMnYnefr
that does not change. For example, in the
relation y = 2x + 3, the numbers 2 and 3 are
brimaNefrminERbRbÜlenAkñgú TMnak;TMngrvagGefr. ]TahrN_ kñúgTMnak;
constants. The constants might be represented TMng y  2x  3 cMnYn @ nig # KWCacM nYnefr. cMnYnefrGactageday
by symbols, such as in y = mx + b, where m and
b are constants, x and y variables. In this nimµitsBaaØ dUcCakñúgsmIkar y  mx  b Edl m nig b KWCacMnYnefr
particular case, the constant m represents the
slope, or gradient of the straight line given by ehIy x nig y Ca GBaØat b¤ Gefr. kñgú krNIBiessenH cMnYnefrmtag
the equation, and b is the y-intercept. eGayemKuNR)ab;Tis b¤ Rkadüg;rbs;bnÞat;Rtg; ehIybCacMncu Rb
sBVG½kSy.
 38

Constitutive equations
smIkarkugsIÞtyUt
The equations D = E and B = H, where D is
the electric displacement,  is the *permittivity smIkar D   E nig B   H Edl D CabMlas;TIGKIÁsnI CaEBmITIveÍ t
of the medium, E is the electric field intensity,
B is the magnetic flux density,  is the
énmCÄdæan/ E CaGaMgtg;sIuetEdnGKIsÁ nI/ B Cadg;sIuetPøcú GKIsÁ nI/
*permeability of the medium, and H is the CaC¿rabmCÄdæan ehIy H CaGaMg tg;sIuetEdnma:ejTic. (emIl
magnetic field strength. (See magnetic field).
magnetic field).
Contact potential difference
The potential difference that occurs between
plsgb:Utg;Esülb:H
two different metals that are brought into
electrical contact. If two metals with work
plsgb:tU g;EsülEdlekIteLIgcenøaHelah³BIrepSgKña kalNaeKdak;[
functions 1 and 2 are brought into contact, b:HKñatamGKIÁsnI. ebIelah³TaMgBIrmanGnu Kmn_kmµnþ  nig  RtÚv)aneK
1 2

their *Fermi levels will coincide. If 1 > 2 the dak;eGayb:HKña nIv:UEhVm‘ Irbs; vaRtÚtsIuKëa. ebI  >  elah³TImYynwg
1 2
first metal will acquire a positive surface charge
with respect to the other at the area of contact. manbnÞkú épÞvíC¢ maneFobeTAnwgépÞb:HmYyeTot. CalT§pleKTTYl)anpl
As a result, a contact potential difference is set
up between the two metals. sgb:Utg;Esülb:HekIteLIgrvagelah³TaMgBIr.
Containment
1. The prevention of the escape of radioactive
kugEtnm:g; ¬karkarBar¦
materials from a nuclear reactor. 2. The
prevention of the plasma in a fusion reactor
!> karkarBar[putBIsarFatuviTüúskmµ EdlekItmkBIerGak; T½rnuyekøEG‘. @>
from touching the walls of the container, by the karkarBarpøasµakñúgPuysüúgerGak;T½r Edl ekItmkBIkarb:HCBaa¢MgkugTIn½r
use of magnetic fields.
edayeRbIEdnm:aejTic.
Continuous function
A function f(x) is continuous at x  a if the limit
GnuKmn_Cab;
of f(x) as x approaches a is f(a). A function that
does not satisfy this condition is discontinuous.
GnuKmn_ f(x) CaGnuKmn_Cab;Rtg; x  a ebIlImItén f(x)kal Na x xitCit a
For example, f(x) = x2 is continuous at all esIµnwg f(a). GnuKmn_NaEdlminbBa¢ak;lkç x½Neð nHKWCaGnuKmn_dac;.
points, but f(x)= 1/x is discontinuous at x = 0 ,
because 1/0 cannot be defined. ]TahrN_ f(x)  x KWCaGnuKmn_ Cab;Rtg;RKb;cMnucTaMgGs; b:Eu nþ f(x)  1/x
2

KWCaGnuKmn_dac; Rtg; x  0 eRBaH 1/0 minGackMnt;)an.

Continuous spectrum
See spectrum
s,úicCab;
emIl spectrum
Continuous wave (C.W)
A wave that is transmitted continuously rather
rlkCab; (C.W)
than in pulses. Still used in radio transmissions
using the Morse code.
rlkEd;lbBa¢nÜ Cab;²KñaCaCagrlkruj. rlkenHenAEteRbIenAkñúgkarbBa¢nÚ
rlkviTüúedayeRbIelxkUdm:UsenAeLIy.
Continuum
A system of axes that form a *frame of
kugTInum
reference. The three dimensions of space and
the dimension of time together can be taken to
RbB½n§G½kSEdlbegIát)anCatMruy. lMhvímaRtbI nig vímaRt eBlrYbbBa©Úl
form a four-dimensional continuum. This KñaGacbegIát)anCakugTInumvímaRtbYn. víFI eFobBiessenH kMnt;eLIgeday
approach to special relativity was proposed by
Minkovski. mInkUvsIÁ.
 39

Control grid
A wire-mesh electrode placed between the
sMNaj;®tYtBinitü
cathode and the anode, but very much closer to
the cathode than to the anode, in a thermionic
sMNaj;lsY eGLicRtUddak;enAcenøaHkatUdnigGaNUd b:Eu nþ dak;CítkatUd
tube to control the flow of electrons from the CagGaNUd kñúgbMBg;ETmIy:UnicedÍm,I®tYtBinitübM las;TIeGLicRtugBIkatUd
cathode to the anode. Because the grid-cathode
separation is very small, a small positive eTAGaNUd. edaysarsMNaj;katUdXøatKñaya:gtUc enaHtg;süúgvíCm¢ antUc
voltage applied to the grid will cause a large
increase in the flow of electrons from the GnuvtþeTAelIsMNaj;nwgeFIVeGayeGLicRtugpøas;TIya:geRcInBIkatUd Edl
cathode, which then pass freely through the
mesh of the grid electrode as they flow towards
bnÞab;mkqøgkat;sMNaj;lYsedayesrI eBlvapøas;TIeTAGaNUd. eKeGay
the anode. A fluctuating potential difference b:Utg;EsülERb®bYlcuHeLIgrvagsMNaj; nig katUd eFIVeGayGaMgtg;seIu t
applied between grid and cathode causes an
amplified fluctuating current passing through crnþERb®bYlcuHeLIgya:gFMqøg kat;]bkrN_EdlGacbMElgeTACatg;süúg
the device that can be converted to a large
fluctuating voltage across a resistor inserted in ;eLIgcuHFMqøgkat; ersIsu þrEdleKdak;bBa©Úlkñgú esoKIVGaNUd.
the anode circuit.
Control rod
A rod of boron or cadmium that absorbs
cgáiHRtYtBinitü
excessive neutrons in a fission reactor, thus
enabling the rate of the reaction to be
cgáiHmYyeFIVBIb½r b¤ kat;mJmÚ EdlRsUbykNWRtugelIskñgú PIsüúgerGak;T½r
controlled. The positions of the control rods in dUcenHvaGacRtYtBinti ükMrwtRbtikmµ)an. b:sU uRI tugTaMgLayéncgáiHRtÜtBinitü
the atomic pile are adjusted automatically to
maintain the production of neutrons at a kñúgKMnrGatUm KWEktMrvU CasVy½ RbvtþedIm,IrkSaplitkmµNWRtugeGayrkSa
constant, safe rate.
GRtaefr nig rkSasuvtßPaB.
Convection
A process by which heat is transferred from one
kugvíucsüúg
point to another in a fluid by movement of the
fluid itself. A region of hot fluid has a lower
d¿eNIrkarepÞrkMedABIcnM cu mYyeTAcMncu mYyeTotkñúgGgÁFaturav edayeFIcV lna
density than the surrounding fluid, thus GgÁFaturavedayxøÜnÉg. tMbn;mYyénGgÁFatu ravekþAmandg;sIuetTabCag
experiences a buoyant force which forces it to
move upward, so cool fluid flows into its place. GgÁFaturavEdlB½T§C¿uvji dUecñHva beBa©jkMlaMgd¿enalmYy EdlrujvaeGay
pøas;TIeLIgelI dUecñHGgÁFaturavRtCak;hUreTAkEnøgRtCak;rbs;va.
Conventional current
A convention, still in common use, that treats
crnþsnµt;
electrical current as a flow of positive charge;
thus conventional current flows from the
karsnµt;enAEteRbICaTUeTAenAeLIy Edlcat;TukfacrnþGKIÁ snICabMlas;TI
positive terminal of a battery through the bnÞkú víC¢man dUecñHcrnþsnµt;pøas;TIBIb:lU víC¢ manrbs;Cnitatamry³esoKIV
external circuit to the negative terminal. In fact
electrons flow through the circuit in the eRkAeTAkan;b:UlGvíC¢man. tam BiteGLicRtugpøas;TItamry³esoKIVtamTis
opposite direction. Note that, because
conventional current flows from the positive edApÞúy. sUmkt;sKM al;fa edaycrnþsnµt;paø s;TIBIb:UlvíC¢maneTAb:Ul
terminal to the negative terminal in the external
circuit, it flows from the negative terminal to
GvíC¢man kñúgesoKIVeRkA vaRtÚvpøas;TIBIb:lU GvíC¢maneTAb:lU víC¢manxagkñúg
the positive terminal inside the battery, which is Cnita EdlCaehtueFIVeGayb:UlvíC¢manrbs;CnitakøayeTACamanbnÞúk
why the positive terminal of a battery becomes
positively charged. víC¢man.
Convergent series
A series in which the difference between
es‘rIbRgÜm
consecutive terms in a series decreases as the
number of terms increase, as in, for example the
es‘rEI dlmanplsgrvagtYrbnÛab;Kaë këúges‘rfI ycuH kalNacMnYntYr
series 1+ ½ + ¼ + 1/8 + …1/2n. In this ekIneLIg ]TahrN_dUCCaes‘rI 1+ ½ + ¼ + 1/8 + …1/2 . n

example, as n  S2.

kñúgkrNI]TahrN_enH kalNa n  S 2. 
 40

Converging lens or mirror

A concave mirror or convex lens able to reflect
Lg;TIbRgÜm b¤ kBa©k;bRgÜm
or refract parallel rays so that they converge at a
point (the principal focus).
kBa©kp; t b¤ Lg;TIe)a:g EdlGaccaMgpøatb¤caMgEbr)ankMa BnøWRsb
ehIykaMBnøWenHeTARbsBVKañ Rtg;cnM ucmYy¬kMnuMem¦.
Converging rays
Rays coming together to a focus. (See diverging
kaMBnøWrYm
rays). kaMBnøWEdlmkCYbKñaRtg;kMnMu ¬emIl diverging rays¦.
Convex
Curving outward. A convex mirror has a
e)a:g
reflecting surface that is formed from the
outside of a sphere. A convex mirror causes
kMeNagecjeRkA. kBa©ke; )a:gmanépÞcnM aMgpøat)anmkBIEpñkxageRkAEsV.‘
parallel rays to diverge. A convex lens is kBa©ke; )a:geFIVeGaykaMBnWøRsbrIk. Lg;TIe)a:g KWCaLg;TImankMras;enARtg;p©it
thicker at the centre than at the edge, and causes
parallel rays to converge to the principal focus. Rkas;CagenARtg;EKm ehIy eFIeV GaykaMBnWøRsbrYmcUlKñaRtg;kMnuMem.
Coolant
A fluid used to remove heat from a system by
kUEln
convection, either to control the temperature of
the system or to extract energy from it.
GgÁFaturavmüa:geRbIsMrab;beNþjkMedABIRbB½n§mYy EfmTaMgRtYtBinitüsItuNð
PaBénRbB½n§ b¤ k¾dkykfamBlecjBIva.
Coordinate
(See Cartesian coordinate)
kUG½redaen
emIl cartesian coordinate
Coordinate geometry
(See analytical geometry)
kUG½redaenFrNImaRt
emIl analytical geometry
Core
1. A rod of soft iron placed inside a coil of wire
sñÚl
in order to increase its inductance. 2. The inner
part of a nuclear reactor in which fission
!> cgÝiHEdkTn;dak;enAkëgú bUb‘ÍnExSePøIg edIm,IeFIV[ekInGaMg Ductg;rbs;va.
reactions produce heat energy. 3. The central @> EpñkxagkëúgènerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘ EdlkñúgenaHmanRbtikmµPIsüúgbegátI
region of a star or planet.
CafamBlkMedA. 3. tMbn; kNþalrbs;paá y b¤ rbs;PB.
Coriolis force
A fictitious force used to simplify the analysis
kMlaMgkUrIy:UlI
of the motion of air, water and projectiles over
a rotating surface.
kMlaMgnimtµi müa:g eKeRbIsrM ab;vPi aKclnaxül;/ Twk ehIy Tnøak;cMeNal
elIépÞrgVil.
Cosine rule
In any triangle with sides a, b, and c, a2 = b2
c,ab;kUssIunus
+ c – 2bccos where  is the angle between
2

sides a and b.
kñúgRtIekaNmYyEdlmanRCug a, b, nig c, a  b  c – 2bccos Edl 
2 2 2

KWCamMru vagRCug a nig b.

Cosmic radiation
High-energy particles that fall on the earth from
kaMrsµIelakFatu
space, consisting of the nuclei of the most
abundant elements, mostly protons.
PaKlit¥ manfamBlx<s;Føak;mkelIEpndIBIlMh PaKl¥ti enaH manéNVy:UEdl
manFatuCaeRcIn PaKeRcInKWpUtug.
Cosmology
Study of the nature, origin and evolution of the
elakFatuviTüa
universe. karsikSaBIFmµCati BIedImkMenIt nig karvivtþn_éncRkvaL.
 41

Coulomb C
The S.I. unit of electric charge. It is equal to the
KULMú C
amount of charge transferred by a current of
one ampere flowing for one second. The
xñat S.I rbs;bnÞúkGKÁIsnI. vaesIµngw cMnYnbnÞúkEdlbBa¢nÜ edaycrnþkgñú mYy
electron carries a charge of 1.6  10 – 19C. GMEBrpøas;TIkñúgmYyvinaTI. eGLicRtugpÞúkbnÞúk esInµ wg 1.6 10 C. -19

Coulomb’s law
The force between two charged particles
c,ab;KULMú
carrying charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a
distance d is proportional to the product of Q1
kMlaMgrvagbnÞúkBIr Q nig Q XaøtBIKñacMgay d kMlaMgenH smamaRt
1 2

and Q2 and inversely proportional to d2: eTAnwgplKuNén Q nig Q ehIyRcassmamaRt eTAnwg d :

1 2
2

F=Q1Q2/0d2, where 0 is the permittivity of

free space. F=Q Q / d Edl  KW CaEBmITIveI ténlMh.
1 2 0
2
0

Counter
A device for counting events or objects, often
kugT½r
photons or charged particles. When used to
count photons, the photons cause ionization,
]bkrN_sMrab;rab;RBitkþi arN_b¤vtßú eKeRbIvaedIm,Irab;cMnYnpUtug b¤ pg;bnÞkú .
which creates a current pulse. eBleRbIsrM ab;rab;ptU ug¬pUtugEdl)anmkBIGIu y:ugkmµ¦ EdlbegIáteGay
mancrnþjak;.
Couple
Two equal and opposite forces acting on a body
KUb:l
that do not act in a straight line. The forces
create a torque, or moment that is equal to the
kMlaMgBIrmanm:DU ulesIµKañ EtmanTisedApÞúyKñamanGMeBIelI GgÁFatumYy
product of the forces and the perpendicular edayKµanGMeBItambnÞat;Rtg;. kMlaMgenHbegátI kMlaMgbgVil b¤ m:Um:g;
distance between them. See moment of a force.
esIµnwgplKuNénkMlaMgnigcMgayEkg rvagva.
Critical angle
See total internal reflection.
mMudl;kMnt;
emIl total internal reflection
Critical damping
See damping.
tMhydl;kMnt;
emIl damping
Critical mass
The minimum mass of fissile material that will
ma:s;Tieton
sustain a nuclear *chain reaction. For example,
when a nucleus of uranium–235 disintegrates
ma:sG; b,brmaénrUbFatuPIslIu vaCama:s;EdlGacRTrRTg;RbtikmµnuyEkøEG‘.
two or three neutrons are released in the ]TahrN_eBlèNVy:UG‘uyra:nIjmÙ U-235 bMEbk NWRtug@b¤# )anxÞatecj
process, each of which is capable of causing
another nucleus to disintegrate, so creating a EdlNWRtugnimYy²Gac begIát)anCaéNVy:UepSgedÍm,IEbkecjteTAeTot
chain reaction. However, in a mass of U–235
less than the critical mass, too many neutrons dUcenHeFIV eGayekItmanRbtikmµbNþak;. eTaHCaya:genHk¾edaykñúgkrNI
escape from the surface of the material for the
chain reaction to proceed. In the atom bomb,
Edlma:s; U-235tUcCagma:sT; ieton enaHmanNWRtugCaeRcInelatecjBI
therefore, two or more subcritical masses have épÞrbU FatuedÍm,IeGayRbtikmµbNþak;bnþd¿ eNIrkar. dUecñHehIy)anCakñúg
to be brought together to make a mass in excess
of the critical mass before the bomb will RKab;EbkGatUm ma:s;Tieton rgBIrb¤eRcIn)anpþúc¿ UlKñaeFIeV Gayma:sT; ieton
explode.
elIsmuneBlRKab;EbkpÞúH.
Critical temperature
The temperature above which a gas cannot be
sItuNðPaBdl;kMnt;
liquefied, however great the pressure applied. sItuNPð aBEdl]sµ½nminGackaøyCaGgÁFaturav eTaHCabegIán sMBaFk¾eday.
CRO CRO
See cathode ray oscilloscope.
emIl cathode ray oscilloscope
 42

Crystal
A solid with a regular polyhedral (many faces)
RKIsþal; (Rkam)
shape. All crystals of the same substance grow
so that they have the same angles between their
GgÁFaturwgEdlmanragBhumuxniy½t. RKIsþal;énsarFatudUcKñalUtlas;)an
faces. The atoms, ions, or molecules forming mMurvagmuxdUcKña. GatUm/ GIyu :ug b¤ m:UelKul EdlmanTMrg;CaRKIsþal;
the crystal have a regular arrangement and this
is the crystal structure. mankartMerobniy½t ehIykartM erobenHCaTMrg;RKIsaþ l;.
Crystal lattice
The regular pattern of atoms, ions or molecules
LaTIsRKIsþal;
in a crystalline substance. A crystal lattice can
be regarded as produced by repeated
KMrUniy½ténGatUm/ GIyu :ug b¤ m:UelKulTaMgLayenAkñúgsarFatuRKIsaþ l;.
translations of a unit cell of the lattice. LaTIsRKIsþal;)anmkBIrMkwlRcMEdlényUntI Eslrbs;LaTis.
Crystal oscillator (piezoelectric oscillator)
An oscillator in which the mechanical
lMeyalRKIsþal; (lMeyalBIeGhSÚGKIÁsnI)
properties of a piezoelectric crystal are used to
determine the frequency of the oscillator. An
lMeyalmüa:gEdlkñúgenaHlkçN³emkanicénRKIsþal;BIhSÚ GKIÁsnIRtUv)aneK
alternating potential difference applied across ykeTAeRbIedÍm,IkMnt;eRbkg;rbs;leM yal.eKeGayplsgb:Utg;Esülqøas;
two metallic films (thin layers) coated on to the
parallel faces of the crystal, usually of quartz, qøgkat;bnÞHelah³esIþgBIr EdleRsabelImuxRsbrbs;RKIsþal; ¬FmµtaeK
sets up an alternating electric field that causes it
to vibrate at its natural fundamental frequency. eRbIkaV k¦ eBlenaHeFIeVI GayekItmanEdnGKIsÁ nIqøas;eFIVeGaymanlMj½rdUc
The mechanical vibrations in turn create an
alternating electric field across the crystal that
eRbkg;RKwHFµCati. lMj½remkanickëúgrb‘ue¿ FIeV GayekItman EdnGKIÀsnIqøgkat;
is controlled by the mechanical properties of the RKIsþal;EdlRtYtBinitüedaylkçN³emka nicrbs;RKIsþal; dUecñHehIyKµan
crystal, and hence there is no frequency drift.
eRbkg;rsat;eT.
Cubic equation
An equation in which the highest power of the
smIkarKUb
variable is 3. It has the general form ax3 + bx2 +
cx + d = 0 and, in general, is satisfied by three
smIkarmYyEdlmansV½yKuNGBaØtx<s;bMptu KW#. vamanTMrg;
values of x. TUeTA ax  bx  cx  d  0 ehIyepÞógpÞat;edaytMélxbI.
3 2

Curie point
The temperature above which a ferromagnetic
cMnucKuyrI
substance loses its ferromagnetism and
becomes only paramagnetic. For iron, the Curie
sItuNPê aBEdleFIVeGaysarFatuEhVr‘ :Uma:ejTic'at;bg;EhV‘rUm: a: ejTicrbs;va
point is 760oC. At and above the Curie point the ehIykøayeTACa)a:ra:ma:ejTic. cMeBaHEdk mancMncu KuyrI 760 C. 0

thermal vibrations of the crystal lattice are

violent enough to randomize the orientation of Rtg;cMncu KuyrIb¤xagelIcMnucKuyrI lMj½rkMedArbs;LaTIsRKIsþal;xøaMglµm
the magnetic domains that are the cause of
ferromagnetism. RKb;RKan;eFIeV GaytMbn; ma:ejTicmanlMgakKµansNþab;Fñab; CaehtubNþal
eGaymanEhVr‘ m:U :aejTic.
Curl
The *vector product of the *gradient
x½l Curl
operator  with a vector. CurlCaplKuNvíc u T½rénRbmaNvíFI grad  CamYyvícu T½r.
Current (I)
The flow of electric charge through a
crnþ(I)
conductor. The current at a particular cross-
section is the rate of flow of electric charge.
crnþKWCabMlas;TIbnÞkú GKÁIsnIqøgkat;GgÁFatucMlg. crnþRtg;muxkat;Na
The charge may be carried by electrons, ions or mYy KWCakMrwtpøas;TIénbnÞúkGKIÁsnI.bnÞúkGacCa eGLicRtug/ CaGIuy:ug b¤
positive holes. The unit is the ampere, defined
as the number of coulombs passing a point in CahUlvíC¢man. crnþmanxñatKitCaGMEBr EdlCacMnnY KULqMú øgkat;cnM ucmYy
one second: I = q / t.
kñúgmYyvínaTI : I  q / t.
 43

Current balance
An instrument used to measure a current
)aLg;crnþ (CBa¢IgsMrab;fwøgcrnþ)
absolutely, on the basis of the definition of the
ampere. A simple balance is made by placing
]bkrN_eRbIsrM ab;Etvas;crnþ edayEp¥kelIniymn½yGMEBr. )aLg;crnþ
part of a current-carrying coil in a known smBaØ eFIVeLIgedaydak;EpëkènbUb‘ÍnpÛúkcrnþcUleTAkñúgEdnma:ejTicEdl
magnetic field and balancing the magnetic
torque by a weight torque. The same device can eKsÁal; ehIyTukeGaym:Um:gm; a:ej TicmanlMnwgedayTMgn;mm:U :g.;
be used for measuring a magnetic field by
passing a known current through the coil. ]bkrN_dUcKñaenHGaceRbIsM rab;vas;Ednma:ejTic edaysÁal;crnþqøgkat;
bUbn‘Í véj.
Current density
The current passing through a conductor per
dg;sIuetcrnþ
unit area, measured in amperes per square
meter.
crnþqøgkat;GgÁFatuclM gkñúgmYyxñatépÞ xañtvaKitCaGMEBrkñúgmYyEm:Rtkaer.
Cycle
A change in a system during which all the
suic b¤ C¿u
parameters of the system return to their original
value. The duration of one cycle is called its
bMErbMrYlkñúgRbB½n§mYykñúgGMLúgeBlEdl)a:ra:Em:tTaMgGs;rbs;RbB½n§Rtlb;
period, T, and the number of cycles completed eTAtMéledImrbs;vavij. kñgú ry³eBlmYy siuc¬C¿u¦eKehAfamYyxYb T
in one second its frequency, f, measured in Hz.
T = 1/f. ehIycMnYnsicu bMeBj)ankñúgmYy vinaTIKWCaeRbkg; f rbs;va manxñatKitCa
Hz. T  1/f.
Cycloid
The curve traced by a point on the
sIukøÚGIud
circumference of a rolling disc as it rolls
without slipping. The length of the arc formed
sñamekagEdlekIteLIgedaysarcMnucmYyEdlzitenAelIbrimaRtrgVgr; bs;
by one revolution of the disc is 8r, where r is fa svílmYy kalNavaviledayminQb;. RbEvgFñÚEdlbegIátedaymYy
the radius of the disc. The horizontal distance
between cusps is 2r. bdívtþn_énfasesIµ 8r EdlrCa kaMfas. cMgayedkrvagcnucFñBÚ Ikat;Kañ esIµ
2r.
Cyclotron
A cyclic particle *accelerator in which charged
sIukøÚRtúg
particles (protons or electrons) fed into the
centre of the device are accelerated in an
BenøÓnpg;skIu øicEdlkñúgenaHpg;manbnÞúk¬RbÚtug b¤ eGLicRtug¦ EdlTukenA
outward spiral path inside two hollow D-shaped kñúgpí©t]bkrN_mansMTuHecjeRkAtamKnøg Caes<óenAkñúgenaHmanGgÁFatu
conductors placed to form a split circle. A
magnetic field is applied at right angles to the cMlgBIrmanragCaGkSDsMrab;begIátrgVg;bMEbk. eKeGayEdnma:ejTicEkg
plane of the dees and an alternating potential
difference is applied between them. The eTAnwgbøg; D ehIydak;eGaymanplsgb:tU g;Esülqøas;rvagD. eRbkg;
frequency of the alternating potential difference
is equal to the cyclotron frequency given by f 
plsgb:tU g;Esülqøas;esIµnwgeRbkg;sukI øÚRtug EdleGay eday f 
qB/(2m), which is independent of the radius of qB/(2m) EdlminGaRs½ynwgkaMrbs;pg;bnÞúkeT dUecñHpg;mansMTuH
the charged particle, so the particles are
accelerated each time they reach the gap ral;eBlEdlvaeTAdl;cenøaHrvagD. Ednma:ejTiceFIeV Gaypg;bnÞúkbnþ
between the dees. The magnetic field makes the
charged particles continue to follow nearly
pøas;TIya:gCítKnøgvg;énkMenInkaMrhUt bnÞab;BIpøas;TI)anrab;Ban;Cue¿ Rkaymk
circular paths of increasing radius until, after vak¾eTA dl;brimaRtrbs;DTaMgBIr EdlRtg;enaHEdnGKIÁsnIpaø tecjBIva
several thousand revolutions, they reach the
perimeter of the dees, where a deflecting cUleTAkan;pÞaMgsIub.
electric field directs them onto the target.
D
 44

Dalton’s atomic theory

A theory of chemical combination, first stated
RTisþIGatUmrbs;daltun
by John Dalton in 1803. The theory contains the
following postulates: (1) Elements consist of
RTwsþbI nSMKImIeBalelIkd¿bUgedaycndaltunkñúgqñaM!*0#. RTisþImansV½ys½t
indivisible small particles (atoms). (2) All dUcteTAenH : ¬! ¦ral;FatuTaMgLaymanbMENkpg;tUc²KWGatUm. ¬@¦
atoms of one element are identical; different
elements have different kinds of atom. (3) GatUmTaMgGs;rbs;FatumYy KWdUcKñaebHbiT FatuepSgmanRbePTGatUm
Atoms can neither be created or destroyed. (4)
Compounds are formed when atoms of different epSgKñaEdr. ¬#¦ GatUminGacekIt b¤ bMEbk)aneT. ¬$¦ smasFatuekIt
elements join in simple ratios to form
compound atoms, i.e. molecules.
man eBlEdlGatUménFatuepSgrYmcUlKñabegIátCasmasFatuGatUm
EdlGacniyayfaCam:eU lKulk¾)an.
Dalton’s law of partial pressures
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal
c,ab;daltunsþIBIsMBaFtamEpñk
to the sum of the partial pressures of the
individual gases, that is, the sum of the
sMBaFsrubénl,ay]sµ½nmYy esIµngw plbUkénsMBaFtamEpñkrbs;]sµ½n
pressures that each component would exert if it nImYy²mann½yfaplbUkénsMBaFEdlkMb:Usg;nmi Yy²beBa©jebIvaenAEtÉg.
were present alone.
Damping
A decrease in the amplitude of an oscillating
EdmPIg
system as a result of energy being lost from the
system, because of the presence of dissipative
karfycuHGMBøITtu énRbB½n§lMeyal bNþalmkBIkar)at;bg; famBlBIRbB½n§
frictional forces. Damping is sometimes edaysarmankMlaMgkkit. CYnkalkarfycuHGMBIøTtu GaceGayeKykeTA
introduced deliberately in measuring
instruments to overcome the problem of taking eRbIkúñgbriFanrgVas; edIm,IC¿nH bBaðalMjr½ RTniceBlvas;. kMrtw fycuHGMBIøTtu
a measurement from a vibrating needle. Also
some degree of damping is essential in xøHmansar³sM xan;Nas;kñúgRbB½n§ljM ½rRtemac EdlTMgn;F¶n; mYydak;elI
vibration isolation systems that consist of a
massive weight supported on soft springs. A
rWsu rrs;l.¥ eKniyayfaRbB½n§mYyCaRbB½n§fycuHGMBIøTuddl;krM wt ebIvamin
system is said to be critically damped if it just Gaceyaldl;bMlas;TIedÍm kñúgkrNIenHRbB½n§eTACaenAnwgfál;kñúgry³eBl
fails to oscillate when initially displaced; in this
case the system comes to rest in the shortest xIøbMptu . ebIRbB½n§mYyzíteRkamlkçx½NÐtMhyGMBTIø ut vak¾eyalEdrEt
possible time. If it is underdamped it will
oscillate, but with an amplitude that decreases eyaledayGMBIøTtu fycuHGicu s:,ÚNg;EsülCamYyeBl. ebIRbB½n§CaRbB½n§tM
exponentially with time. If it is overdamped it
will fail to oscillate, but will take longer to
hyGMBTIø utRCul RbB½n§enaHminGacmanlMeyaleT EtRtÚv karry³eBlEvg
come to rest than if it was critically damped. edÍm,IQb;nwgCagRbB½n§EdlmantMhyGMBIø Tutdl;kMrtw .
Daniel cell
A type of primary *voltaic cell with a copper
fµBildanIEjl
positive electrode and a negative electrode of a
zinc amalgam. The emf of the cell is 1.08 volts
RbePTfµBilv:ultad¿bUgEdlmaneGLicRtÚdvíC¢mans<an; nig eGLicRtÚd
with the electrodes immersed in sulphuric acid. GvíC¢mansgásI. kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkrKW!>0*v:ul edaymaneGLicRtÚddak;RtaM
Primary cells, which have an emf that can be
calculated theoretically, enable the emf of any këúgGasIdu s‘ulPYrci . fµBild¿bUg EdlmankMlaMgGKIÀsnIclkrGacKNna
other kind of cell to be calibrated on open
circuit using a potentiometer. tamRTwsIþ EfmTaMgGaceGaykMlaMgGKIsÁ nIclkrfµBilRbePTepSgeTot
tP¢ab;edayeRbIbt:U g;tüÚEm:t.
Data
Numbers, facts, symbols obtained by
Tinñn½y
measurement or observation, usually
unprocessed.
CacMnYn b¤ CasBaØa)anmkedaysarkarvas; b¤ segát.
Database
A large collection of data that has been coded
dataebs
and stored in a computer in such a way that it
can be extracted and analysed under a number
karRbmUlpþTú¿ inñn½yd¾eRcInEdlmankUdsMgat;ehIypÞúkkñgú kMu BüÚT½r EdlGac
of different category headings. eGay eKTajykmkvíj ehIy GaceGayeK bMEbktamcMnYnRbePTepSg².
 45

Daughter product
A nuclide produced by radioactive decay of a
plitplkUn
parent nuclide. nuykødI EdlekItmkBIbnSayviTüúskmµénnuykødI «Bukmþay.
Davisson-Germer experiment
A classic experiment that proved the diffraction
karBiesaFn_edvIsun-cWm½r
of a beam of electrons by an array of atoms
acting as a diffraction grating. The fact that
karBiesan_buraNEdlbgðajBIDIR)ak;süúg)ac;BnWeø GLicRtug edaykartMerob
electrons can be diffracted in a similar way to GatUmmanGMeBICaRkaFIgDIR)ak;süúg. karBit eGLicRtugGac)aøtBnWøRsedog
light and X-rays shows that electrons have
wave-like behaviour in some experimental KñanwgBnWFø mµtaEdr ehIykaM rsIXµ bgðajfa eGLicRtugmanlkçN³Carlk
contexts, as postulated by de Broglie. Davisson
and Germer reflected a beam of electrons off kñúgRBwtiþkarN_ BiesaFmYycMnYn Edlsnµt;edayRbÚKIø. edvÍsnu nig cWmr½ )an
the surface of a nickel crystal and found that at
a certain angle corresponding to the angle for
eFIVeGay)ac;BnWøeGLicRtugcaMgpøateTAelIépÞRKIsaþ l;nIEkl ehIyBYkKat;
constructive interference for a reflected wave, segáteXIjfa mMumyY RtÚvKñanwgmMuGaMgETepr:g; mYycMeBaHrlkcaMgpøat.
the reflected intensity was a maximum.
GaMgtg;sIuetcMNaMgpøatGtibrma.
Day
The time taken for the earth to complete one
éf¶
revolution on its axis. The solar day is the time
that the Earth takes to rotate once relative to the
ry³eBlsMrab;eGayEpndIvíl)anmYyC¿Gu ½kSrbs;va. éf¶sru iyKti KWCary³
Sun. It is divided into 24 hours, and is the basis eBlEdlEpndÍvíl)anmþgeFobRBHGaTitü. eKEckvaeTACa24ema:g ehIyva
of our civil day. The sidereal day is the time
that the Earth takes to rotate once relative to the CaRKwHéf¶suvI Ílrbs;eyIg. éf¶saydWrlI KWCary³eBlEdlEpndÍ víl)anmþg
stars. It is 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than the
solar day, because the Sun’s position against eFobpáay. vamanry³eBl#naTI%^vínaTIyWtCagéf¶suryi Kti edaysar
the background of stars as seen from Earth
changes as the Earth orbits it.
TItaMgRBHGaTitüQmnwgépÞxageRkaypáay dUcEdleyIg )aneXIjBIEpnd
Ípøas;bþÚrkalNaEpndÍvílC¿uvíjva.
de Broglie wavelength
The wavelength of the wave associated with a
CMhanrlkdWRbÚKøI
moving particle. The wavelength  is given by C¿hanrlkEdlpþú¿KñaCamYyPaKl¥itpøas;TI. C¿hanrlk  eGayeday
 = h/mv, where h is the Planck constant, m the
mass of the particle and v its velocity. de smIkar  = h/mv Edl h KWCaefrpøg;/ m KWCa ma:sp; g; ehIy v
Broglie suggested that just as electromagnetic
waves can sometimes be treated as particles KWCaviucT½rel,Ónrbs;va. dWRbÚKIø)anpþl;eya bl;fa CYnkalrlkeGLicRtÚ
(photons), we should also expect that electrons
can sometimes be treated as waves, this
ma:ejTicGaccat;TukCapg; ¬pU tug¦ ehIyeyIgk¾sgÇwmEdrfa CYnkal
postulate being called complementarity. The
subsequent observation of electron diffraction
eGLicRtugGaccat; TukCarlkvíj. karsnµt;enHehAfasV½ys½tbMeBj
confirmed this postulate and became the basis bEnßm. karsegátDIR)ak;süúgeGLicRtugeRkaymk)anbBa¢ak;eGayeXIj
of wave mechanics.
c,as;sV½ys½tenH ehIykøayCamUldæanemkanicrlk.
Decay
The spontaneous transformation of one
bnSay (rlYy)
radioactive nuclide into a daughter nuclide,
which may or may not be radioactive, with the
karbMElgedayxønÜ ÉgénnuyKødI víTüúskmµmYyeTACa kUnnuyKøIdEdlGac
emission of one or more particles and photons. b¤minGacCavíTüúskmµ edaybeBa©jpg;nigpUtug mYyb¤eRcIn. kMrtw bnSay
The rate of decay is proportional to the number
of nuclides present: dN/dt = – N, hence N = smamaRteTAnwgvtþmancMnYnénnuy KødI : dN/dt  N eday N  N e 0
-t

N0e-t, where N0 is the number present at time t

Edl N KWCacMnnY nuy KøIdenAxN³eBl t  0 ehIyCaefrbnSay.
= 0 and  is the decay constant. The time
0

required for half the original nuclides to decay ry³eBl caM )ac;sMrab;nyu KIøtedÍmrlYyGs;Bak;kNþal (N  ½N )ehA0
(i.e. N = ½N0) is called the half-life of the
nuclide. The relation between the half-life t½ faknøHCÍvtí énnuyKIdø . TMnak;TngrvagknøHCÍvítt nig efr bnSayKW
½

and the decay constant  is ln2/t .½

 = ln2/t½ .
 46

Decay sequence
A plot of neutron number (N) against proton
sVúItbnSay
number (Z) for nuclides belonging to a
particular radioactive series. Each point marked
karedAcMnYnNWRtug(N)Tl;nwgcMnYnRbUtug(Z)cMeBaHnuyKIdø EdlmanvíTüúskmµ
on the plot represents a member of the series. Caes‘rBI iess. cMnucedAnimYy²tageGaycMnYnes‘r.I bnÛat;EdlP¢ab;cMnucTaMg
The lines joining these points represent the
nuclear transformations that have occurred in enHtageGaykarpøas;brþÙ nuyekøEG‘ EdlekItmankëúgkarpøas;bþrÙ èNVy:UedÍm
transmuting the original nucleus to the new one.
Four types of radioactive decay can be eTAéNVy:U f͵myY eTot. karrlYyvíTüúskmµbYnRbePTGactagya:ggay
conveniently represented as moves along a
decay sequence:
edayBinitütamry³sVIútrlYy :
Alpha decay: The emission of a helium nucleus,  bnSayGal;hVa :beBa©jéNVy:UeGlüÚm tageday®BYjdüakUNal;Edl
represented by a diagonal arrow made up of
two steps down the N-axis and two steps begIáteLIgedayBIrkaMcHu eTAG½kSN nigBIrkaMeq<aH eTAeqVgtambeNþay
towards the left along the Z-axis.
Beta (negative) decay: A neutron in the nucleus G½kSZ.
 bnSayEbta¬GvíC¢man¦: NWRtugkñúgéNVyr:U lYyeTACaRbÚtug nwg eGLic
decays into a proton and an electron: the
electron is emitted as a beta particle. This
transformation is represented by a diagonal
arrow made up of one step down the N-axis and
Rtug. eGLicRtugecjeTACapg;Ebta. karbMElgenHtageday®BYjdüakU
one step to the right on the Z-axis. Nal; ekIteLIgeday cuHBIG½kS NmYykaM rYcehIyeTAeqVgmYykaMelIG½kSZ.
Beta (positive) decay: In this decay, a proton
decays to a neutron with the emission of a  bnSayEbta¬víC¢man¦: kñúgbnSayenHRbUtugrlYyeTACaNWRtugedayman
positron. This decay never occurs with free
protons. This decay is represented on a decay
beBa©jb:UsRIu tug. karrlYyenHminEdlekIt manCamYyRbUtugesrIeT.
sequence as a diagonal arrow made up of one
step up the N-axis and one step to the left on the
karrlYyenHtagelIsVIútrlYy vaCa®BYjdüakUNal;ekIteLIgedayeLIg
Z-axis. mYykaMelIGk½ SN rYc ehIymYykaMeTAeqVgelIG½kSZ.
Electron capture: A nuclear proton captures an
electron from the atomic environment. This  karcab;eGLicRtug : RbUtugnuyekøEG‘cab;ykeGLicRtugBI brisaÜ nGatUm.
transformation is represented in the same way
as positive beta decay. karbMElgenHtagtamrebobdUcKñanwgbnSay EbtavíC¢manEdr.
Decibel
A unit used to compare two power levels,
edsIuEbl
usually applied to sound or electric signals.
Two power levels P and P0 differ by n decibels
xñateRbIsrM ab;eRbobeFobnIvU:GnuPaBBIr CaFmµtaGnuvtþcMeBaH sMelg b¤
when n = 10log10P/P0. If the level of sound sIuBaaØl;GKÁIsnI. nIvG:U nuPaBBIrPnigP xusKñanedsIu Ebl eBl n  10
0
intensity to be measured is P, P0 is a reference
level, usually the level of sound at the threshold logP/P . ebInIv:UGaMgtg;sueI tsMelgman rgVas;P enaHCaTUeTAnIvU:seM lg
0
of audibility. The logarithmic scale is
convenient, as human audibility has a range of enARtg;sNþab;lWKnW IvU: P . maRtdæanLÚkarItgayRsYlkalNasNþab;lW
0

1 (just audible) to 1012 (just causing pain) and

one decibel, representing an increase of some
rbs;mnusSman kMrtw BI!¬sNþab;lW¦eTA10 ¬sNþab;QW¦ ehIymYyedsiu
12

26%, is about the smallest change that the ear EbltageGaykMenIn26% KWRbEhlnwgbMErbMrYltUcbMput EdlRtEckmnusS
can detect.
GacTTYlyk)an.
Decimal system
A number system based on the number 10; the
RbB½n§TsPaK
number system in most common use. In this
system, a number such as 354.2 is equal to
cMnYnRbB½n§EdlEp¥kelIcMnYn!0 vaCaRbB½n§EdleKeRbICaeTA. kñúgRbB½n§enH
2(10–1) + 4(100) + 5(101) + 3(102). All rational cMnYndUcCa#%$>@esIµngw 2(10 )  4(10 )  3(10 ). cMnYnsniTanTaMgGs;
–1 0 2

numbers can be written as a finite decimal (e.g.

¼ = 0.25) or a repeating decimal (e.g. 5/27 =
0.185 185 185 …). An irrational number can be
written to any number of decimal places, but
can never be given exactly (e.g. 3 =
1.732 050 8 …)
GacsresrCaTsPaKkMnt; (]TahrN_ ¼  0.25) b¤GacsresrCaTsPaK
RcMEdl (]TahrN_ 5/27  0.185 185 185 …). cMnYnGsniTanGac
sresreTACacMnYnTsSPaK Etmin)anlT§plCak;lak; eT (]TahrN_
3  1.732 050 8 …).
 47

Declination
1. The angle between the magnetic north and
edKøIensug
the geographic north. 2. The angular distance of
a star north or south of the celestial equator.
!> mMurvagb:UleCIgma:ejTic nig b:UleCIgPUmsaRsþ . @> cMgaymMru bs;pay
eCIg b¤ páayt,ÚgéneGkVaT½rGavkas.
Defect
1. A discontinuity in a crystal lattice.
edhVik
2. (See mass defect). !> PaBdac;BIKañ kñúgLaTIsRKIsþal;. @ ¬emIl mass defect¦.
Definite integral
The area under a curve between specified
GaMgetRkalkMnt;
b b

limits. For example,  f ( x)dx represents the RklaépÞxageRkamExSekagrvagEdnkMnt;mYy. ]TahrN_  f ( x)dx

a a
area under the graph of f(x) against x between
the limits of x  a and x  b. The ‘fundamental
tag[RkalaépÞxageRkamRkabén f(x) Tl;ngw x enAcenaøHlImIt x  a nig x
theorem of calculus’ states that: Let f(x) be a  b. RTwsIþRKwHénKNitvíPaK eBalfa : ebIeKeGayf(x)Ca GnuKmn_Cab;
function that is continuous on an interval, and
let a and b be numbers in the interval such that elIcenøaHmYy ehIy a nig bCacMnYnkñúgcenøaHenaH Edlb > a. ]bmaF(x)
b > a. Suppose F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x),
then the definite integral of f(x) from x = a to x
CaedrI evRcasénf(x) enaHGaMgetRkalkMnt;énf(x)BIx  aeTAx  b KWCa
= b is the number obtained by subtracting F(a)
from F(b), so we have
cMnYnEdl)anmkedaykardkF(a)BIF(b) dUecñHeyIg)an:
b

 f ( x)dx  F(b) – F(a).

b

 f ( x)dx = F(b) – F(a).

a
a

Degree
1. A unit of plane angle equal to 1/360th of a
dWeRk /GgSa
complete revolution. 2. A division on a
temperature scale. 3. The power to which a
!> xañtrbs;mMubøg;esIµngw 1/360 énmYyC¿urgVg;. @> karEbgEckenAelIkrM wt
th

variable is raised. For example the degree of x3 sItuNPð aB. #> sV½yKuNEdlGefrekIn. ]TahrN_dWeRkén x KW #. ebI 3

is 3. If one expression contains several

variables, the overall degree of the expression is kenSammYymanGefrbIbYn dWeRkkenSamTaMgmUlKWCaplbUkénsV½yKuN.
the sum of the powers. 4. The highest power to
which the derivative of the highest order is $>sV½yKuN x<sb; Mputkñgú smIkarDIepr:g;Esül ]TahrN_ (d y/dx ) 
2 2 3

raised in a differential equation. For example, dy/dx  c KWCasmIkarDIepr:g;EsüldWeRkTIbI¬b:uEnþlMdab;TI BIr¦.

(d2y/dx2)3  dy/dx  c is a differential equation
of the third degree (but the second order).
Degree of freedom
The number of independent parameters needed
dWeRkesrI
to specify the configuration of a system. For
example, in a monatomic gas each atom has just
cMnYn)a:ra:Em:tÉkraCücaM)ac;srM ab;bBaa¢kB; IrbU sNæanénRbB½n§ mYy.
three degrees of freedom, along the x, y and z- ]TahrN_kñúg]sµ½nm:UNUGatUm GatUmnImYy²rbs;va mandWeRkesrIbI
axes.
tambeNáayG½kS x, y nig z.
Delayed neutrons
The small fraction, about 1%, of neutrons that
NWRtugyWt
are emitted with a significant time delay in a
nuclear fission reaction. The control rods
NWRtugmYyPaKtUcRbEhlCa 1%)anxÞatecjya:gyWtGaceGayeKBinitü
operate on the delayed neutrons to control the )ankñúgRbtikmµPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘. cgiÝHRtÚtBinti üeRbIelINWyWtedÍm,IBinitü
rate of fission, thus the existence of the delayed
neutrons enables a controlled chain reaction to kMrwtPIsüúg dUcenHkarekItmanNWRtugyWtGaceGayeKRtÜtBinti üRbtikmµ
exist in a fission reactor. See prompt neutrons.
bNþak; Edlmankñgú erGak;T½rPIsüúg)an. emIl prompt neutrons.
 48

Delay line
A component in an electronic circuit that
ExSdWel
introduces a delay in the transmission of a
signal. Coaxial cable or inductor-capacitor
smasFatumYykñúgesoKVeI GLicRtUnci EdlR)ab;[dwgBIry³eBlkñgú
networks can be used to provide a short delay karbBaa¢nÜ sIuBaaØl;. ExSkabkUGak;esol bNþajkugdg;saT½r-GaMgDucT½r
but for longer delays an acoustic delay line is
required. In this device the signal is converted GacykmkeRbIsMrab;ry³eBlxIø EtcMeBaHry³eBlEvgcaM)ac;RtÚveRbIsrés
by the piezoelectric effect into an acoustic
wave, which is passed through a liquid or solid dWeLGaKUsiÞc. kñúg]bkrN_enH eKeRbIplBIhSÚGKIsÁ nIedÍm,IbMElgsIuBaØal;
medium before re-conversion to an electronic
signal
eTACarlkGaKUsÞic¬rlksMelg¦ Edlkat;tammCÄdæanrav b¤ kat;mCÄdæan
rwgmunnwgbMElgeTACasIuBaØal;GKIÁsnIvíj.
Demagnetisation
The removal of the ferromagnetic properties of
kardkykma:ejTicecj
a sample by destroying the order of the
magnetic domains. This can be done either by
kardklkçN³EhVr‘ :Uma:ejTicecjBIGgÀFatumYy edaybMEbklMdab;tMbn;
heating the sample above its Curie point, or by ma:ejTic. eKGaceFIVdUcenH)anedayeRbIkeM dA eGayGgÁFatuekþAelIscMnuc
placing it in a rapidly changing magnetic field
with steadily decreasing amplitude. KuyrI b¤ edaydak;GgÁFatueTAkñúg Ednma:ejTicEdlmanbMErbMrYlya:gelOn
CamYynwgkarfy cuHGMBIøTtu ya:gCab;.
Demodulation
The extraction of information from a modulated
edm:UduyLasüúg
carrier wave, also called detection. kadkykBt’manBIrkarbþrÙ tanlkbBa¢Ún GacehAfaedfiksüúgk¾)an.
Density
The mass of sample per unit volume:   m/V.
dg;sIuet
ma:sr; bs;GgÁFatukñúgmYYyxñatmaD   m/V.
Depletion layer
The region around the interface between n- and
RsTab;edpøicsüúg
p-type semiconductor materials, in which the
number of mobile charge carriers is very low. A
tMbn;Cv¿u ijGnþrmuxrvagRsTab;smW Ikgu DucT½r n nigp EdlkñúgenaHcMnnY énbnÞkú
depletion layer forms at the interface between cl½texSaybMput. RsTab;edpícø süúgekItmanenARtg;GnþrmuxrvagrUbFatu
n-type and p-type semiconductor materials,
because electrons diffuse from the n-type sWmIkugDucT½rRsTab;nnigRsTab;p edaysareGLicRtugxÞatecjBIrUbFatu
material into the p-type material thus filling the
holes in the p-type material. RsTab;ncUl eTAkñúgrUbFatuRsTab;p dUecñHeGLicRtugcUleTAbMeBjhUl
kñúgrUbFatuRsTab;p.
Depth of field
The range of distance on either side of an object
cMgayEdn
that is being focussed by an optical instrument
which is in clear focus. The depth of focus is the
ry³cMgayelIEpñkTaMgsgxagénvtßúmyY EdlbBaa¢MgeTAelI eday]bkrN_
range of distance on either side of the image in GubTic manrUbya:gc,as;. cMgayc,as; KWCary³cMgayelIEpñkTaMgsgxag
which the image is sharply focussed.
énrUbPaB Edlkñgú enaH rUbPaBKWCarUbPaBc,as;.
Derivative
The rate of change of one quantity with respect
edrIev
to another. For example, the derivative of y
with respect to x is dy/dx, where dy is an
bMErbMrYlbrimaNmYyeFobeTAnwgbrimaNmYyeTot. ]TahrN_ edrIevén y
infinitesimal difference in y and dx is the eFobeTAnwg x KW dy/dx Edl dy Capl sgtUcbMputkñúgy ehIy dx KWCa
corresponding infinitesimal difference in x. In
order to find the derivative of a function f(x), plsgtUcbMputkñúg x. edÍm,IkMnt;edrIevGnuKmn_f(x) eyIgeRbIrbU mnþEdl
we use the following formula that is derived
from the definition: TajecjBI niymn½ydUcxageRkam :
dy/dx  lim [ f ( x  x)  f ( x)] / x dy/dx  lim [ f ( x  x)  f ( x)] / x
x 0 x 0
 49

Derived unit
A unit that is derived from one or more base
xñatRslay
units. For example, the derived unit of speed is
defined as the rate of change of distance with
xñatEdlTajecjBIxañtRKwHmYy b¤ eRcIn. ]TahrN_karTajecjxñat
time; v = s/t, where distance and time are base el,Ón. el,ÓnkMnt;edaybMErbMrYlbMlas;TIeFobeBl EdlcMgaynigeBlKW
units. (See base units).
CaxñatRKwH¬emIl base units ¦.
Detector
See demodulation.
edfikF½r
emIl demodulation
Deuterium (heavy hydrogen, symbol D)
The isotope of hydrogen that has an atomic
edETrüÚm ¬GIuRdUEsnF¶n;¦
mass of 2u, consisting of a nucleus with one
proton and one neutron, surrounded by one
GIusUtUbGIuRdUEsnEdlmanma:s;GatUm2u éNVyv:U amanRbUtugmYynigNWRtug
electron. The abundance of deuterium in natural mYy B½T§Cv¿u ijedayeGLicRtugmYy. edETrüÚmkñgú GIuRdUEsnFmµCatieRcIn
hydrogen is about 0.015%.
bMputRbEhl 0.015%.
Deuteron
A nucleus of deuterium, consisting of one
edETr:ug
proton and one neutron bound together. éNVye:U dETrüÚm manRbUtugmYynigNWRtugmYycgsm<½n§Kañ .
Deviation (angle of deviation)
1. The angle formed between a ray incident on
lMgak¬mMulMgak¦/ el¥og
a surface and the ray reflected or refracted from
the surface. 2. The difference between the value
!> mMuEdlpÁrú¿ vagkaMcaMgb:HelIépÞ nig kaMcaMgpøat b¤ kaMcaMgEbrBIépÞ. @> pl
of one piece of data and the true value, taken to sgrvagtMélénEpñkTinñn½ymYynwgtMélBit ehIyyktMélmFüméntMél
be the mean of all the values. The mean
deviation is the mean of all the individual TaMgGs;. el¥ógmFüm KWCatMélmFüménel¥ógnimYy². (emIl standard
deviations of the set. (See standard deviation). deviation )
Dewar flask (vacuum flask)
A container used to store hot or cold liquids so
dbdWv:r ¬dbsuBaØaGakas¦
that they maintain their temperature
independently of their surroundings. Heat
dbEdleKeRbIsrM ab;pÞúkGgÁFaturavekþA b¤ GgÁravRtCak; edÍm,IeGayvaenArkSa
conduction is minimised by surrounding an sItuNPþ aBedayminGaRs½ynwgsItuNPþ aBC¿uvíj. karcmøgkMedARtUvfycuHCa
inner container with a vacuum. Also, the inner
surface of the glass vessel is silvered to reduce Gb,brma edaysardbB½T§Cuv¿ ji edaysuBaØGakas. épÞdbEpñkxagkñúgBas
heat losses by radiation.
eday)art edIm,IbnßykMedAkMeu Gay)at;bg;edaysarkaMrsI.µ
Diamagnetism
See magnetism.
düama:ejTic
emIl magnetism
Diamond
The hardest known mineral. A form of carbon
eBRC
that has crystallised with a cubic structure,
produced under extreme heat and pressure.
Er:Bi)akrkbMput. vaekIteLIgedaykabUnEdlRkamCaTMrg;KbU Rkam\Ti§Bl
kMedAnigsMBaFxøaMgbMput.
Diaphragm (optical)
An opaque disc with a circular aperture at the
düaR)am (GubTic)
centre whose diameter can be altered. Used in
optical systems to reduce the intensity of light
fasRsGab;müagmanrgVgc; MhRtg;p©it EdlbnÞat;p©itGacpøas;bþrÚ )an. eKeRbI
or the aberrations of the lens system. vakñúgRbB½n§GubTic edIm,IbnßyGaMgtg;sIuBnøW b¤ bnßyRBakénRbB½n§Lg;TI.
Dichroism
The property of some crystals to absorb light in
DIRkUGIus ¬RsTab;BN’¦
one plane while allowing light in a
perpendicular plane to pass through without
lkçN³RkammYycMnnY EdlRsUbBnøWkúgñ bøgm; Yy eRkaymk[BnøWcUleTAkñgú bøg;
absorption. Polaroid material is an artificial Ekg edIm,I[vaqøg;kat;edaymin)ac;srM Ub. rUbFatubE:U lr:UGdIu KWCarUbFatu
dichroic material.
sib,nimiµtDIRkÚGiuc.
 50

Dielectric
An insulator in which an applied electric field
DIeGLicRTic
causes a displacement of charge, but not a flow
of charge. This causes the net electric field
GIusULg;müa:g EdlkñúgenaHeBldak;enAkñúgEdnGKÁIsnI eFI[V manbMlas;TI
within the dielectric to be reduced. A dielectric bnÞkú EtmineFIVclnaeTedaysarEdnGKÁIsnI srubenAkñúgDIeGLicRTicRtUv
placed between the plates of a capacitor
increases its capacitance. fycuH. DIeGLIcRTicdak;cenøaH bnÞHkugdg;saT½r eFI[V kugdg;saT½rekIn
ka)a:seIu trbs;va.
Dielectric constant
The dielectric constant, now called the relative
efrDIeGLicRTic
permittivity, is equal to the ratio of the electric
field strength in a vacuum to the field strength
efrDIeGLicRTicEdlmkdl;eBl\LÚvenHeKehAfaEBmITIveÍ t eFob vaesInµ wg
inside the dielectric material with the same plEckénGaMgtg;sueI tEdnGKIÁsnIkgñú suBaØakaseTAnwgGaMgtg;seIu tEdnxag
potential difference applied across the sample.
kñúgrUbFatuDIeGLicRTic CamYyplsgb:Utg;Esülqøgkat;GgÁFatudUcKña.
Diesel engine
See internal combustion engine.
ma:sIunm:asU‘t
emIl internal combustion engine
Differential amplifier
An amplifier with two inputs in which the
GMBIøDIepr:g;Esül
output is a function of the difference between
the inputs
GMBIEø dlmanGIunPutBIr¬kEnøgedatcUl¦ EdlkñúgenaHeGAPut ¬kEnøgedat
ecj¦ KWCaGnuKmn_énplsgrvagGIunPut.
Differential calculus
See calculus.
DIepr:g;Esül
emIl calculus
Differential equation
An equation in which derivatives of one
smIkarDIepr:g;Esül
variable with respect to another occur as well as
the dependent variables themselves. For
smIkarmYyEdlkñúgenaH edrIevénGefrmYyeFobeTAnwgGefrmYyeTot
example d2x/dt2 = – 2x is the 2nd order begáIt)anCasmIkarmYyeTotEdlmanGefrGaRs½ynwgGefrrbs;va.
differential equation of an oscillating system.
There are many types of differential equation, ]TahrN_ d x/dt  –  x KWCasmI karDIepr:gEsüllMdab;TIBIrénRbB½n§
2 2 2

each having its own method of solution. The

simplest type has separable variables, enabling
lMeyal. mansmIkarDI epr:g;EsülCaeRcInRbePT RbePTnimYy²manvíFI
each side of the equation to be integrated
separately. The equation of radioactive decay is
cMelIy rbs;vapÞal;. RbePTgaybMputmanGefrdac;BIKañ GaceGayeKeFIV
an example of a separable differential equation:

GaMgetRkalGgÁnimYy²énsmIkardac;²BIKña. smIkarbnSayvíTüúskmµ
dN/dt = – N  N = N0e t.
KWCa]TahrN_énsmIkarDIepr:g;Esüldac;² BIKña. dN/dt  – N  N 
Ne .
 t
0

Differentiation
The process of finding the rate of change of one
karKNnaedrIev
variable with respect to another, that is finding
the derivative of one variable with respect to
d¿enIrkarrkbMErbMrYlénGefrmYyeFobeTAnwgGefrmYyeTot mann½yfakMnt;
another. If y = f(x) the derivative dy/dx is edrIevénGefrmYyeFobeTAnwgGefrmYyeTot. ebI y  f(x) edrIev dy/dx
defined as the limiting value of the ratio
[f(x + x) – f(x)]/ x as x  0. KWkMnt;edaytMéllImIténpleFob [f(x  x) – f(x)]/xkalNa x 
0. Rkab dy/dxKWCa Rkadüg;én f(x) Rtg;cn
M uc x.
Graphically dy/dx is the gradient of f(x) at a
point x.
 51

Diffraction
The spreading of waves as they pass through a
DIR)ak;süúg
small aperture or around a small obstacle.
Diffraction effects become significant if the
r)a:yrlkeBlvaqøgkat;rgVHtUcmYyb¤B½T§C¿uvijr)aMgtUcmYy. plDIR)ak;süúg
size of the aperture or obstacle approaches the )ankøayeTACamansar³sMxan; ebITMhMrgVH b¤ r)aMgxitCitC¿hanrlk. )atuPUt
wavelength of the waves. The phenomenon of
diffraction gives strong support to the wave DIR)as;süúgpþl;nUvmUldæanya:gsMxan;cMeBaHRTwsrIþ lkBnWø.
theory of light.
Diffraction grating
A device for producing spectra by diffraction
RkaFIgDIR)ak;süúg
and interference. The usual grating consists of a
glass sheet with a very large number of
]bkrN_sMrab;begáIts,úictamry³DIR)ak;süúg nig GaMgETepr:g. RkaFIg
equidistant parallel lines ruled on it (usually of FmµtamanbnÞHEkvEdlmanExSRsbKña¬cMgay BIExSmYyeTAExSmYyesIKµ ña¦
the order of 1000 per mm). Diffracted light
after transmission through the glass or ya:geRcIn CaFmµtamanExS!000 kñúgmYymIlIEm:t. BnWøcaMgpøateRkayBI
reflection by the speculum produces maxima of
illumination (spectral lines) according to the bBa¢nÚ kat;Ekv b¤ caMgpøatedaykBa©k;begIátBnWøGtibrma¬ExSs,úic¦tam
equation ml = d(sini + sinq), where d is the
distance between grating lines, l is the
smIkar ml  d(sini  sinq) Edld CacMgayrvagExSRkaFIg lCaC¿han
wavelength of the light, i is the angle of rlkBnWø i CamMcu aMgb:H qCaTisedAcaMgpøatGtibrma ehIymCalMdab;
incidence, q the direction of the diffracted
maximum, and m is the ‘order’ of the spectral sréss,iúc. RkaFIgcMNaMgpøak¾GayykeTAeRbIsrM ab;begItá s,icú kñgú tMbn;
line. Reflection gratings are also used to
produce spectra in the ultraviolet region of the Gu‘lRtasVayèns,icú eG LicRtUma:ejTic.
electromagnetic spectrum.
Diffusion
The process of mixing of different substances
sMNayPay
as a result of the random motion of their
component atoms or molecules.
d¿enIrkarlaybBa©ÚlKñanUvsarFatuepSgKña edaysarclnaRcbUkRcbl;én
smasFatuGatUm b¤ m:eU lKulrbs;va.
Diffusion pump
A vacuum pump in which oil or mercury
sñb;DIhVúysüúg
vapour is diffused through a jet which reduces
its pressure, (see Bernoulli effect), so that gas
sñb;sBu aØakas EdlmaneRbgb¤cMhay)artenAkñgú enaH vaeFIV[manbnSay
molecules are sucked out of the chamber to be tamry³m:UTr½ Rbtikmµ EdleFIVsMBaFrbs;vafy cuH(emIl Bernoulli effect)
evacuated. Pressures as low as 10–7 Pa can be
achieved by diffusion vacuum pumps. dUecñHm:UelKul]sµn½ RtUvRsUb ecjBIbMBg;. sñb;enHGaceFIVeGaysMBaFcuHdl;
10 Pa.
–7

Digit
A symbol used to represent a single number.
xÞg;
For example, the number 523 consists of three
digits.
Canimtµi sBaaØEdleKeRbIsrM ab;tagcMnYnmYy. ]TahrN_ cMnYn %@#
manbIxÞg.;
Digital computer
See computer.
kuMBüÚT½rDICItal
emIl computer
Digital recording
The process of converting an analogue signal to
Rbdab;ftDICItal;
a digital signal in an analogue-to-digital
converter, recording the digital code, then
CakarbMElgsIuBaaØlG; aNaLÚkeTACasIBu aaØl;DICItal;enAkñúgbMElgsIuBaaØl;Ga
converting it back to an analogue signal using a NaLÚkeTADIKtW al;. bnÞab;mkvabMElRtlb;eTACasIBu aaØl;GaNaLÚkvij
digital-to-analogue converter. This method is
used for very high-fidelity recording, as no edayeRbIbMElgDICtI al;-eTA-GaNaLÚk. víFIenHRtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIsrM ab;
distortion or interference occurs during
transmission or in the recording process. ftsMelgkan; Etc,as; edayeFIVmineGayxusBIPaBedÍm b¤ GaMgETepr:g;
ekItmankñúgGMLúgeBlbBa¢nÚ b¤ kñúgd¿eNIrkarft.
 52

Dilation
An increase in volume. (See time dilation)
karrIk
kMenInmaD. (emIl time dilation)
Dimensional analysis
A method of checking the physical dimensions
viPaKTMhM
of each term on both sides of an equation to
made sure they are the same. If they are not, the
viFIRtÜtBinitüTMhMrbU viTüaénGnuKmn_nmi Yy²elIGgÁTaMgsg xagénsmIkarmYy
equation is wrong. It is also useful to establish edIm,IeFIV[dwgc,as;favadUcKña. ebIvamin dUcKñaeT enaHsmIkarnwgxus.
the form, but not the numerical coefficients, of
an empirical relationship. For example, if we vak¾manRbeyaCn_edÍm,IbegIát TMrg;tamTMnak;TMng)anmkBIkarBiesaFn_)anEdr
assume that the period of a simple pendulum
depends on the length L of the pendulum, the EtTMrg;enaH KµanemKuNelxeT. ]TahrN_ebIeyIgsnµt;faxYbéne)a:l
mass M and the acceleration g due to gravity,
that is
smBaØGaRs½yelIRbEvgExSL/ ma:sM; nig sMTuH TMnajg enaHeK)an T 
kL M g . bnÞab;BIeFIVkareRbobeFobTMhM elIGgÁTaMgBIreyIgeXIjfa T 
     
T = kL M g , then by equating the dimensions
k L / g ehIyvíFIenHbgðaj fa xYbrbs;e)a:lminGaRs½ynwgma:se; T.
on both sides we find that
T = k L / g , and the method shows that the
period is independent of the mass.
Dimensions
1. The basic mechanical quantities are mass
TMhM
(M), length (L) and time (T). Using these
dimensions the derived quantity velocity will
!> brimaNemkanicRKwHKWma:s; (M), RbEvg (L) nigeBl (T). eRbITMhMTaMg
have dimensions LT-1, and acceleration has the enHeK)anbrimaNel,ÓnmanTMhM LT nigsMTuH manTMhM LT nigkMlaMg
-1 -2

dimensions LT-2, and force MLT-2. In

electricity, current (I) is taken as fundamental, MLT . kñg
-2
ú GKÁIsnIcrnþ (I) RtUv)an eKkMnt;faCaTMhMRKwH bnÞúkmanTMhM IT.
so charge has the dimensions IT. 2. A dot has
zero dimensions, a straight line has one @> cMnucmanTMhMsUnü/ bnÞat;Rtg;manTMhMmYy bøg;b¤kMeNagmanTMhMBIr/ maD
dimension, a plane or curve has two
dimensions, a volume or curved surface has
b¤épÞkMeNagmanTMhMbI.
three dimensions.
Diode
An electronic device used to rectify current.
düÚt
The thermionic diode, with a negative cathode
and a positive anode, allows a flow of electrons
briFaneGLicRtUniceRbIsMrab;Ekcrnþ. düÚtETmIy:Unicmanka tUdGviC¢man nig
from cathode to anode only, now replaced by GaNUdviC¢man GacGnuBaaØt[EteGLicRtugpøas;TIBIkatUdeTAGaNUdb:eu NÑaH
the semiconductor diode, consisting of a p-n
junction. When the junction is forward-biased, \LÚveyIgC¿nYseday düÚtsWmkI ugDucT½r EdlmanfñaMg p-n. eBlEdl
current flows, when it is reverse-biased, almost
no current flows. fñaMgep¥ogeTAmuxeFI[V crnþGacpøas;TI eBlvaep¥oRcasmkvij crnþesÞIEt
minGacpøas;TI)an.
Dioptre
An optical unit giving the power of a lens as the
düÚbRTI
reciprocal of its focal length in meters. Thus, a
lens with a focal length of 50 cm has a power of
xñatGubTicsMrab;bBaa¢kB; IGnuPaBLg;TI vaCacMras;éncMgay kMnKMu itCaEm:Rt.
2 dioptres. The power of a converging lens is dUcenHebILg;TImancMgaykMnuM 50cm  0.5m manGnuPaBesIµnwg@ düÚbRTI
taken to be positive and that of a diverging lens
negative. For two thin lenses in contact the mann½yfavaesIµnwg 1/0.5 = 2 . GnuPaBénLg;TIbRgÜmRtÚvyktMélvíC¢man.
resultant power is the sum of the individual
powers. cMeBaHLg;TIesIgþ BIrbiTCab;Kña GnuPaBsrubesInµ wgplbUkénGnuPaBnimYy².
Dip Dip
See geomagnetism.
emIl geomagnetism
 53

Dipole
1. Two equal and opposite charges q, separated
DIb:Ul
by a distance d. The dipole moment is given by
M = qd. 2. An aerial (antenna) commonly used
!> bnÞúkqBIrmanm:DU uldUcKñaEtTisedApÞúyKña XaøtBIKñacMgay d. m:mU :gDIbl:U
for frequencies below 30 MHz. It consists of a [edaysmIkar M  qd . @> Gg;EtnEdleK eRbIsMrab;TTYlrlkviTüúeRkam
horizontal rod, fed at its centre. It may be a
half-wavelength or a full-wavelength long. 3. eRbkg; 30Mhz. Gg;EtnenH mandak;cgáwHGgÁFatucMlgmYyenAcMkNþal.
Every magnet is a dipole, consisting of a north
and south pole separated by a distance. #>RKb;emEdk TaMgGs;KICaDIb:Ul vamanb:UleCIgnigb:Ult,ÚgXaøtBIKañ eday
cMgaymYy.
Direct current (d.c)
An electric current in which the flow of charge
crnþCab; (d.c)
is in one direction only. Compare alternating
current.
crnþGKÁsI nIEdlpøas;TIbnÞúktamTisedAEtmYyb:eu NÑaH. eRbobeFob
alternating current.
Direct current motor
See electric motor
m:UT½rcrnþCab;
emIl electric motor
Directrix
1. A plane curve defining the base of a *cone.
DIricRTic
2. A straight line from which the distance to
any point on a *conic is in a constant ratio to
!> bøgk; MeNagkMnt;)atekan. @> bnÞat;Rtg;EdlcMgayeTAcMncu NamYyenA
the distance from that point to the focus. elIekanmanpleFobefreTAnwgcMgayBIcMnuc enaHeTAkMn.Mu
Discharge
1. The release of electric charge from a
epÞrbnÞúk
capacitor into an external circuit. 2. The
passage of charge carriers through a gas at low
!> beBa©jbnÞkú GKÁIsnIBIkgu dg;saT½rmYyeTAkñúgesoKVIeRkA. @> d¿eNIrqøgkat;
pressure in a gas discharge tube. A potential ]bkrN_pÞúkbnÞúktamry³]s½nµ enAsMBaF Tabkñgú bMBg;epÞrbnÞúk]sµn½ . pl
difference applied between cathode and anode
creates an electric field that accelerates any free sgb:Utg;EsülEdlGnuvtþ cenøaHkatUd nig GaNUd begIát)anEdnGKIÁsnI
electrons and ions to their appropriate
electrodes. Collisions between electrons and EdlC¿rju eG LicRtugesrI nig GIyu :ugsÞúHcUleTArkeGLicRtÚd. karTgiácrvag
gas molecules create more ions. Collisions also
create excited ions and molecules, which decay
eGLicRtugnigm:eU lKul]sµ½nbegIát)anGIuy:ugkan;EteRcIneLIg. karTgicá enH
with emission of light. k¾begIáteGaymanGIuyg:u nigm:eU lKulpgEdr EdlRtÚvrlayedaykarbeBa©j
BnWø.
Discontinuous function
See continuous function.
GnuKmn_dac;
emIl continuous function
Disintegration
A process in which an atomic nucleus breaks up
bMEbkKña
spontaneously into two or more fragments in a
radioactive decay process, or breaks up as a
d¿enIrkarEdléNVy:UGatUmbMEbkya:grh½seTACaBIr b¤ eRcInbMENkñúg
result of a collision with a high-energy particle. karrlYyvíTüúskmµ b¤ bMEbkedaykarTgicá CamYypg; EdlmanfamBlx<s;.
Dispersion
The separation of white light into a spectrum
r)a:y
when the light is passed through a prism or a
diffraction grating. In a prism, violet is
karbMEbkBnøWs[eTACas,úicmYy eBlEdlBnøWqøgkat;RBIs b¤ RkaFIg
refracted through a greater angle than red light, DIR)ak;süúg. kñgú RBIs BnøWBN’saV ycaMgpøatqøgkat; 'anmMuFMCagBnøWRkhm
because the speed of violet light through the
medium is less than the speed of red light. In a eRBaHel,ÒnBnøWBN’saV yqøgkat;mCÁ dæantUcCagel,ÒnBnøWBN’Rkhm.
diffraction grating, red light is deviated more
than violet light because it has a longer enAkñúgRkaFIgDIR)ak;süúg BnøWRkhmmanlMgakFMCagBnøWsaV y eRBaHvaman
wavelength. C¿hanrlkEvgCag.
 54

Displacement
A vector giving the position of a point relative
bMlas;TI
to an origin, having both magnitude and
direction.
vicu T½rEdlpþl;nUvTItaMgcMncu mYyeFobeTAnwgKl;0 vamanTaMg mUDul nig
TaMgTisedA.
Distortion
1. An optical aberration in which the image of a
DIsþrsüúg ¬karxusBIPaBedÍm¦
square has the appearance of either a barrel or a
pincushion. 2. The failure of an amplifier to
!> RBakGubTic EdlkñúgenaHrUbPaBénkaermYymanTMngdUcCa)aErlmYy b¤
reproduce a signal at the output that is a true CaPInxasðinmYy. @> karbnßyGMBøIedIm,IeFIV [sIuBaØal;ecjCasIuBaaØl;Bit
replica of the input signal.
rbs;suBI aaØl;clU .
Distributive law
The mathematical law stating that if a series of
lkçN³bMEbk
mathematical operations is carried out, the
order in which they are carried out is irrelevant.
c,ab;eBalfa ebIes‘rèI nRbmaNviFIKNitviTüaRtUv)aneKGnuvtþ viFIedIm,I
For example, multiplication is distributive with Gnuvtþ KWRtÚvbMEbkva. ]TahrN_ viFIKuNman lkçN³bMEbkeFobeTAnwg
respect to addition and subtraction: x(y + z) = xy
+ xz. Compare associative law and commutative viFIbUk : x(y  z)  xy  xz . eRbobeFob associative law and
commutative law.
law.

Diurnal
Daily; an event that happens once every day.
Tivacr
For example, sunrise. RBitkþi arN_EdlekItelIgmþgerogral;éf¶. ]TahrN_ RBHGaTitürH.
Divergence (div)
The scalar product of the gradient
DIv
operator  with a vector. For a vector u that has plKuNsáaElénkarIRkadüg;  CamYynwgvíucT½r. cMeBaHvícu T½r u Edlman
components ux, uy and uz, and is a function of x,
y and z, the divergence is given by: kMb:Usg; u , u , nig u ehIyCaGnuKmn_énx, ynig z DIveGayeday
x y z
divu =  .u = u x / x  u y / y  u z / z . u u u
The divergence of a vector at a given point : divu    u 
x
x y

y
 z
z
. DIvvícu T½rRtg;cnM ucNamYy
represents the flux of vector per unit volume in
the neighbourhood of that point. See also: curl; EdleKeGay tageGayPøcú víucT½rkñúg mYyxñatmaDkñgú tMbn;éncMncu enaH. emIl
Laplace equation.
curl; Laplace equation.
Divergence theorem
A theorem that gives the relation between the
RTwsIþDIv
total flux of a vector F out of a surface S, which
surrounds the volume V, to the vector inside the
RTwsIþEdleGayTMnak;TMngrvagvícu T½rPøúc F srubecjBIépÞS EdlB½T§C¿uvíj
volume. The divergence theorem states that eday maD V eTAnwgvíucT½rxagkñúgmaD. RTwsDIþ IveBalfa
 divFdV   F.dS . The divergence theorem
V S  divFdV   F.dS . RTwsDIþ IvsmmUleTAnwgRTwsþIháÚskñúgeGLicRtÚ
V S
is equivalent to Gauss’s theorem in
electrostatics. sþaTic.
Divergent series
See convergent series.
es‘rIBRgIk
emIl convergent series
Diverging lens or mirror
A lens or mirror that refracts or reflects parallel
Lg;TIBRgIk b¤ kBa©k;BRgIk
rays of light into diverging rays. A divergent
lens is concave; a diverging mirror is convex.
Lg;TI b¤ kBa©kE; dlkaMBnøWcaMgEbr b¤ caMgpøatrbs;kaMBnøRW sb eTACakMaBnørW Ik.
 55

D – lines
Two close yellow lines in the sodium spectrum
srés-D
having wavelengths of 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm.
As they are prominent and easily recognised,
sréselOgBIrenAekokKñakñúgs,úci sUdüÚm vamanC¿hanrlk 589.0 nm nig
they are used as a standard in spectroscopy. 589.6 nm. eKeRbIvaCaTUeTAkñúgs,úc
i RtÚkBU I edaysarvaelcrUbrageLIg
ehIy gaysÁal;.
Domain
See magnetism.
tMbn;
emIl magnetism
Donor
See semiconductor.
dUn½r
emIl semiconductor
Doping
See semiconductor.
dUPIg
emIl semiconductor
Doppler effect
The apparent change in the observed frequency
pldUBø½r
of waves emitted by a source, caused by
relative motion between the source and
karekItmanbMErbMrYlkñúgeRbkg;segáténrlkEdlbeBa©j edayRbPBmYy
observer. If the observer is moving towards the bNaþlmkBIclnaeFobrvagRbPB nig Gññksegát. ebIGñksegátpøas;TIeTA
source the relation between the observed and
emitted frequency is f = f(v0 + v)/v, where v0 is rkRbPB eyIg)anTMnak;TMngrvageRbkg;KMehIj nigeRbkg;EdlbeBa©j
the speed of the observer and v is the speed of
the wave relative to the air. In this case the
eday RbPBKW f = f(v +c)/c Edl v Cael,Ónrlk. ebIRbPBpøas;TIeTA

0 0

frequency increase is due to the increase in the

velocity of the observer relative to the wave. If
rkGñksegát eyIg)anTMnak;TMngKW f  fc/(c – v ), Edl v Cael,Ón

s s

the source is moving towards the observer, the RbPB. cMeBaHrlkeGLicRtUma:ejTicKW

relation is f = fv/(v – vs), where vs is the speed
cv
of the source. With electromagnetic waves,
;
f f
cv cv
f = f
cv
d-orbital
See orbital.
G½rb‘Ít-d
emIl orbital
Dose
A measure of the amount of ionising radiation
dUs
to which matter has been exposed. rgVas;cMnYnkaMrsµIGyIu :UnicEdlbeBa©jedayrUbFatu.
Doublet
1. A pair of optical lenses of different shapes
dUebøt
and made of different materials cemented
together in order to reduce the two primary
!> Lg;TIGubTicmYyKUmanragxusKña ehIyeFIBV IrbU FatuxusKña eKbitvaCab;Kañ
aberrations, chromatic and spherical aberration. edIm,IeGayfycuHRBakBIrd¿bUg KWRBakEsV nig RBakRkÚma:Tci . @> bnÞat;
2. A pair of associated lines certain atomic
spectra, such as the two lines that make up the s,iúcGatUmmYyKUenACab;Kañ EdlvaTaMgBIrenHbegItá )anCasréssUdüÚmD.
sodium D-line.
Dry cell
A primary or secondary cell, or battery in which
fµBils¶Üt
the electrolyte is in the form of a paste. Many
radio batteries are Leclanché cells in which the
fµBilbzmb¤fµBilmFüm b¤ GaKuy Edlkñgú enaHeGLicRtÚ lItmanTMrg;Ca
electrolyte is an ammonium chloride paste and emSAsit¥ . fµBwlvíTüúCaeRcInKWCafµBwlLWkøg;es EdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtÚlIt
the container is the negative zinc electrode.
KWCaemSAGam:jU m:Ú køra:t nig r)aMgB½T§Cuv¿ jí ¬epÍg¦ KWCaeGLicRtÚdsgásI
GvíC¢man.
 56

Dry ice
Solid carbon dioxide used as a coolant, with a
Twkkks¶Üt
temperature of -78C. sUldI kabUnDIGuksIut eKeRbIsrM ab;eFIVCakUlin ¬sMrab;eFI[V Rt Cak;¦ rhUtdl;
sItuNPð aB -78C.
Duality
A system in which two separate aspects can be
TiVkPaB
isolated. For example, in *quantum mechanics,
the particle and wave nature of both waves and
RbB½n§mYyEdlkñúgenaH TMrg;bMEbkBIrGacenAdac;EtÉg. ]TahrN_kúñg
light is a duality (see complementarity). emkanickgTic pg;CarlkpgnigCaBnWøpg ehIy BnWøKWCaTVki PaB. (emIl
complementarity).
Ductile material
A material, such as copper, which can sustain
rUbFatuEdlGachUtCalYs
large deformations without a loss of strength,
and can be pulled into wires.
rUbFatudUcCaTg;Edg vaGacbMElg[eTACasrésEvgedaymin)at;bg;
GaMgtg;sIuet ehIyGacTajeTACaExSePøIg.
Dynamics
The branch of mechanics concerned with the
DINamic
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Time intervals, distances and masses are
DINamicCaEpñkmYyénemkanic. DINamicTak;TgCamYyclnarbs;GgÁFatu
regarded as fundamental and bodies are eRkamGMeBIénkMlaMg. ry³eBl/ cMgay nig ma:s; RtÚv)aneKcat;TukfaCa
assumed to have inertia. Bodies in motion have
a property called momentum (see Newton’s RKwH ehIyGgÁFatusnµt;famanniclPaB. GgÁFatumYykMBugpøas;TIman
laws of motion), which can only be changed by
the application of a force. Also, there are lkçN³mYyeQµaHfa brimaNclna(emIl Newton’s laws of motion)
examples in dynamics where problems are best
solved by applying the law of the conservation
EdlGac pøas;bþrÚ )anEtedaysarkMlaMgeRkAb:ueNÑaH. man]TahrN_Ca
of energy. In such cases the total mechanical eRcInkñúgDINamic EdllMhat;RtÚv)anedaHRsayya:ggayedayeRbIc,ab;
energy is assumed to be constant during a
mechanical interaction. rkSafamBlpgEdr. kñgú krNIdUcenH famBlemkanicsrubsnµt;faman
tMélefrkñúgGMLúgGnþrkmµemkanic.
Dynamo
An electric generator that converts mechanical
DINam:U
energy into d.c. electric energy. It consists of a
coil, or armature, rotating in a magnetic field.
CnitaGKÁIsnI EdlbMElgfamBlemkaniceTACafamBlGKÁIs nId.c. vaman
bUbn‘Í mYyb¤Gama:T½rmYyvilC¿uvijEdnma:ejTic.
Dyne
The c.g.s. unit of force: the force required to
DIn
give a mass of one gram an acceleration of one
cms-2.
xñatc.g.s.rbs;klM aMg. vaCakMlaMgEdlpþl;eTA[ma:sm; YyRkamnUvsMTuH
1dyne = 10-5N mYycms . 1dyne  10 N.
-2 1 –1 5

E
e
The irrational number defined as the limit as n
GW e
  of ( 1+1/n)n. Alternatively it can be cMnYnGsniTanEdlkMnt;edaylImIt ( 1+1/n) kalNa n  . vaman
n

defined as the limit as m  0 of

(1 + m)1/m. It has the value 2.71828. It is used as tMél 2.71828. eKeRbIvaCaeKalénLÚkarIt FmµCati nigenAkñgú GnuKmn_
the base of the natural logarithm and occurs in
the exponential function ex. Gics,ÚNg;Esül e . x

Early universe
The study of *cosmology at the time very soon
cRkvaLd¿bUg
after the *big bang. karsikSaGMBIelakFatuvTé üaenAeBlbnÛab;BIkarpÛúHb‘ékEbgPøam.
 57

Earth
1. Our planet, which orbits the sun between the
EpndI
planet Venus and Mars at a mean distance from
the sun of 149 600 000 km. It has a mass of
!> EpndIKWCaPBrbs;eyIg EdlCaPBmYyvilC¿uvijRBHGaTitü enAcenøaH
5.976  1024 kg and an equatorial diameter of PBsuRk nig PBGgÁar mancMgay 149 600 000 km BIRBHGaTitü manma:s;
12756km. The earth consists of three layers: the
gaseous atmosphere, the liquid hydrosphere 5.97610 kg ehIymanGgát;p©iteG kVaT½resIµ 12756km. EpndÍmanbI
24

(the oceans) and the solid lithosphere. The solid

part also consists of three layers: the crust, with RsTab;KW briyakas]sµn½ GgÀFaturavGIRu dÙEsV‘¬mhasmuRT¦ nig lItUEsV‘
a mean thickness of 32 km; the mantle, which
extends some 2900 km below the crust; and the
sUldI . EpñksUlId k¾manbIRsTab;EdrKW sMbkEpndWEdlmankMras;mFüm
core, part of which is molten iron. 2. An #@KILÚ Em:t/ m:gt; al; Edllatsn§wgRbEhl@(00KILÚEm:txageRkamsMbk
electrical connection between an appliance and
the ground, use as a safety precaution to protect EpndÍ nig sñÚlEpndÍEdlCaEdkrlay. @> kar tP¢ab;GKÁIsnIrvagdI
the user from high voltage.
nigkEnøgeRbI eKeFIVdUcenHedIm,IkarBar suvtißPaBGñkeRbI[putBItg;süúgx<s;.
Earthquake
A sudden movement or fracturing within the
karrBa¢ÜyEpndÍ
earth’s lithosphere, causing a series of shock.
This may range from a mild tremor to a large-
clnaPøam² b¤ kar)ak;RKubPøam²enAkñgú lItUEsV‘rbs;EpndI bNþalmkBI
scale earth movement causing extensive kar)ak;CabnþbnÞab;. karrMCYymankMrtw BIlMj½r bnicþ bnÞÜceTAlk;krM wtFMEdl
damage. The point at which the earthquake
originates is known as the seismic focus; the GacbNþaleGayxUcxatya:gF¶n;F¶r. cMnuccab;epÍmþ rBa¢yÜ KWCacMnucRbsBV
point on the earth’s surface directly above this
is the epicentre. Earthquakes result from a ehSsmicxagelI cMncu enHKWpí©teGBI. karrBa¢yÜ EpndÍekItmkBItMNwgkan;
build-up of stresses within the rocks until they
are strained to the point beyond which they will
EtxøaMg eLIgenAkñgú fµrhUtdl;vadac;ecjBIKañ EdlCaehtueFIVeGay
fracture. EpndÍ)ak;.
Earth’s atmosphere
The gas that surrounds the earth. Its main
briyakasEpndI
composition is approximately 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, with traces of several other gases
]sµn½ EdlenAC¿vu ijEpndI. vamanl,aynIRtÚEhSnRbEhl 78%/ GuksIuEsn
including carbon dioxide. The lowest level of RbEhl 21% RBmTaMg]sµ½nbniþcbnÞcÜ xøHeTot rYmmankabUnDIGuksIutCa
the atmosphere, in which most of the weather
occurs, is called the troposphere. Its thickness edÍm. nIvT:U abbMputrbs;briyakasehAfaRtÙbE:U sV‘ EdlkñúgenaHmanGakas
varies from about 7 km at the poles to 28 km at
the equator, and in this layer the temperature FatuCaeRcInekIteLIg. kMras;rbs;vaERbRbÜlRbEhlBI&KILEÚ m:tRtg;b:Ul
falls with increasing height. The next layer is
the stratosphere, which extends to about 50 km.
eTA@*KILÚEm:tRtg;eGkaVT½r ehIykñúgRsTab;enHsItuNPð aBFøak;cuHtam
Here the temperature remains approximately kMenInkMBs;. RsTab;bnÞab;KWRsþatUEsV‘ Ellatsn§wgRbEhl%0KILÚEm:t.
constant. Above this is the ionosphere, which
extends to about 1000 km, with the temperature sItuNPð aBvarkSaesIÛEtefr. xag elIvaKWCaGIuyn:U UEsV‘ Edllatsn§wgRbEhl
rising and the composition changing
substantially. In the ionosphere the gases are !000KILÚEm:t CamYysItuNPð aBekIneLIg ehIysmasPaBpøas;bþÚrya:g
ionised by solar radiation, enabling radio
transmissions to be made round the curved
Cak;lak;. këúgGIyu :UNUEsV‘ ]sµ½nkøayCaGIuy:ugedaysarkaMrsIµBnWøRBHGaTitü
surface of the earth, as the ionised gas acts as a
reflector for certain radio frequencies, although
EdlGaceGayeKbBa¢nÜ rlkvíTüúkeTAC¿uvjí épÞ ekagrbs;EpndÍ)an edaysar
it is transparent for frequencies above about 20 GIyu :ug]sµn½ manGMeBICaGñkcM NaMgpøatsMrab;eRbkg;vTí üú vamaneRbkg;RbEhl
MHz. The ionosphere is divided into three
layers, the D-layer (50-90 km), the E-layer (90- 20MHz. GIy u :UNUEsV‘EckecjCabIRsTab;teTAeTotKW RsTab;D (50 –
90km), RsTab;E(90-150km)nigRsTab;F(150-1000km).
150 km) and the F-layer (150-1000 km).

Earth’s magnetic field

See geomagnetism.
Ednma:ejTicEpndI
emIl geomagnetism
 58

Eccentricity
See conic.
Giucsg;RTIsIuet
emIl conic
Echo
The reflection of a wave pulse by a surface so
eGkU
that a weaker pulse is heard sometime the
original pulse.
cMnaMgpøaténsnÞúHrlkedaysarépÞ EdleFIV[snÞúHexSay GaclW)anCYnkal
lWedaysnÞúHedIm.
Echo sounder (sonar)
A device that can determine the distance of an
eGkUsMelg ¬sUNa¦
object by measuring the time interval between
the transmitted pulse of sound and the return
]bkrN_EdlGackMNt;cMgayénvtßúmyY edayvas;ry³eBlrvagsnÞúHbBa¢nÜ
pulse. If the wave speed is c, and the time sMelg nig snÞHú Rtlb;mkvij. ebIrlkmanel,Ónc ehIyry³eBlesIµnwg
interval is t, the range is given by R = ct/2.
t enaHcMgayEdlvas;)anKW R  ct/2.
Eclipse
The passage of an astronomical body through
)aMg
the shadow of another, which can only happen
when the sun, earth and moon lie in a straight
RsemalénGgÁFatumYy)aMgelIGgÁFatumYyeTotkñúgGvkas vaGacekIteLIg
line. A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth lies enAeBlEdlRBHGaTitü/ EpndI nig RBHc½RnÞ zitenAelIbnaÞtR; tg;b:ueNÑaH.
directly between the sun and the moon, so that
the shadow of the earth falls on the moon. A c½nÞRKasekIteLIgenAeBl EdlEpndIzti enAcenøaHRBHGaTitü nig RBHc½nÞ
solar eclipse occurs when the moon lies
between the sun and the earth, so that the eBlenaHRs emalEpndIRKbdNþb;eTAelIRBHc½RnÞ. sUrRKasekIteLIgenA
shadow of the moon falls on the earth. eBlEdlRBHc½nzÞ itenAcenøaHRBHGaTitü nig EpndI eBlenaH Rsemalrbs;
RBHc½nnÞRKbdNþb;eTAelIEpndI.
Ecliptic
The great circle in which the plane of the
eGXIøbTic
earth’s orbit round the sun intersects the
*celestial sphere.
rgVgF; Mmhima EdlkñúgenaHbøg;Grb‘Ítrbs;EpndÍC¿uvjé RBHGaTitüRbsBV
EsV‘esLiesÛìl.
Eddy current
A current induced in a conductor placed in a
crnþGaMgDVI
changing magnetic field, or moving in a steady
magnetic field. The flow of the induced current
crnþEdlekItmanenAkñgú GgÁFatuclM gmYyEdldak;kúñgEdnma: ejTicERbRbYl
opposes the change in magnetic flux that b¤ eFIVbMlas;TIEdnma:ejTic. bMlas;TIrbs;crnþenHpÞúyeTAnwgbMErbMrYl
produced it. Eddy currents occur in the core of
transformers and represent a loss of useful Pøúcma:ejTicEdlbegáItva. crnþGaMgDIVekItmankñúgsñÚlRtg;s½rV ma:T½r ehIyva
energy.
eFIVeGay)at;bg; famBld¾manRbeyaCn_.
Effective value
See root-mean square value.
tMélRbsiTi§
emIl root-mean square value
Efficiency
The measure of the performance of an engine or
Tinñpl
machine. Efficiency is defined as the output of
the machine (work done by the machine)
rgVas;énkarGnuvtþn_rbs;ma:sIunb¤famBl. TinñplkMnt;edaytMélecjBI
divided by the input to the machine (work put ma:sunI ¬kmµnEþ dl)aneFIVedayma:snIu ¦ Eck[tMélcUlma:suIn ¬kmµnEþ dl
into the machine). Because of losses caused by
friction, efficiency is always less than 100%. bBa©ÚleTAkñgú ma:suIn¦. edaysar kar)at;bg;bNþalmkBIkkit TinñplEtg
EttUcCag !00°.
 59

Eigenfunction
An allowed wave function of a system in
GnuKmn_pÞal;
quantum mechanics. The associated energies of
the wave function are its eigenvalues.
GnuKmn_pÞal;CaGnuKmn_rlkénRbB½n§mYykñúgemkanickgTickarpþ¿fú amBlén
GnuKmn_rlk KWCatMélpÞal;rbs;va.
Einstein equation
1. The relation between mass and energy: E =
smIkarGaMgsþaj
mc2, where E is the energy, in joules, m is
the mass defect, in kilograms, and c is the speed
!> TMnak;TMngrvagma:s;nigfamBlKW ³ E  mc Edl E KWCafamBl
2

of light (3 × 108ms-1). The mass defect can arise KitCasU‘l/ mKWCama:s;edImKitCaKILÚRkam ehIy c KWCael,ÓnBnøW
if, for example, two deuterium nuclei are made
to fuse into a helium nucleus. Because the (310 ms ). ]TahrN_ ma:s;edhVk
8 -1
i GacekIteLIgebIéNVy:UedETrüÚmBIr
helium nucleus is more tightly bound than the
deuterium nucleus it possesses more negative
rlaycUlKñaeTACaéNV y:UeGlüÚmmYy. edaysaréNVye:U GlüÚmcgsm<½n§
potential energy, hence less mass, so this fusion
process releases a huge amount of energy. The
Cab;xøaMgCagéNVy:UedETrüÚm enaHvamanfamBlb:tU g;Esülkan;EtGvíCm¢ an
equation represents the fact that mass and dUecñHd¿eNIrkarrlaycUlKñaenHbeBa©jcMnYnfamBlya:gFM. tamBitsmIkar
energy are interchangeable.
2. The relation between the energy hf of a tageGayma:s;ngi famBlGacpøas;bþÚrKñaeTAvíjeTAmk)an. @> TMnak;TMng
photon incident on a metal surface, the kinetic
energy K of an electron ejected from the surface rvag famBlhf énpUtugcaMgb:HelIépÞelah³ famBlsIeu nTic K éneGLic
and the work function  of the surface, that is,
the energy needed to release the electron from
Rtug EdlxÞatecjBIépÞelah³ nig GnuKmn_kmµnþ énépÞ eGayedaysmIkar
the surface. The relation is: K = hf - . This K = hf – , K KWCafamBlEdlcaM)ac;edIm,IeFIV[eGLicRtugecjputBIépÞ.
phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect,
and presents strong evidence that light waves eKehA)atuPUtenHfaplpUtUGKIsÁ nI ehIybBa¢ak;eGayeXIj kan;Etc,as;fa
sometimes behave in a purely particle-like way.
CYnkalrlkBnWmø anlkçN³Capg;.
Elastic collision
A collision in which the total kinetic energy of
TgáicxÞat
the colliding bodies is conserved. In both elastic
and inelastic collisions momentum is
karTgicá mYyEdlkñúgenaHfamBlsIeu nTicsrubénvtßúTgiácKñaRtUv)anrkSa.
conserved, but only in an elastic collision are kñúgkarTgiácxÞat nig karTgicá sÞk; brimaNclnaRtÚv)anrkSa b:Eu nþmanEt
both momentum and kinetic energy conserved.
See inelastic collision. karTgicá xÞatb:ueNÑaHEdlbrimaNclna nig famBlsIeu nTicRtÚv)anrkSa.
emIl inelastic collision.
Elasticity
The property of certain materials that enables
PaByWt
them to return to their original state after being
deformed. If the deformation is within the
lkçN³énsarFatumYyEdlGac[vaRtlb;eTAkan;PaBedImrbs;vavij eRkay
elastic limit, the strain, L/L, is proportional to BIvaRtUvxUcrag. ebIkarxUcragKWxUceday karyWtbnþgw l/l smamaRteTAnwg
the applied stress, F/A, in accord with Hooke’s
law. This can be written F = (A/YL)L, where
bENÑn F/A edayRsb eTAtamc,ab;hk‘u . cMeBaHrWus½rlkçN³enHGac[
Y is the Young modulus, and the quantity
(A/YL) is equivalent to the spring constant k.
eyIgsresr F = kx Edl F CakMlaMgGnuvtþ x CaKMlat ehIy k CaefrkM
rajrWsu r½ .
 60

Elastic modulus
The ratio of the stress applied to a body to the
m:UDulyWt
resulting strain. The Young modulus refers to
longitudinal stress and strain and is given by: Y
pleFobénkMlaMgbENÑnGgÁFatueTAnwg pltMngw . m:DU ulyuaMgEdlekItman
= stress/strain  tambeNþaybENÑnnigRbEvgrIkbeNþay[edaysmIkar
(F/A)/( L/L). The bulk modulus refers to
volume stress and strain, and is equal to the Y  bENÑn/RbEvgrIkbeNþay (F/A)/( l/l)  Fl/(Al)
ratio of the pressure applied to a body to its
fractional decrease in volume. The shear
m:UDul)alk_sMedAdl;bENÑnmaD nig RbEvgrIkmaD ehIyesIµpleFobsMBaF
modulus is the tangential force applied to a
body divided by the angular deformation in
GnuvtþcMeBaHGgÁFatueTAnwgkMenInPaKmaD. m:UDulesoKWCakMlaMgb:HGnuvtþ
radians. cMeBaHGgÁFatuEckedaymMxu UcragÁ KitCara:düg;.
Electric bell
A device in which an electromagnetically
kNþwgGKÁIsnI
operated hammer strikes a bell. Pressing the
bell switch causes a current to flow through an
]bkrN_myY EdlmaneGLicRtUma:ejTiceFIV[jjÜreTAb:HkNþgw . cuckugtak;
electromagnet, which pulls the hammer away kNþwg eFIV[crnþpøas;TIqøgkat;emEdkGKÁIsnIEdlTajjjÜr[q¶ayBIkNþwg.
from the bell, at the same time opening the
circuit, thus the hammer falls back onto the enAeBlenaHEdreso KIVke¾ FIVRbtþbi tþikarN_ dUecñHehIyeFIV[jjÜrFaøk;eTA
bell, closing the circuit as it does, so the
hammer hits the bell repeatedly. b:HkNþwgrYcesoKVI k¾biTvij. ebIcg;B¤kNþwgmþgeTottUvcuckugtak;mþgeTot.
Electric charge
The property of some bodies that causes them
bnÞúkGKÁIsnI
to exert forces on each other. Two bodies with
like charge, (both positive or both negative),
bnÞkú GKÁIsnICalkçN³énGgÁFatuEdlGaceFIV[vabeBa©jkM laMgeTAelIKañ eTA
repel each other. Two bodies with unlike charge vijeTAmk. GgÁFatuBIrEdlmanbnÞúkdUcKña ¬viC¢manTaMgBIr b¤ GviCm¢ anTaMg
attract each other. In atoms, electrons possess
negative charge, protons possess positive BIr¦vaRcanKñaecjeTAvijeTAmk. bnÞúkBIrxusKña vaTajKñacUleTAvijeTA
charge. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb,
(symbol C). mk. kñúgbNaþ GatUmTaMgLay eGLicRtugmanbnÞkú GviC¢man RbUtugman
bnÞkú viC¢man. xñatSIénbnÞkú KWKULúM ¬nimitþsBaaØ C¦.
Electric constant
See permittivity
efrGKÁIsnI
emIl permittivity
Electric current
The flow of electrically charged particles
crnþGKÁIsnI
(usually electrons) through a conducting circuit
caused by a potential difference. The current at
crnþGKIsÁ nIKWCabMlas;TIpg;manbnÞúkGKIÁsnI¬CaTUeTAeGLicRtug¦qøgkat;
any point in the circuit is the amount of charge esoKIVcMlg EdlbegIáteLIgedayplsgb:Utg;Esül. crnþGKIÁsnIRtg;cMnuc
crossing the point per second; its SI unit is the
ampere. In a battery the current is caused by NamYykñúgesoKIV KWCacMnYnbnÞúkqøgkat;cMncu enaHkñúgmYyvínaTI xñatSIrbs;va
chemical reactions and consists of a
simultaneous flow of electrons and ions. In a KWGMEBr. kñúgCnita crnþekIteLIgedayRbtikmµKmI IehIyeFIVeGaymanbMlas;
generator the current results from a changing
magnetic flux through a closed loop that
TIeGLicRtugnigGIuy:ugPøam. kñgú ma:sIunePIøg crnþekItmkBIbMErbMrYlPøúc
generates an electric field that pushes electrons ma:ejTicqøgkat;ExSbiT EdlbegIáteGaymanEdnGKIsÁ nIrujeGLicRtug
around the loop.
C¿uvjí ExSbiTenaH.
 61

Electric energy
A form of potential energy related to the
famBlGKÁIsnI
position of a charge in an electric field. If a
charge Q is moved through a potential
famBlGKÁIsnICaTMrg;famBlb:tU g;EsülEdlTak;TgeTAnwgTItaMgbnÞúkkñúg
difference V its change of energy is given by Edn GKÁIsnI. ebIbnÞúk Q pøas;TIqøgkat;plsg b:tU g;Esül V bMErbMrlY
E = QV.
The potential energy possessed by two charges famBlrbs;va[edaysmIkar E  QV. famBlb:tU g;EsülEdl)an
q1and q2 separated by a distance r has a
magnitude given by
mkBIbnÞkú BIrq nig q XaøtBIKñacMgayr manm:DU ul U  (q q )/(4 r).
1 2 1 2 0

U = (q1q2)/(40r). ebIbnÞkú mansBaaØdUcKña eyIg)anfamBlb:tU g;EsülviC¢man ebIbnÞúkman

If the charges have the same sign the potential
energy is positive; if they have opposite sign sBaaØpúÞyKña enaHfamBlb:tU g;EsülGviC¢man ¬ehIyeKehAvafa famBl
the potential energy is negative, (and is called
binding energy). In the case of the hydrogen sm<½n§¦. kñúgkrNIGatUmGIuRdUEsn EdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtugEdlmanbnÞúk
atom, in which a negatively charged electron
orbits a positively charged proton, we say that
GviC¢manvilC¿uvijRbUtug EdlmanbnÞkú viC¢man eBlenaHeyIgniyayfa
the system is bound, and the potential energy of
such a system is negative.
RbB½n§cgsm<n½ § nwgKña ehIyfamBlb:tU g;EsülénRbB½n§enHKWGvíC¢man.
Electric field
A region of space in which a charge
EdnGKÁIsnI
experiences an electric force. The magnitude of
the electric field is equal to the force per
EdnGKÁIsnICatMbn;lhM EdlmanbnÞúkbeBa©jkMlaMgGKÁIsnI. m:UDulrbs;Edn
coulomb acting on the charge, and the direction GKÁIsnI esIµnwgkMlaMgkñúgmYyKULú¿manGMeBIelIbnÞúk ehIyTisedAEdndUcKña
of the field is in the direction of the force acting
on a positive charge. According to Coulomb’s nigTisedAkMlaMgEdlmanGMeBIelIbnÞúkviCm¢ an. tamc,ab;KULú¿ Rtg;cMgayrBI
law, at a distance r from a charge Q, the
magnitude of the electric field is given by bnÞkú Q m:UDul EdnGKÁIsnIKW E = Q / (4 r ). EdnenHsmmUlnwgRkadüg;
0
2

E = Q / (40r2)
This field is equivalent to a potential gradient
b:Utg;EsültambeNþayEdn ehIymanrgVas;KitCav:ulkñúgmYyEm:t.
along the field, and is measured in volts per GaMgtg;sIuetEdnGacbkRsaytamvíFIepSgedaybMlas;TIGKIÁsnIrbs;va.
metre. The strength of the field can
alternatively be described by its electric pleFobD/E cMeBaHrgVas;kgñú suBaØa kasesIµnwgefGKIÁsnI . kñúgsarFatu
0
displacement D. The ratio D/E for
measurements in a vacuum is the electric DIeGLicRTic eKsegát eXIjGaMgtg;sIuetEdnGKIsÁ nIRtÚv)anfycuHeday
constant 0. In a dielectric substance the bMlas;TIeG LicRtug dUecñHD/ETMngCaekIneLIg pleFobf͵ ()ehAfa
observed electric field strength is reduced by
electron displacement so that D/E appears to EBmITIveÍ trbs;sarFatu. EdnGKIÁsnIk¾GacekItBIbMErbMrlY Ednma:ejTic
increase; the new ratio (e) is called the
permittivity of the substance. An electric field )anEdr.
can also be created by a changing magnetic
field.
Electric flux E PøúcGKÁIsnI  E
In an electric field, the product of an area A and
the component of the electric field E kñúgEdnGKIsÁ nI PøúcGKÁIsnICaplKuNénRklaépÞ A nig kMb:U sg;EdnGKÁIsnI
perpendicular to the area: E  EAcos
where  is the angle between the electric field E EdlEkgeTAnwgépÞ:   EAcos Edl  KWCamMru vagvic
E u T½rEdnGKÁsI nI
vector and the normal to the surface.
nig viucT½rEkgeTAnwgépÞ.
Electricity
All phenomena related to electric charge, both
GKÁIsnI
stationary or in motion. )atuPUtTaMgGs;EdlTak;TgeTAnwgbnÞkú GKÁIsnI TaMgbnÞkú enA nwg b¤ TaMgbnÞkú
manclna.
 62

Electric lighting
Illumination provided by electric currents. In
BnøWGKÁIsnI
the electric light bulb, current is passed through
a tungsten filament bringing it to a white heat.
BnøWPøcW ,as;EdlekIteLIgedaycrnþGKÁIsnI. kñúgGMBUlGKÁsI nIcrnþqøgkat;
The filament is kept in an inert gas, to prevent sréstg;Esþn eFIV[tg;EsþnekþABN’s. srèstg;EsþnRtUvdak;enAkñúg]sµ½n
the evaporation of tungsten. In a fluorescent
tube, a high voltage is applied across mercury edIm,IkarBarrMhYttg;Esþn. kñúgbMBg;GMBUlEm:t eKeGaytg;süúgx<s;qøgkat;
vapour at low pressure. In the discharge
mercury atoms are excited to a high energy cMhay)artenAsItuNPþ aBTab. kñgú eBl)artepÞrbnÞúk GatUm)art)anelat
state, then fall back to a low energy state with
the emission of ultraviolet radiation. This
eTAkan;RsTab;EdlmanfamBlx<s; bnÞab;mkFøak;mkkan;RsTab;Edlman
radiation is converted to visible light by a famBlTabvij edaymanbeBa¨jkaMrsIµG‘ulRtasVay. kaMrsIµenHbMElgeTA
phosphor coating on the inside of the tube.
CaBnøEW dlGacemIleXIjeday sarpUsrV½ EdllabenAxagkñúgbMBg;.
Electric motor
A machine for converting electrical energy to
m:UT½rGKÁIsnI
mechanical energy. The principle of the motor
is that a coil carrying a current placed in a
ma:sunI sMrab;bMElgfamBlGKÁIsnIeTACafamBlemkanic. eKalkarN_én
magnetic field experiences a magnetic torque m:UTr½ KWmanbUb‘ÍnmYymanpÛúkcrnþGKÀIsnIdak;enAkëugEdnma:ejTiceFIV[vabeBa©j
(turning force), which can be used to rotate
pulleys, wheels and so on. In a simple motor, kMlaMgbgVilmYy EdlGaceRbIedIm,IeFIV[r:kvil.l. kñúgm:TU ½rsmBaØ GnuPaB
power is fed into the motor via a commutator.
pþle; TAeGaym:TU ½rtamry³kMum:uytaT½r.
Electric potential symbol V
The potential at a point at a distance d from a
b:Utg;EsülGKÁIsnI (nimµitsBaaØ V )
charge Q is defined as the energy required to
bring unit positive charge from infinity to the
bU:tg;EsülRtg;cMncu mYyenAcMgayd BIbnÞúkQ KWkMnt;edayfamBlEdl
point. By convention we define the potential at pþl[; edIm,InaMykbnÞúkviCm¢ anmYyBIGnnþeTAcMnucenaH. edaysnµt;fa
an infinite distance from the charge to be zero,
so the potential at a distance d is given by b:Utg;EsülenAcMgayGnnþBIbnÞkú mantMélesIµsUnü dUcenHb:tU g;EsülenA
V= Q/ 40d. Potential is a scalar quantity,
either positive or negative. Near a positive
Rtg;cMgayd [ ³ V  Q/4 d. b:tU g;EsülKWCabrimaNsþaEl eTaHbI
0

charge it is positive, Near a negative charge it is

negative.
viC¢man b¤ GviCm¢ ank¾eday. enACitbnÞúkviC¢man vamantMélviC¢manenACit
bnÞkú GviC¢man vamantMélGviC¢man.
Electric power
The rate of doing work in an electric system. In
GnuPaBGKÁIsnI
a d.c. circuit it is equal to the product of current
I and a voltage V:
GnuPaBGKÁIsnICatMélénkmµnþEdl)aneFIkV gñú RbB½n§GKÁsI nI. kñúgesoKIV d.c
P = IV. In a.c circuits the power is given by vaesIµnwgplKuNéncrnþ Inig tg;süúgV: P = IV . kñgú esoKVI a.c GnuPaB[
IVcos, where I and V are the r.m.s. values of
current and voltage, and  is the phase angle edaysmIkar IVcos, Edl I nig V KWCatMélb£skaermFümrbs;crnþ nig
between current and voltage.
tg;süúg ehIy  KWCamMupasrvagcrnþnigtg;süúg.
Electrochemical cell
See cell.
GKIÁsnIclkreGLicRtUKImI
emIl cell
Electrochemistry
The study of chemical properties and reactions
eGLicRtÚKImI
involving ions in solution, including
electrolysis and electric cells.
eGLicRtÚKImICamuxvíCa¢ EdlsikSaGMBIlkçN³KImI nig Rbtikmµ EdlTak;Tgnwg
GIyu :ugkñúgsUluysüúg rYmTaMgeGLicRtÚlsI nig GKIÁsnIclkrpg.
 63

Electrode
A conductor that emits or collects electrons
eGLicRtUd
and/or ions in a cell, thermionic valve,
semiconductor device, etc. The anode is the
eGLicrRtÚdCaGgÁFatucMlgEdlbeBa©jb¤RbmUleGLicRtug b¤GIuyg:u kñúg
positive electrode; the cathode is the negative fµBil/ va:l;ETmüÚnic/ ]bkrN_sWmIkugDucT½r.l. GaNUdKWCaeGLicRtÚd
electrode.
víC¢man katUdCaeGLicRtÚdGvíC¢man.
Electrodynamics
The study of electric charges in motion, the
eGLicRtUDINamic
forces created by electric and magnetic fields,
especially with relation to the theory and design
karsikSabnÞúkGKÁIsnIEdlmanclna CaBiesssikSaBITM nak;TMngRTwsIþ nig
of electric motors and generators. erobcMrcnaCnita nig m:UT½rGKÁsI nI.
Electrolysis
The production of a chemical change by
eGLicRtUlIs
passing an electric current through an
electrolyte. In electrolysis, positive ions migrate
karbegáItbMErbMrYlKImI eday[crnþGKÁsI nIqøgkat;eGLicRtÚltI . kñúgeGLic
to the cathode and negative ions to the anode. RtÚlIs GIyu :ugvíC¢manpøas;eTAkatUd ehIyGIuy:ugGvíC¢manpøas;eTAGaNUd.
Electrolyte
A liquid that conducts electricity because of the
eGLicRtUlIt
presence of positive and negative ions. An
electrolyte is a solution of ionic salts or of
GgÁFaturavm:üagEdlcMlgGKÁIsnI eRBaHmanGIyu :ugviC¢man nig GIyu :ug
compounds that ionise in solution. GviC¢man. eGLicRtÚltI KWCal,ayGMbilGIuy:Unic b¤ smasFatuEdlman
GIyu :ugenAkñgú l,ay.
Electromagnet
A soft iron magnetic core with insulated wire
emEdkGKÁIsnI
wound around it in the form of a solenoid.
When a current flows through the coil, the core
emEdkGKÁIsnICasñlÚ Edkma:ejTicEdlmanExSePøIgrMCu ¿uvijvaCaTMrg;
becomes magnetised; when the current ceases sUelNUGIud. eBlcrnþqøgkat;bUb‘Ín eFIVeGaysëÚleTACama:ejTic¬Edkqk;¦
to flow the core loses its magnetisation.
Electromagnets are used in switches, solenoids, eBlcrnþQb;pøas;TIsñÚl)at;bg;ma:ejTic¬Elgqk;¦rbs;va. emEdkGKIÁsnI
electric bells, metal-lifting cranes and many
other applications. RtÚv)aneKykeTAeRbÍ kñúgkugtak;/ kñgú sUelNUGdIu / kñúgkNwþgGKIsÁ nI/
kñúgma:suIn sÞÜc nig kñúg]bkrN_eRbIR)as;CaeRcIn.
Electromagnetic induction
The production of an emf () in a conductor by
GaMgDucsüúgeGLicRtUma:ejTic
a changing magnetic flux (). The changing karekItman emf () edaybMErbMrYlPøúcma:ejTic (). Ednma:ejTic
magnetic field sets up an electric field that
drives electrons around a coil placed in the ERbRbYl eFIV[ekItmanEdnGKÁIsnIEdlbBa¢nÚ eGLicRtug[rt;C¿uvijbUb‘Ín
changing magnetic field. An emf is also set up
when a conductor moves in a magnetic field. Edldak;;enAkñgú Ednma:ejTicERbRbYl. emf k¾GacekIteLIgedaysar
The magnitude of the induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
GgÁFatucMlgpøas;TIkúñgEdnma:ejTicEdr. m:UDulrbs; emf smamaRteTAnwg
flux. This is expressed in Neumann’s equation: bMErbMrYlPøúc ma:ejTic. smIkarnyEmn[:    (nd)/(dt)
 = – n(d)/(dt),
where n is the number of turns in the coil and  EdlnCacMnYnC¿ukúëgbUb‘nÍ ehIyCaPøúcma:ejTicqøgkat;bUb‘Ín. sBaaØdk
is the magnetic flux through the coil. The minus
sign indicates that the direction of the emf is bBaa¢k;fa TisedArbs; emf pÞyú nwgbMErbMrlY Pøcú ma:ejTicEdlbegáItva.
such as to oppose the change in the magnetic
flux that caused it.
Electromagnetic interaction
See fundamental interactions.
GnþrkmµeGLicRtUma:ejTic
emIl fundamental interactions
 64

Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic energy resulting from the
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic
acceleration of electric charge and the
associated electric and magnetic fields. The
famBleGLicRtUma:ejTicEdl)anmkBIsMTuHénbnÞúkGKÁIsnI
energy consists of oscillating electric and ehIykñúgenaHmanEdnGKÁIsnI nig Ednma:ejTic. kñúgfamBl
magnetic fields at right angles to each other and
to the direction of propagation of the radiation. rYmmanlMeyalGKÁIsnI nig lMeyalma:ejTicEkgKñaeTAvij eTAmk
In a vacuum the waves travel through space
with speed c = 3 × 108 ms–1. ehIymanTisedAtamTisedAtMNalkaMrsI.µ kñúg suBaØakas
rlkdaledayel,Ón c  3  10 ms .8 -1

Electromagnetic spectrum
The range of wavelengths over which the
s,iceGLicRtUma:ejTic
electromagnetic spectrum extends. From the
long wavelength end to the short wavelength
ry³cMgayC¿hanrlkelIKlM ats,iceGLicRtUma:ejTic.
end we have successively: radio waves; BIcgu C¿hanrlkEvgeTAkan;cugC¿hanrlkxøIeyIg)anerogKña³ rlkviTüú/
microwave radiation; infrared radiation (IR);
visible light; ultraviolet radiation (UV); X-rays; kaMrsµIrlkmIRkU/ kaMrsµIGaMgRhVaRkhm(IR)/ BnøW EdlGacemIleXIj/
and gamma rays.
kaMrsµIGulRtasVay (UV), kaMrsµI X, kaM rsIµháama:.
Electrometer
An instrument with a very high input resistance
eGLicRtUEm:t
used to measure voltages while drawing a
negligible current from the source. The modern
]bkrN_müa:gmaner:sIusþg;cUlya:gFM eKeRbIsrM ab;vas;tg;
electrometer is based on the operational süúgenAeBlEdleK[crnþmantMéltUcBIRbPB. eGLicRtU
amplifier.
Em:tTMenIbKWEp¥kelIkareRbIGMBøI.
Electromotive force
The greatest potential difference that can be
kMlaMgGKÁIsnIclkr
generated by a source when zero current is
being drawn from the source, defined as the
plsgb:tU g;EsülFMbMptu EdlGacbegIáteLIgedayRbPB
work done per unit charge (1 coulomb):  = eBlEdlcrnþecjBIRbPBmantMélesIµsUnü. kMlaMgGKÁsI nI
W/Q. In practice, the terminal voltage of a
power source is equal to the emf of the source clkresIµnwgkmµnþEdl)aneFIVkñúgmYyxñatbnÞúk   W/Q. kñgú karGnuvtþn_
minus the voltage dropped across the internal
resistance of the source.
tg;süúgénRbPBGnuPaBesInµ wgkMlaMgGKIÁsnI
clkrénRbPBdktg;süúgqøgkat;ersIusþg;kñúgénRbPB.
Electron
An elementary particle, classed as a lepton,
eGLicRtug
with mass 9.1 × 10-31 kg, and a negative charge
of 1.6 × 10-19 C. Electrons are present in all
pg;d¿bUgkñúgfñak;libtun manma:s; 9.1 10 kg ehIyman bnÞúkGvíCm¢ an
–31

atoms in groupings called shells around the 1.610 C. eGLicRtugmanenAkñúgRKb;Ga tUmTaMgGs;

–19

positive nucleus.
kñúgRkummYyehAfaRsTab;Cv¿u íjéNVyv:U íC¢man.
Electron capture
A radioactive transformation in which a nucleus
cMNab;eGLicRtug
acquires an electron from an inner orbit of the
atom, thereby transforming into a nucleus with
karbMElgvíTüúskmµ EdlkñúgenaHéNVyc:U ab;ykeGLicRtugBI
the same mass number, but an atomic number Grb‘tÍ xagkëúgGatUm eRkaymkbMElgeTACaèNVy:UmancMnYn ma:s;dUcKëa
one less than that of the original nucleus.
(Capture of the electron transforms a proton EtcMnYnGatUmticCagéNVy:UedÍmmYyGatUm. Exb
into a neutron). This type of capture is
accompanied by emission of an X-ray photon as q½reGLicRtugbMElgRbUtugeTACaNWRtug. cMNab; RbePTenH
the vacancy in the inner orbit is filled by an
outer electron.
RbRBwtiþeTAedaymanbeBa©jpUtugkaMrsIµX kalNaGrb‘Ítxag
kñúgTMenrvanwgbMeBjedayeGLicRtugxageRkA.
 65

Electron diffraction
The diffraction of electrons when reflected off a
DIR)ak;süúgeGLicRtug
crystal surface, giving clear evidence that
electrons have wave-like properties, and that
DIR)ak;süúgeGLicRtugekItmanenAeBlEdlkaMcaMgpøatb:HépÞ RKIsaþ l;
their de Broglie wavelength is related to their Gac[eyIgeXIjya:gc,as;faeGLicRtugmanlkç N³Carlk
momentum by  = h/mv, where h is the Planck
constant. This relationship can be investigated ehIyC¿hanrlkdWRbÚKøIrbs;vamanTMnak;TMng eTAnwgbrimaNclnatamrUbmnþ
  h/mv EdlhCaefrpøg;. TMnak;TMngenHGacsegátdUcteTA :
as follows. By accelerating the electrons
through a known voltage V, we know that their
velocity is given by edaykar)aj;eGLicRtug eGayqøgkat;tg;süúgVEdleKsÁal;
½mv2 = eV  p = 2eVm . The relationship
between wavelength and the accelerating eyIgdwgfael,Ónrbs; vaeGay ½mv  eV  p = 2eVm .
2

voltage is  = h/ 2eVm . For an accelerating TMnak;TMngrvag C¿hanrlknwgtg;süúg)aj;KW  = h/ 2eVm . cMeBaHtg;

voltage of 3,600 V the wavelength is 0.02 nm,
approximately equal to the interatomic spacing süúg)aj;esIµ3600V C¿hanrlkKW 0.02 nm Rbhak;RbEhl
of crystals, thus electron diffraction is readily
demonstrated, and the relation between
nwgcenøaHGnþrGatUménRKIsþal; dUcenHeKGacBnül;DIR)ak; süúgeGLicRtug
momentum and electron wavelength confirmed. ehIyk¾GaceGayeKkMnt;TMnak;TMngrvagC¿ hanrlknigbrimaNclna)an.
Electron gun
A device used in cathode ray tubes to produce a
kaMePøIgeGLicRtug
focussed beam of electrons. It consists of a
heated cathode, a control grid and one or more
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIkñúgbMBg;kaMrsIµkatUd edÍm,IbegIát)ac;BnWø eGLicRtug.
annular positive anodes. The intensity of the vapS¿eLIgedaykatUdkMedAmYy/ sMNaj;lsY sMrab;RtÜtBinitümYy nig
beam is controlled by the control grid, and the
potential differences between the anodes create GaNUdviC¢manmYyb¤eRcIn. GaMgtg; sIuetén)ac;BnøWRtYtBinti üedaysMNaj;
electric fields that focus the electrons into a
narrow beam. ehIyplsgb:Utg; EsülrvagGaNUdbegIát)anCaEdnGKIÁsnI
EdlC¿ryu eGay eGLicRtugcUleTAkñgú )ac;BnWøceg¥ót.
Electronics
The study and design of control,
eGLicRtÚnic
communication, and computing devices that
rely on the movement of electrons in circuits
karsikSa nig karrcna]bkrN_bBa¢a/ ]bkrN_KmnaKmn_ nig
containing semiconductor devices, thermionic ]bkrN_kBMu üÚT½r edayEp¥kelIclnaeGLicRtugkñúgesoKIV
valves, resistors, capacitors and inductors.
EdlkñúgesoKIVenaHman]bkrN_sWmIkugDucT½r/ va:l;ETmIyn:U ic/ ersIusþr/
kugdg;saT½r nig GaMgDucT½rCaedÍm.
Electron microscope
A form of microscope that uses a beam of
mIRkUTsSn_eGLicRtug
electrons instead of a beam of light (as in an
optical microscope) to form a large image of a
TMrg;mIRkUTsSn_müa:gEdleRbI)ac;BnWøeGLicRtugCMnYs[)ac;
very small object. Because the wavelength BnWøéf¶¬dUcCaenAkñgú mIRkUTsSn_GubTic¦ edIm,IbegáItrUbPaB[
associated with the electrons is very much
shorter than the wavelength of light, the )anFMénvtßdú ¾tUcmYy. edayC¿hanrlkrbs;eGLicRtugxIøCag
resolution of the electron microscope can be
made very much greater than that of the optical CMhanrlkénBnøWya:gxøaMg naM[lT§plmIRkUTsSn_eGLic
microscope. In all optical devices, the ultimate
resolving power is limited by the wavelength of
RtugFMCagmIRkÜTsSn_GubTicya:gxøaMg. kñúgRKb;]bkrN_Gub TicTaMgGs;
the light being used for observation. GnuPaBplsMerc)anx<sb; Mptu kMnt;edayC¿han
rlkBnWøEdleRbIsMrab;segát.
Electron Optics
The study of the use of electron lenses in the
GubTiceGLicRtúg
electron microscope, cathode ray tubes and
other similar devices.
karsikSaBIrebobeRbILg;TIeGLicRtugkñúgmIRkÚTsSn_eGLic Rtug
¬bMBg;kaMrsIµkatUd nig ]bkrN_RsedogKñad¾éTeTot¦.
 66

Electronvolt (symbol eV)

A unit of energy equal to the work done on an
electron in moving it through a potential
difference of one volt.
1eV = 1.6 × 10-19J.
eGLicRtugv:ul (nimitþsBaaØ eV)
xañtfamBl esInµ wgkmµnEþ dl)aneFIVelIeGLicRtugmYyedIm,I
[vapøas;TIqøgkat;plsgb:Utg;EsülmYyv:ul.
1eV = 1.610 J.
-19

Electropositive
Describing elements that tend to lose electrons
eGLicRtÚviC¢man
and form positive ions. erobrab;BIFatuTaMgLayEdlQaneTArkkar)at;bg;eGLic Rtug
ehIykaøyeTACaGIy:ugviC¢man.
Electroscope
A device for detecting electric charge and for
eGLicRtÚTsSn_
identifying its polarity. In the gold-leaf
electroscope, two strips of thin gold sheet are
]bkrN_sMrab;BinitüemIlbnÞkú GKIÁsnI nig sMrab;bBa¢ak;BIb:lU rbs;va.
attached to the end of a conducting rod held in kñúgeGLicRtUTsSn_háÚllIv eKP¢ab;bnÞHmasesIgþ
an insulated frame. When a charge is applied to
a plate attached to the other end of the BIrsnwøkeTAcugcgwHá GgÁFatuclM gdak;kñúgeRKagGIusULg;. kal
conducting rod, the leaves move apart owing to
the mutual repulsion of the like charges they NaeKeGaybnÞúkb:HcugcgwHá GgÁFatucMlg snøwkmasRcanKña
have received. In order to determine the
polarity of the charge, a second body charged
ecjeTAvíjeTAmk mann½yfavaTTYlbnÞúkmansBaØadUcKña.
with a known polarity has to be brought close to edÍm,IkMnt;b:lU rbs;bnÞkú eKdak;GgÁFatuTIBIrEdleKsÁal;
the conducting plate. If the separation of the
leaves increases, then the charge on the bUlrYcCaeRsceGayeTACítbnÞHGgÁFatuclM g. ebIsnwøkmas XøatKñakan;EtFM
electroscope has the same polarity as that on the
second body. enaHbnÞúkelIeGLicRtÚTsSn_manb:UldUc b:lU rbs;GgÁFatuTIBIr.
Electrostatic field
The electric field that surrounds a stationary
EdneGLicRtÚsþaTic
charged particle. EdnGKÁIsnIEdlB½T§C¿uvji pg;bnÞkú enAnwgfál.;
Electrostatics
The study of electric charges at rest, the forces
eGLicRtÚsþaTic
between them and the electric fields associated
with them.
karsikSaBIbnÞúkGKÁIsnIenAnwgfál; KWsikSaBIkMlaMgrvagbnÞúk nigbnÞúk
nigEdnGKÁsI nIEdlenACu¿vijva.
Element
Elements consist of single atoms in which the
Fatu
number of protons in the nucleus (equal to the
number of orbiting electrons) defines the
RKb;FatuTaMgGs;manGatUmmYy Edlkñgú enaHcMnYnRbUtugkñúg
element. For example, every carbon atom kñúgéNVy¬:U esIµnigcMnnY eGLicRtugEdlvilC¿uvij¦kMnt;[Fatu. ]TahrN_
contains six protons in the nucleus, and no other
element contains six-only protons. Also, a RKb;GatUmkabUnmanRbUtugR)aMmYyenAkñúgéNVy:U
neutral carbon atom carries 6 electrons, and this
number determines the chemical properties of ehIyKµanGIVepSgeToteRkABIRbUtugTaMgR)aMmyY enHeT. GatUm
the element carbon. kabUnNWtk¾man^eGLicRtugEdr ehIycMnYnenHkMnt;lkçN³
KImIénFatukabUn.
Elementary particles
The fundamental constituents of all the matter
PaKl¥itdMbUg b¤ pg;d¿bUg
in the universe. The most important elementary
particles are the nuclear proton and neutron and
bnSMRKwHénbNþarUbFatuTaMgGs;kñúlcRkvaL. PaKl¥ti dMbUg
the orbiting electrons. The proton carries a EdlsMxan;bMputKW RbUtug nig NWRtugnuyekøEG‘ nig karvélC¿u
charge + e (= 1.6  10 – 19 C), the electron
carries a charge – e; the neutron is uncharged. víjrbs;eGLicRtug. RbÚtugpÞúkbnÞúk e ( 1.6  10 C),
-19

eGLicRtugpÞúkbnÞkú – e rIÉNWRtugvijKµanbnÞúk.
 67

Ellipse
A conic curve formed by the intersection of a
eGlIb
plane with a right circular cone, so that the
plane is inclined to the axis of the cone at an
kMeNagekanEdlekIteLIgedaykarkat;Kañ rvagbøg;CamYynwg ekanvg;Ekg
angle greater than half the apex angle of the Edlbøg;eTkat;bBaäti eTAG½kSekanpÁ)¿ú anmMuFMCag knøHmMku BM Ulekan.
cone. The ellipse has two vertices, which are
joined by a line called the major axis. The eGlIbmankMBUlBIr EdlRbsBVKñaeday bnÞat;mYyeQµaHG½kSem.
centre of the ellipse falls on this line, midway
between the vertices. The minor axis is the line pí©trbs;eGlIbCacMeNalEkgelI bnÞat;enH
perpendicular to the major axis that passes
through the centre. The foci (plural of focus) of
vaenARtg;cMncu kNþalrvagkMBUlTaMgBIr. G½kSrgKW
the ellipse are two points on the major axis so CabnÞat;EkgnwgG½kSemEdlkat;tampí©t. kMnrMu bs;eGlIbKWCa
placed that, for any point on the ellipse, the sum
of the distances from that point to each focus is cMnucBIrenAelIG½kSem. cMncu TaMgLayNaenAelIeGlIb pl
constant. To visualise this, note that we can
draw an ellipse by sticking two pins in a bUkcMgayBIcMnucenaHeTAkMnMunimYy²mantMélefr. edÍm,IemIl
wooden board with a length of string attached
loosely between the two pins. By holding the
eGayeXIjkrNIenH sUmkt;sMKal;faeyIgGacKUseGlIb
string tight with a pencil we can trace an
ellipse, and the pins are at the two foci. For an
edaye)aHm¢lú BIrCab;eTAnwgbnÞHkþa rYcykExScgP¢ab;ml¢ú TaMgBIr
ellipse centred at the origin, the equation of the élya:gNaeGayExSyardUcGRgwg rYcykcugexAµéd
ellipse is x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1. The foci are at (ea,
0) and (– ea, 0), where e is the eccentricity. F<kE; xSeGaytwgetagvavílC¿vu íjm¢úlTaMgBIr enaHeyIg)anrag eGlIb
ehIym¢úlKWenARtg;kMnMuTaMgBIr. cMeBaHeGlIbEdl
2 2
manpí©tRtg;Kl;0mansmIkar x  y  1 . kMneMu nARtg; (ea, 0) nig (–
2 2
a b
ea, 0) EdleCaGic u sg;RTIsIuet.
Ellipsoid
A solid body formed when an ellipse is rotated
eGlIbsUGIud
about an axis. For an ellipsoid centred at the
axis the equation is
TMrg;GgÁFaturwgeBleGlIbvílC¿vu íjG½kS. cMeBaHeGlIbsUGdIu
2 2 2
x2/a2 + y2/b2 + z2/c2 = 1.
Edlmanpí©tRtg;G½kSmansmIkar x  y  z  1 .
2 2 2
a b c
emf
Abbreviation for electromotive force.
GWGwmEGhV
BakübMRBÜjmkBI electromotive force.
Emission spectrum
See spectrum.
s,úicbnSay
emIl spectrum
Emissivity (symbol ) eGmIsIuvIet (nimitþsBaaØ )
The ratio of the power per unit area radiated by
a surface to that radiated by a *black body at
the same temperature. A black body therefore
pleFobénGnuPaBkñúgmYyxñatépÞEdlbeBa©jedayGgÁFatu
has an emissivity of 1 and a perfect reflector exµAenAsItuNPð aBdUcKña. dUecñHehIyGgÁFatuexµAmaneGmIsvIu I etesIµ!
has an emissivity of 0. The emissivity of a
surface is equal to its *absorptance. ehIyerpíøcT½rsuRkwtmaneGmIsvIu IetsUnü. eGmIsIuveI t
énépÞmyY esIµnwgkarsMrUbrbs;va.
Empirical
Denoting a result that is obtained by experiment
tamBiesaFn_
or from observation, rather than from theory. bBa¢ak;BIlT§pl)anmkBIkarBiesaFn_ b¤ BIkasegát RbesIr
Cag)anmkBIRTwsþ.I
 68

Endothermic
Denoting a chemical reaction that takes heat
GindUETmic
from its surroundings. Compare exothermic. bBa¢ak;BIRbtikmµKimIsMrUbkMedA KWCaRbtikmµmYyEdlykkMedA BImCÄ
dæanC¿uvji va. eRbob eFob exothermic.
Energy
A measure of the ability of a system to do work.
famBl
Like work itself, energy is a scalar quantity,
measured in joules. Energy can be classified
rgVas;RbB½n§EdlGaceFIVkmµn.þ dUckmµnþEdrfamBlKWCabrimaNsáaElman
into two forms: kinetic energy and potential rgVas;KitCas‘Ul. famBlGacEckCaBIrKW famBlsIeu nTic nig famBlb:tU g;
energy. Kinetic energy is energy of motion, and
is defined as the work done on a moving body Esül. famBlsIeu nTicKW CafamBlénclna ehIy®tUv)ankMnt;dUcKñanwg
by all the forces acting on it. For a body of
mass m moving with speed v the kinetic energy kmµn)þ aneFIVelIvtßúpøas;TIedaykMlaMgTaMgGs;manGMeBIelIva. cMeBaHvtßúman
is mv2/2. Potential energy is the energy stored in
a body because of its position in a force field or
ma:s; m pøas;TIedayel,Ón v famBlsIeu nTicKW mv /2. famBlb:tU g;
2

its state, (compression or extension). The Esül KWCafamBlEdlpÞúkenAkñúgGgÁFatu eRBaHTItaMgrbs;vakñúgEdnkMlaMg b¤

gravitational potential energy difference (U)
between two points near the surface of the earth kñúgsNßanrbs;va¬rYmb¤rkI ¦. plsgfamBlb:tU g;EsülTMnaj (U)rvag
separated by a vertical distance h is U = mgh.
The change in the gravitational potential energy
cMnucBIrenACitEpndI XøatBIEpndIcMgayh KW U  mgh. bMErbMrYlfamBl
of a body between two points can be defined as
the negative of the work done on the body by
b:Utg;EsülTMnajrbs;vtßúmYyrvagcMnucBIGackMnt;CakmµnGþ víCm¢ anEdl)an
the gravitational force in moving the body from eFIVelIvtßúedaykMlaMgTMnajkñúgkarpøas;TIvtßúBIcnM ucmYyeTAcMnucmYyeTot.
one point to the other.
 69

Energy band
A range of energies that electrons can have in a
sm<½nfamBl
solid. In a single atom, electrons exist in
discrete *energy levels. In a crystal, in which
ry³kMrwténfamBlEdleGLicRtugGacmanenAkñúgsUldI . kñúgGatUmmYy
large numbers of atoms are held closely eGLicRtugmannIvf:U amBldac;². kñgú RKIsaþ l; EdlmancMnnY GatUmeRcInenA
together in a lattice, electrons are influenced by
a number of adjacent nuclei and the sharply Cit²Kñakñgú bNþajRKIsaþ l; eGLicRtugTaMgLayman\T§iBleTAelIKñaeday
defined levels of the atoms become bands of
allowed energy; this approach to energy levels cMnYnéNVyE:U dlenACítKña ehIyeFIVeGaynIvG:U atUmeTACasm<n½ §famBlsm<½n
in solids is often known as the band theory.
Each band represents a large number of allowed
enHxiteTACitnIvf:U amBlkñúgsUldI EdleKsÁal;faCaRTwsþIsm<½n.§ sm½<nn§ i
quantum states. Between the bands are mYy²tageGaycMnYnFMénsNßankgTicEdlGacman. cenøaHsm<½nT§ aMgLay
forbidden bands. The outermost electrons of the
atoms (i.e. the ones responsible for chemical mansm<½n§r)aMgmYy. eGLicRtugeRkAbMputénGatUm ¬eGLicRtugEdlRKb
bonding) form the valence band of the solid.
This is the band, of those occupied, that has the ;RKgsm<½nK§ mI I¦begItá )anCasm<½n§va:Lg; énsUlId. sm<½n§va:Lg;Casm<½nE§ dl
highest energy.
The band structure of solids accounts for their
manfamBlx<s;bMptu . TMrg;sm<½n§slU dI bBa¢ak;BIlkçN³GKIÁsnIrbs;va.
electrical properties. In order to move through
the solid, the electrons have to change from one
edÍm,Ipøas;TIkat;sUlId eGLicRtugRtUvEtpøas;bþrÚ BIsNßankgTicmYyeTA
quantum state to another. This can only occur if sNßankgTicmYyeTot. vaGacRbRBwtþeTA)anebImansNßankgTicTMenNa
there are empty quantum states with the same
energy. In general, if the valence band is full, EdlmanfamBldUc Kñab:eu NÑaH. CaTUeTAebIsm<½n§va:Lg;eBjeGLicRtugmin
electrons cannot change to new quantum states
in the same band. For conduction to occur, the
GacbþÚreTAkan;sNßankgTicf͵kñúgsm<½n§dUcKña)aneT. edÍm,IeGayekItman
electrons have to be in an unfilled band – the
conduction band. Metals are good conductors
karcMlgeGLicRtugRtÚvcUleTAbMeBjsm<½n§TMen b¤ sm<½nc§ Mlg. elah³Ca
either because the valence band and the GgÁFatucMlgl¥edaysarsm<½n§va:Lg;ngi sm<½nc§ MlgbMeBjEtBak;kNþal
conduction band are only half-filled or because
the conduction band overlaps with the valence b:ueNÑaH EfmTaMgsm<n½ §cMlgRtYtKñaCamYysm<½nva:Lg;eTot krNITaMgBIenH
band; in either case vacant states are available.
In insulators the conduction band and valence naMeGaymansNßanTMenr. kñúgGIusLU g; sm<½n§cMlgnigsm<½n§va:Lg;x½NdÐ ac;BI
band are separated by a wide forbidden band
and electrons do not have enough energy to
Kñaedaysm<n½ r§ )aMgya:gFM ehIyeGLicRtugminGacmanfamBlRKb;RKan;
‘jump’ from one to the other. edÍm,IelatBIsNßanmYyeTA sNßanmYyeTot)an.
 70

Energy level
A definite fixed energy that a system described
nIv:UfamBl
by *quantum mechanics, such as a molecule,
atom, electron, or nucleus, can have. In an
karkMnt;tMélnwgénfamBlRbB½n§mYybkRsaytamemkanic kgTicdUcCa
atom, for example, the atom has a fixed energy m:UelKul/ GatUm/ eGLicRtug b¤ éNVy:GU ac man. ]TahrN_
corresponding to the *orbitals in which its
electrons move around the nucleus. The atom këúgGatUmmYymantMèlfamBlnwgmYyRtÙv KëanwgGrb‘tÍ mYy
can accept a quantum of energy to become an
excited atom if that extra energy will raise an EdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtugpøas;TICv¿u íjéNVy.:U
electron to a permitted orbital. Between the
ground state, which is the lowest possible
GatUmGacTTYlykfamBlkgTicedÍm,IkøayeTACaGatUmrM ejac
energy level, and the first excited state there are ebIfamBlbEnßmenaHrujeGLicRtugeTAkan;Grb‘tÍ rM ejac.
no permissible energy levels. According to the
*quantum theory, only certain energy levels are cenøaHsNßanRKwH¬sNßanEdlGacmanfamBlTab
possible. An atom passes from one energy level
to the next without passing through fractions of bMput¦nigsNßanrMejacTImYy BMmu annIv:UfamBleT. tamRTw sIþkgTic
that energy transition. These levels are usually
described by the energies associated with the
GacmanEtnIvf:U amBlCak;lak;b:ueNÑaH.GatUmmYy
individual electrons in the atoms, which are
always lower than an arbitrary level for a free
qøgkat;BInIvf:U amBlmYyeTAnIvb:U nÞab;edayminkat;tamEpñkén
electron. The energy levels of molecules also bMlas;bþrÚ famBlenaH. nIvUT: aMgenHCaFmµtabBa¢ak;edayfam
involve quantized vibrational and rotational
motion. BlEdlmanenAkñúgeGLicRtugnimYy²kñúgGatUm EdlEtgEt
TabCagnIv:UKµansNþab;Fñab;rbs;eGLicRtugesrI. nIv:UfamBl
rbs;m:UelKulk¾Tak;TgnwglMjr½ kgTic nig clnargVilEdr.
Engine
Any device for converting stored energy into
ma:sIun
useful work or motion. ]bkrN_sMrab;bMElgfamBleGayeTACakmµnþ)ankar b¤ eGayeTACaclna.
Enrichment
The process of increasing the abundance of a
Gg;rIcm:g;
specified isotope in a mixture of isotopes. It is
usually applied to the increase in the proportion
d¿eNIrkarbegIáncMnnY GIusUtUbeGaykan;EteRcInkñúgl,ayGIusU tUb.
of U-235 to CaFmµtaeKeRbIedÍm,IbegáInPaK U-235 eTA U-238këúgGgÀ FatuGyu‘ ra:njI Ùm b¤
U-238 in a sample of uranium, or he addition
of plutonium (Pu-239) to natural uranium for bEnßmPøyú tUnIj:Úm(Pu-239)eTAeGayG‘uy
use in a nuclear reactor or weapon.
ra:nIj:ÙmFmµCatisMrab;eRbIkgëú erGakT½rnuyekøEG‘ b¤ GavuFnuy ekøEG‘.
Enthalpy (Symbol H)
A thermodynamic property of a system defined
Gg;talBI (nimitsþ BaaØ H)
by H = U + pV; here H is the enthalpy, U is the
internal energy of the system, p its pressure and
lkçN³ETm:UDINmicénRbB½n§mYykMnt;eday H  U  pV enATIenHH
V its volume. The change in the enthalpy of a KWCaGg;talBI/ UCafamBlkñúgénRbB½n§/ pCasM BaF ehIyV
system is also called latent heat.
CamaDrbs;va. bMErbMrlY Gg;talBIénRbB½n§mYy ehAfakMedALatin.
 71

Entropy (Symbol S)
A measure of the inability to convert the
Gg;RtÚBI (nimitþsBaaØS)
energy of a system to useful work. The entropy
of a system is also a measure of its disorder.
karkMnt;énkarminGacbMElgfamBlénRbB½n§mYy[eTACa kmµnþ)ankar.
The change in the entropy S of a system is Gg;RtUBIénRbB½n§mYyGackMnt;BIkarKµansNþab; Fñab;rbs;vak¾)anEdr.
related to the energy Q transferred to the
system in the form of heat by S = Q/T, where bMErbMrYlGg;RtUBI S énRbB½n§mYyman TMnak;TMngeTAnwgfamBl Q
T is the thermodynamic temperature at which
the heat is transferred. In any closed system
EdlbMElgRbB½n§eTACaTMrg;kM edAKW S  Q/T Edl T
whatever the interactions occurring within the KWCasItuNPð aBETm:DU INamicenA eBlepÞrkMedA. enAkñúgRbB½n§biT
system, the total entropy of the system must
increase. As an example, if we bring a hot body eTaHCamanGnþrkmµekIt manenAkñúgRbB½n§k¾eday
into contact with a cold body, the increase in
the entropy of the colder body always exceeds k¾Gg;RtUBIsrubrbs;RbB½n§RtUvEt ekIneLIgEdr. ]TahrN_
the decrease in the entropy of the hotter body,
thus within this system the net entropy
ebIeyIgykvtßmú YyekþAdak;eGay b:HvtßRú tCak;
increases. kMenInGg;RtUBIrbs;vtßúRtCak;CagEtgEtfycuH Gg;RtUBIelIsvtßúekþACag
dUecñHenAkñgú RbB½n§enHGg;RtÚBIsrub RtUvekIneLIg.
Equation of motion (kinematic equation)
Any of four equations that apply to bodies
smIkarclna (smIkarsIuenma:Tic)
moving with constant acceleration (a). The
equations, which relate distance covered (s) to
smIkarbYnEdlGnuvtþcMeBaHGgÁFatupaø s;TIedaysMTuH(a)efr.
the time taken (t) are smIkarTak;TgeTAnwgcMgay (s) / ry³eBl (t) KW³
v = v0 +at
v  v0 + at
s – s0 = v0t + at2/2
s – s0  v0t + at2/2
s – s0 = (v0 + v)t/2
v2 = v02 + 2a(s – s0) s – s0  (v0 + v)t/2
where v0 is the initial velocity of the body, v its v2  v02 + 2a(s-s0)
final velocity and s0 its initial distance from the Edl v KWCael,ÓnedImrbs;GgÁFatu / v KWCael,ÓneRsc rbs;va ehIy s
0 0
origin.
With problems in which we invoke Newton’s KWCacMgayedImrbs;vaBIKl; 0. CamYylM
second law to find the solution, the equation of
motion is simply the statement of Newton’s hat;CaeRcIneyIgykc,ab;TIBIrjÚtunmkeRbI edÍm,IkMnt;
second law. For example, if we displace a mass
attached to a spring and we wish to find the
cMelIy¬smIkarclnaKWRKan;EtCaBMeu nalrbs;c,ab;jÚtunb:u eNÑaH¦.
subsequent displacement, velocity and ]TahrN_ ebIeyIgdak;ma:s;mYyP¢ab;eTAnwgruWsr ehIyeyIgcg;rkbMlas;TI/
acceleration of the mass as a function of time,
the equation of motion is given by el,Ón nig sMTuHrbs;ma:s;CaGnu Kmn_éneBl smIkarclnaeGay a  –
a = – (k/m)x, and this equation can be solved by
integrating twice. (k/m)x ehIysmI karenHGacedaHRsayeFIVGaMgetRkalBIrdg.
Equation of state
An equation that relates the pressure p, volume
smIkarPaB
V, and thermodynamic temperature T of an
amount of a substance n. For an ideal gas
smIkarEdlTak;TgnwgsMBaF p / maD V nigsItuNðPaBET m:DU INamic T
pV = nRT rbs;cMnYnsarFatun. cMeBaH]sµ½nbrisuT §
where R is the universal gas constant and n is
pV  nRT
the number of molecules of the gas. For a real
gas the equation of state can be written as Edl R KWCaefr]sµ½nTUeTA ehIynCacMnYnm:eU lKulén]sµn½ .
(p + k)(V – nb) = nRT
where k is a factor due to the decreased pressure cMeBaH]sµ½nBitsmIkarPaBGacsresrCa
on the walls of the container as a result of the (p  k)(V - nb)  nRT
attraction between the gas molecules, and nb is
the volume occupied by the molecules
Edl k KWCaktþatMhysMBaFelICBa¢aMgepIgEdl)anmkBIkar
themselves. This last equation is known as the
Van der Waals equation of state.
TajcUlrvagm:UelKul]sµ½n ehIynbKWCamaDEdlekIteLIg
edaym:eU lKulxøÜnva. smIkarknøgmkenHRtÚv)aneKsÁal;fa
CasmIkarPaBva:ndWva:l.
 72

Equator
1. The great circle around the earth that lies in a
eGkVaT½r
plane perpendicular to the earth’s axis. It is
equidistant from the earth’s north and south
!> rgVgF; MbMputC¿uvíjEpndÍ vazítelIbøg;EkgeTAnwgG½kSEpndÍ.
geographic poles, and is at zero degrees of vamancMgayesIµKñaBIb:UleCÍg nig b:Ult,ÚgPUmisaRsþrbs;EpndÍ
latitude. 2. The magnetic equator is a line of
zero magnetic dip that is close to the ehIymanry³beNþaysUnüdWeRk. @> eGkVaT½rma:ejTicKWCa
geographical equator but lies north of it in
Africa and south of it in America. 3. The bnÞat;manGaMgKIøensugsUnü bnÞat;enaHxitCíteGkVaT½rPUmi saRsþ
celestial equator is the circle in which the plane
of the Earth’s equator intersects the celestial
EtxageCÍgvazítkñúgGaRhVci ehIyxagt,Úgvazítkñúg Gaemric. #>
sphere. . eGkVaT½resLiesÞólKWCargVg; EdlkñúgenaHbøge; G
kVaT½rrbs;EpndÍRbsBVEsVe‘ sLiesÞól.
Equilibrium
A body is in equilibrium if the resultant
lMnwg
(that is, the vector sum)of all the forces and
couples acting on the body is zero. A body is in
GgÁFatumYyzitkñúglMnwgebIviucT½rpÁÜb ¬mann½yfaplbUkviuc
stable equilibrium if, after a slight T½r¦énkMlaMgTaMgGs;EdlmanGMeBIelIGgÁFatuesIµsUnü.
displacement, it returns to its equilibrium
position. Also it is in a position at which its GgÀFatumYyzitkëúglMnwgs‘b; ebIeRkayeBlbMlas;TIbnþic
potential energy has a minimum value. A body
is in unstable equilibrium if, after a slight vaRtlb;eTAkan;TItaMglMngw vij. vak¾zítkñúgTItaMgEdlfam
displacement, it moves away from its
equilibrium position. Also it is in a position at
Blb:tU g;Esülrbs;vamantMélGb,brmapgEdr. GgÁFatu
which its potential energy has a maximum mYyzétkëgú lMnwgmins‘b; ebIeRkayBIbMlas;TI'anbnþicvapøas;
value. A body is in neutral equilibrium if, after
a slight displacement, it remains at its new TIecjBITItaMglMnwgrbs;va. vak¾zítkñgú TItaMgEdlfamBlb:U
location. In this case the body is on a plateau in
its U-x graph. tg;Esülrbs;vamantMélGtibrmapgEdr. GgÁFatumYyzít kñúglMnwgNWt
ebIeRkayBIpøas;TI)anbnþic varkSaRtg;TItaMgf͵ rbs;va.
kñúgkrNIenHGgÁFatukEnøgx<s;kúñgRkabU-xrbs;va.
Equinox
The points in spring and autumn at which the
Gynkal b¤ smkal
Sun’s path, the ecliptic, crosses the celestial
equator, so that the day and night are of
cMnuckñúgrdUvswøkeQIlas; nig rdUvswøkeQIRCuH Rtg;cMnucenaH
approximately equal length. The vernal equinox Knøgrbs;RBHGaTitü¬eGXIbø Tic¦kat;eGkVaT½resLiesÞól
occurs about 21 March and the autumnal
equinox, 23 September. dUecñHeFIVeGayry³eBléf¶nigyb;manRbEvgRbhak;RbEhl Kña.
smkalniTaXrdUvRbEhlCaekIteLIgenAéf¶@! mina ehIy
smkalsTrdUvRbEhlCaekIteLIgenAéf¶@#kBaØa.
Equipartition of energy
The theory that the energy of gas molecules in a
eGKI)a:TisüúgénfamBl
large sample is distributed evenly among their
available degrees of freedom, the average
RTwsIþEdlniyayfa famBlm:eU lKul]sµn½ kñúgepÍgFM KWray
energy for each degree of freedom being kT/2, eTAtamcMnYndWeRkesrIrbs;vaEdlGacman famBlmFüm
where k is the *Boltzmann constant and T is the
thermodynamic temperature. For a single atom rbs;dWeRkesrInimYy²KW kT/2 EdlkCaefrbulsµan ehIyT
that has three degrees of freedom, the average
energy is 3kT/2. CasItuNðPaBETm:DU INamic. cMeBaHGatUmmYyEdlmandWeRk esrIbI
famBlmFümKW 3kT/2.
 73

Erecting prism
A glass prism used in optical instruments to
karsg;RBIs
convert an inverted image to an upright image,
as in prismatic binoculars.
RBIsEkvRtÚv)aneKykeTAeRbIkúñgbriFanGubTic edÍm,IbMElg
rUbPaBbRBa©seGayeTACarUbPaBQrRtg;Fmµtavíj dUcCa
enAkñúgEkvqøúHEdlGacemIledayEPñkTaMgBIrCaedÍm.
Escapement
A device in a clock or watch that controls the
eGsExbm:g;
transmission of power (energy) from the spring
or a falling weight to the hands. It is usually
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIkñúgnaLikaredÍm,IRtYtBinitükarepÞrGnuPaB
based on a balance wheel or a pendulum. It thus ¬famBl¦BIrsW r b¤ BITnøak;TMng;eTAelIRTnic. CaFmµtavaBwg
allows energy to enter the mechanism in order
to move the hands around the face and Ep¥kelIkg;CBaI¢g b¤ elIe)a:l. dUcenHvaGaceGayfamBl
overcome friction in the gear trains, and
maintain the pendulum in constant motion. cUleTAma:sIunedÍm,IeFIVeGayRTnicpøas;TICuv¿ íj nig edÍm,IC¿nH kkitkñúgsMnuMsW<
RBmTaMgCYyrkSae)a:leGayeFIcV lnaCanic©.
Escape speed
The minimum speed needed by a space vehicle,
el,ÓnputTMnaj
rocket etc. to escape from the earth, moon or
other celestial body. For the escape to be
el,ÓnGb,brmacMa)ac;srM ab;[yankñúglMh dUcCar:UEkt ///
possible, the total energy of the rocket at the ecjputBIEdnTMnajEpndÍ/ BIRBHc½nÞ b¤BIGgÁFatuesLiesÞóld¾ éTeTot.
surface of the earth must be zero, if we assume,
as is the convention, that the potential energy of edÍm,IeGaykarputTMnajGacRbRBwteTA)an fam
the rocket is zero at infinity. It can be shown
that the potential energy of a body of mass m at Blsrubrbs;rE:U ktRtg;épÞEpndÍRtUvesIµsnU ü edaysnµt;fa
the surface of a celestial body with radius R and
mass M is given by – GMm/R. For the body to
famBlb:tU g;Esülrbs;rU:EktesIµsUnüenAGnnþ. eKGacbgðaj fa
escape from the earth its kinetic energy mv2/2 famBlb:tU g;Esülrbs;GgÁFatumYymanma:s;menARtg;
must be equal to or greater than this quantity,
hence vesc= 2 GM / R = 11,200 m/s or épÞénGgÁFatuesLiesÞólEdlmankaMRnigma:s;MeGayeday – GMm/R.
40,320 km/h. Since the speed of the rocket to edÍm,IeGayGgÁFatuecjputBIEpndÍ famBlsIu enTic
achieve a circular orbit around the body is
given by GM / R we can see that mv /2rbs;vaRtÚvesIb
2
µ ¤FMCagbrimaNenH dUcenHeK)an v  2 GM / R
esc

vesc = 2 vorb.  11,200 m/s b¤ 40,320 km/h.

edayel,Ònr:UEktsMerc'ankëúgKnøgGrb‘tÍ C¿uvjé GgÀFatueGay GM / R

enaHeyIgeXIjfa v  2 v .
esc orb

Evaporation
The change of state of a liquid into a vapour at
rMhYt
a temperature below the boiling point of the
liquid. At the surface of the liquid some of
bMErbMrYlPaBénGgÁFaturav[eTACacMhayenAsItuNPð aB
those molecules with the highest kinetic energy eRkamcMnucrMBuHénGgÁFaturav. Rtg;épÞGgÁFaturavm:eU lKulxøH
are able to escape from the surface into the
atmosphere. manfamBlsIeu nTicx<sb; Mput GacecjputBIépÞclU eTAkñgú briyakas)an.
Excitation
A process in which an atom gains energy,
rMejac
which raises it to an excited state that is higher
than its ground state. (The ground state is its
d¿eNIrEdlGatUmekInfamBl EdlrujvaeTAkan;sNßanrM
lowest possible energy state). The difference ejacEdlCasNßanx<s;CagsNßanRKwH. sNßanRKwHCa
between its energy in the excited state and in
the ground state is called the excitation energy. sNßanmanfamBlTabbMput. plsgrvagfamBlrvag sNßanrMejac nig
sNßanRKwHehAfafamBlrMejac.
 74

Exclusion principle
See Pauli exclusion principle
eKalkarN_elIkElg
emIl Pauli exclusion principle
Exothermic
Denoting a chemical reaction that releases heat
GiucsUETm
into the surroundings. See endothermic. sMedAeTAelIRbtikmµKImIEdlbeBa©jkMedAeTAkñgú briyakasC¿u víj. emIl
endothermic.
Expansion
The writing of a function as a series of terms.
Bnøat
The series may be finite or infinite. For
example functions such as ex or sinx can be
karsresrGnuKmn_eTACaes‘rèI ntYrnimYy². es‘rIGackMnt; b¤ minkMnt;.
expanded into an infinite power series using the ]TahrN_dUcCaGnuKmn_ e b¤ sinx GacBnøateTA
x

Taylor (McLaurin) theorem.

Caes‘rIsyV½ KuNminkMnt;edayeRbIRTwséIþ tl½r.
Expansion of the universe
The hypothesis, based on the evidence of the
karIkcRkvaL
*redshift, that the distance between the galaxies
is continuously increasing. The original theory,
eKeFIVkarsnµt;¬Ep¥kelIPsþútagénrIdsIuhV¦fa cMgayrvagháa
which was proposed in 1929 by Edwin Hubble Lak;seIu kInCab;rhUt. tamRTwsIþedÍmEdlbegItá edayeGdvín
(1889–1953), assumes that the galaxies are
flying apart as a consequence of the big bang hab;b½l¬!**(-!(%#¦kñúgqñaM!(@(snµt;fa háaLak;sIuTaMg
with which the universe originated. Several
variants have since been proposed. See also LayXøatecjBIKaë edaysarkarpÛúHb‘kÍ EbgEdlCaedIkMenIt cRkvaL.
*big-bang theory. va:rüg;¬GIVEdlkøayBIGIVmYyeTot¦mYycMnYn)ancab; kMenIttaMgBIeBlenaHmk.
emIl big-bang theory.
Expansivity (thermal expansion)
1. Linear expansivity is the fractional increase
emKuNrIk (karIkedaykMedA)
in length of a solid per unit rise in temperature. 1. emKuNrIkbeNaþy KWCakMenInRbEvgmYyEpñkrbs;GgÁFatu
If a specimen increases in length from L1 to L2
when its temperature is raised by , then the rwgkñúgmYyxñatkMenInsItuNðPaB. ebIGgÁFatuekInRbEvgBI l eTA l
1 2
expansivity () is given by L2 = L1(1 + )
2. Surface expansivity is the fractional increase eBlEdlsItuNðPaBvaekIn)an  eBlenaHemKuNrIk beNþay() KW l  2

in area of a solid surface caused by unit
increase in temperature, i.e.
A2 = A1(1 + )
where  is the surface expansivity. Very nearly,
 = 2.
3. Volume expansivity is the fractional increase
in volume of a solid, liquid or gas per unit rise
in temperature, i.e.
V2 = V1(1 + )
where  is the volume expansivity. Very nearly,
 = 3.
Exponent
A number or symbol that indicates the power to
which another number or expression is raised.
For example, (x + y)n indicates that the
expression (x + y) is raised to the nth power; n
l (1  ).
1
2. emKuNrIképÞ KWCakMenInépÞmYyEpññkrbs;épÞGgÁFaturwgekIn
)anmYyxñatkMenInsItuNðPaB mann½yfa
A2  A1(1  )
EdlKWCaemKuNrIképÞ ehIy   2.
3 emKuNrIkmaD KWCakarekInmaDmYyEpñkrbs;GgÁFaturg
w / GgÁFaturav/ b¤
]sµn½ kñúgmYyxñatkMenItsItuNðPaB mann½yfa
V2  V1(1  )
EdlKWCaemKuNrIkmaD ehIy   3.
sV½yKuN
cMnYn b¤ nimitsþ BaaØEdlbBaa¢ks; yV½ KuNeTAnwgcMnYnmYyb¤kenSam
mYyeTotedIm,I[ekIntMél. ]TahrN_ (x  y) bBaa¢kf; a kenSam(x  y)
n

is the exponent.
KWCakenSamekIntams½yV KuNTI n ehIyEdln CasVy½ KuN.
 75

Exponential
A function that varies as the power of another
Giucs,Ú:Ng;Esül
quantity. If y = ax, y varies exponentially with x.
The function ex, also written as exp(x), is called
GnuKmn_EdlERbRbÜltams½VyKuNrbs;cMnYnmYyeTot. ebI y  a , x

the exponential function (see e). It is equal to enaHyERbRbYltamGicu s,Ú:Ng;Esül x. GnuKmn_e k¾GacsresrCa
x

the infinite exponential power series given by

ex = 1 + x + x2/2! + x3/3! + … exp(x))anEdr edayehAfaGnuKmn_Giucs,:Ú Ng;Esül (emIl e).

e esIµnwges‘rIs½y
x
V KuNGicu s:,ÙNg; EsülminkMnt;KW e  1  x  x /2! 
x 2

x /3!  ….
3

Exponential growth/decay
A form of growth or decay in which the rate of
Giucs,Ú:Ng;Esül lUtlas;/rlYy
change of the number N of elements present at a
particular time is proportional to the number of
TMrg;énkarlUtlas; b¤ karrlYy Edlkñgú enaHbMErbMrYlcMnnY
elements present at that time: NénFatuTaMgLayenAkñg ú ry³eBlmYy smamaRteTAnwgcMnYn
dN/dt = kN  N = N0ekt,
Where k is a constant and N0 is the initial FatuenAry³eBlenaH :
number of elements present. In population dN/dt  kN  N  N0ekt
growth the constant k is positive; in radioactive
decay it is negative. The number of dollars in a EdlkKWCacMnYnefr ehIyN CacMnYnvtþmanFatuedÍm. kñgú
0

bank account compounded continuously

increases exponentially.
eBlkMBg;lUtlas;cnM YnefrkvíC¢man kñúgeBlrlYyvíTüúskmµ
cMnYnefrkGvíC¢man. cMnYnR)ak;duløakñúgKNenyüFnaKarEdl
TUTat;karR)ak;Cab; cMnYnR)ak;ekIntamGicu s:,ÚNg;Esül.
Exposure meter
A photocell that operates a meter to indicate the
Em:tBnWø
correct exposure for a specified film in
photography. Modern cameras have a built-in
pUtUEslEdleFIVkarCargVas;tMrUvBnWøsMrab;hVIlkñúgrUbft. ma:
exposure meter that automatically adjusts the sIunftTMenIbmanEm:tBnWøenAkñúgenaH EdlGacERb®bYlrgVH BnWø
aperture and exposure time for optimum results.
ry³eBlBnWeø daysV½yRbvtþedÍm,IeGay)anlT§plRb esIrbMptu .
Extrapolation
An approximation technique for finding the
GiucRtab:ULasüúg
value of a function or measurement beyond the
values already known. For example, if we hang
víFI)a:n;RbmaNrktMélGnuKmn_ b¤ rgVas; eRkayBIeKsÁal;tM élrYcehIy.
several small masses from a spring and plot the ]TahrN_ ebIeyIgBüÜrma:s;tUc²mYycMnYnBIrWu sr ehIyedAelIRkabKMlat-
extension against tension, we might expect to
continue the line (or curve) of the plot to tMnwg eyIgGaceRbIExSekag
determine the extension for an added load.
Clearly if the load is large the characteristics of edÍm,IrkKMlatcMeBaHbnÞúkEdleKEfm.Rkabbgðajya:gc,as; fa
the spring might change, and the extrapolated
value could be in serious error. Interpolation
ebIbnÞkú FMeFIeV GayragrWusrpøas;brþÚ ehIytMélGiucRtab:U
between the given data points is much more LasüúgGacmankMhusya:gxøagM . GaMgETb:LU asüúgrvagcMncu
reliable.
Tinñn½yEdleKeGayGacKYreGayeCOCak;)an.
Eye
The organ of sight. Light is focussed by the
EPñk
eye-lens onto the retina (screen) of the eye. The
image is received by light-sensitive cells in the
srIragÁckçúvis½y. BnøWcaMgb:HedayEkvEPñk eTAelIer:TIn ¬eGRkg;¦énEPñk.
retina, called rods and cones, which transmit rUbPaBEdlTTYledayckçúvBi aaØNkñúger: TIn
impulses to the brain via the optic nerve.
rYcbBa¢nÚ eTAxYrk,altamsrésRbsaTGubTic.
 76

Eyepiece (ocular)
The lens or system of lenses in an optical
GayPIs b¤ GUKuyEl (kEnøgsMrab;EPñkemIl)
instrument that is nearest to the eye. Its purpose
is to magnify the real image of the object
Lg;TI b¤ RbB½n§Lg;TIenAkñgú ]bkrN_GubTicEdlenACítEPñkbM put.
produced by the objective lens of the eKaledArbs;vaedIm,IBRgIkrUbPaBBitrbs;vtßúEdlekIt
instrument, (the lens nearest to the object). The
final image produced by the eyepiece is virtual, ecjBIbriFanLg;TIvtßú¬Lg;TIEdlenACítvtßúbMptu ¦. rUbPaB
enlarged and upright (relative to the real image
it is magnifying), but is converted to a real cugeRkayEdl)anmkBIGUKyu ElKWCarUbPaBfÍ/µ TMhMkan;EtFM
image on the retina of the eye by the eye lens. ehIyQrRtg;¬ebIeFobCamYyrUbPaBBit varIkFM¦ Etvakøay
eTACarUbBitelIerTInEPñkedaysarEkvEPñk.
F
Fabry-Perot Interferometer
A type of interferometer in which
GaMgETehVr:UEm:tehVRbuI-eb:r:U
monochromatic light is passed between a pair
of parallel half-silvered glass plates producing
RbePTGaMgETehVr:UEm:tm:üag EdlkñúgenaHBnWmø :UNURkÚma:Ticqøg
circular interference fringes. One of the glass kat;bnÞHkBa©km; YyKUlabTwkR)ak;Bak;kNþaldak;RsbKña.
plates is adjustable enabling the separation of
the plates to be varied. The wavelength of the GaMgETehVrE:U m:tenHbegIát)ankgGaMgETehVr:grgVg.; kñúgcM
light can be determined by observing the
fringes while adjusting the separation. This type enambnÞHkBa©kT; aMgBIr manbnÞHkBa©km; YyGacERb®bYlKMlat cuHeLIg)an.
of instrument is used in spectroscopy. C¿hanrlkBnWøGackMnt;edaykarsegátkg eBleKeGayvaXøatKña.
]bkrN_RbePTenHRtUv)aneKyk eTAeRbIkúgñ s,úicRtUkUBI.
Factorial
The product of a given number and all the
hVak;tUErül ¬pak;tUErül¦
numbers below it. It is written n!. For example
factorial 4 = 4! = 4  3  2  1 = 24. Factorial 0
plKuNéncMnYnmYyEdleKeGaynigcMnYntUcbnþbnÞab;BIva.
(0!) is defined as 1. eKtagvaedayesresr n!. ]TahrN_$hVak;tUErülKW
4! = 4  3  2  1 = 24. 0hVak;tUErülesIµ! ¬0! =!¦.
Fahrenheit scale
A temperature scale in which the temperature of
maRtdæanhVaruinéh
boiling water is taken as 212 degrees and the
temperature of ice as 32 degrees. To convert
CakMrtw sItuNðPaBmYyEdlkñúgenaH sItuNðPaBTwkBuHenA @!@ GgSa
from the Fahrenheit scale to the Celsius scale ehIyTwkkkenA#@GgSa. edIm,IbMElgBImaRtdæanhVa
the formula is C = 5(F - 32)/9
rinu éheTAmaRtdæanEslsIsu eKeRbIrUbmnþ C  5(F – 32)/9
Fall-out (or radioactive fall-out) Tnøak; ¬b¤Tnøak;viTüúskmµ¦
Radioactive particles deposited from the
atmosphere either from a nuclear explosion or
PaKl¥ti viTüúskmµFøak;cuHBIbriyakas b ¤BIkarpÛúHnuyekøEG‘ b¤
from a nuclear accident. BI]bTÛvehtunuyekøEG‘.
Farad (symbol F)
The S.I. unit of capacitance, being the
hVara:t b¤ para:t (nimµitsBaaØ F)
capacitance of a capacitor that, if charged with
one coulomb, has a potential difference of one
para:tCaxñat S.Iénka)a:sueI t vaCacMnYnka)a:sIuetkugdg;saT½r
volt across the plates. 1 F = 1 CV – 1. The farad ebIbnÞkú mYyKULmúM anplsgb:Utg;EsülmYyv:lu qøgkat;Gama: tY : 1F = 1
itself is too large for most applications; the
practical unit is the microfarad (1 F, = 10-6 F). CV . kñúgkarGnuvtþn_ para:tCatMélmYyya:gFM dUcenHehIykñúgeBleRbI
–1

eKeRbIxñatmIRkUpara:tvij (F) Edl 1F = 10 F.

–6

Faraday cage
An earthed screen made of metal wire that
RTugpar:aed
surrounds an electric device in order to shield it
from external electric fields.
eGRkg;dIeFIBV IExSePøIgelah³ EdlB½TÞCv¿u ij]bkrN_GKÁIsnI
edIm,I)aMgvaeGayputBIEdnGKÁsI nIxageRkA.
 77

Faraday constant (Symbol F)

The electric charge carried by one mole of
efrpara:ed (nimitþsBaØa F)
electrons or singly ionised atoms. i.e. the
product of the *Avogadro constant and the
bnÞkú GKIÁsnIEdlpÞúkkñgú mYym:UléneGLicRtug b¤ GatUmGIyu :ugmYy
charge on an electron. mann½yfaCaplKuNénefrGav;UkaRdÚnigbnÞkú elIeGLicRtug.
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Two laws describing electrolysis.
c,ab;para:edsIþBIeGLicRtÚlIs
(1) The amount of chemical change during
electrolysis is proportional to the amount of
c,ab;BIrEdlerobrab;GMBIeGLicRtUlsI . (1) cMnYnKImIpøas;bþÚr
charge passed. kñúgGMLúgeFIeV GLicRtUlIs smamaRteTAnwgcMnnY bnÞúkEdl )anqøgkat;. (2)
(2) The charge required to deposit or liberate a
mass m is given by Q = Fmz/M, where F is the bnÞkú caM)ac;edÍm,Icab;yk b¤ rMedaHma:s;m eGayeday Q  Fmz/M
Faraday constant, z the charge on the ion, and
M the relative ionic mass. EdlFCaefrpara:ed/ zCabnÞúk elIGyIu :ug ehIyMma:s;GyIu :UniceFob.
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction
(1) An e.m.f.  is induced in a conducting loop
c,ab;para:edsIþBIGaMgDucsüúgeGLicRtUma:ej:Tic
when the magnetic flux  passing through the ¬! ¦ kMlaMgGKÁsI nIclkr ()ekItmanenAkñúgrgVg;ExScMlg
loop changes. (2) The magnitude of the induced
e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of enAeBlEdlPøcú ma:ejTic qøgkat;rgVg;ExSERbRbYl.
the magnetic flux. (3) The sense of the induced
e.m.f. is such as to oppose the change in the
¬@ ¦m:DU ulénkMlaMgGKÁIsnIclkrGaMgDucsüúgsmamaRtnwg bMErbMrYlPøúc. ¬#
magnetic flux. These three laws are summarised ¦ TisedApÞyú BITisedAbMErbMrYlPøúcma:ej Tic.
in Neumann's equation:  = – d/dt. Strictly
speaking, the third law is often called Lenz’s c,ab;TaMgbIenHRtUv)ansegçbkñúgsmIkarNWEmn :
law, and is a statement of the conservation of
  – d/dt. c,ab;TIbIehAfac,ab;Link¾)an ehIyCaBMuenal
energy. If the third law were not true, it would
be possible to create an electromagnetic engine
that could create energy out of nothing; that is,
énkarrkSafamBl. ebIc,ab;TIbIminBit vaGacbNþaleGay
it could put more energy out than has been put ma:sunI ma:ejTicminGacbegIátfamBlbeBa©jmk eRkA)an
in.
mann½yfavaGaceGayfamBlecjFMCagfamBlcUl.
Fast neutron
A neutron resulting from nuclear fission that
NWRtúgelOn
has energy in excess of 0.1 MeV. Fast neutrons
can maintain a chain reaction in fast fission
NWRtugEdl'anmkBIPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘ vamanfamBlelIsBI 0.1 MeV.
reactions. See also slow neutron. NWRtugelOnGacrkSaeGaymanRbtikmµbNþak; kñgú RbtikmµPIsüúgelOn.
emIl slow neutron.
 78

Feedback
The use of part of the output of a system, for
Rbtikmµbk
example an electronic amplifier, to control its
performance. In positive feedback part of the
kareRbIEpñkeGAPuténRbB½n§mYy¬dUcCaeRbIGMBøIeGLIcRtUnci Ca
output is added in phase with the input. This edÍm¦edIm,IRtYtBinti üRbtibtiþkarN_. kñúgEpñkRbtikmµbkviC¢ manéneGAPut
increases the overall gain of an amplifier to the
point where the amplifier becomes unstable and KWRtUvEfmpaseGaydUcKañnwgpasGIunPut.
operates as an electronic oscillator. If the phase
of the feedback signal is frequency dependent, eFIVdUcenHnaMeGaymankMenInGMBxøI øaMgbMput bNþaleGayGMBøI
then that frequency for which the feedback is in
phase with the input signal is the frequency of
eTACaKµanlMnwgehIyeFIVeGaymanlMeyalGKÁIsnI. ebIpas
the oscillator. In negative feedback part of the sIuBaØal;RbtikmµbkmaneRbkg;GaRs½y enaHeRbkg;rbs;Rbti
output is added out of phase with the input.
This reduces the overall gain of the amplifier kmµbkenaHmanpas;dUcsIuBaØal;GIunPut KWeRbkg;lMeyal.
thus increasing its stability, and also reducing
its distortion. kñúgEpñkRbtikmµbkGviC¢man éneGAPut KWRtUv)anEfmpas
eGaypÞúyBIpascUl. eFIVdUcenHnaMeGaykMlaMgGMBføI ycuH ya:gxøaMg
RBmTaMgeFIVeGayekInlMnwgrbs;va ehIyk¾eFIVeGay
fycuHBIPaBedImrbs;vapgEdr.
Fermat's Principle
The path taken by a ray of light between any
eKalkarN_Eh‘Vma:
two points in an optical system is always the
path that takes the minimum time. The principle
KnøgEdlcredaykaMBnøWrvagcMnucBIrkñúgRbB½n§GubTic KWCaKnøg
leads to the laws of the rectilinear propagation Edlcredayry³eBlGb,brma. eKalkarN_enHnaMeTAdl;
of light and the laws of the reflection and
refraction of light. (Snell's law). There are also c,ab;dMNalRtg;énBnøW nig c,ab;cMNaMgpøat nigc,ab;cMNaMg Ebr ¬c,ab;Esñl
examples in which the light takes the maximum
possible time. For example, if a mirror system ¦. man]TahrN_xøHEdlkñúgenaHBnWøcN M ay eBlGtibrma. ]TahrN_
consists of a complete ellipse, the light
travelling from one focus to the other via the
ebIRbB½n§kBa©km; anTMrg;CaeGlIb
mirror surface will take the longest possible BnWøEdlcrBIkMnumM YyeTAkMnMumYyeTottamry³épÞkBa©k; RtUvcr
path, hence the greatest possible time.
tamKnøgEvgbMput dUcenHvaRtUvkareBlyUbMptu Edr.
Fermi
A unit of length used in nuclear physics. It is
EhV‘mI
equal to 10 – 15 metre. In S.I. units this is equal
to 1 femtometre (fm).
xëatRbEvgEdleKeRbIenAkëúgrUbviTüanuyekøEG‘ vaesIµngw 10 Em:t.
–15

kñúgxñatS.IvaesInµ wg !EhVmtUEm:Rt(fm).
Fermi-Dirac statistcs
See quantum statistics.
sþaTisÞicEhV‘mIDIra:k;
emIl quantum statistics
Fermi level
The energy in a solid at which the average
nIv:UEhV‘mI
number of particles per quantum state is 1/2. i.e.
one half of the quantum states are occupied.
famBlkñgú GgÁFaturwg EdlkñúgenaHcMnYnmFüménPaKl¥it
The Fermi level in conductors lies in the kñúgmYysNßankgTicesIµnwg1/2 mann½yfaesIµnwgBak;kNaþl
conduction band; in insulators and
semiconductors it lies in between the ènsNÜankgTic. nIvU:EhV‘mkI gëú GgÀFatucMlgzitkëúgsm<n½ §clM g
conduction band and the valence band.
ehIyebIkñúgGIusULg; nig sWmIkugDucT½rvij vazitkñúgcenøaH sm<½nc§ Mlg nig
sm<½n§va:Lg;.
 79

Fermion
An elementary particle with half-integral spin;
EhV‘mIj:úg
i.e. a particle that conforms to Fermi-Dirac
statistics. Compare boson.
PaKl¥ti dMbUgEdlmans<InBak;knøHGaMgetRkal mann½yfa
PaKl¥ti EdlGnuelamtamsþaTisÛicEhVm‘ I-DIra:k.; eRbobeFob boson.
Ferrite
The ferrites are ceramic materials that show
EhV‘rIt
either ferrimagnetism or ferromagnetism but are
not electrical conductors. For this reason they
EhVr‘ ItKWCarUbFatuesra:micEdlmanenAkëúgEhVr‘ Ima:ejTic b¤ EhV‘rUm: a:ejTic
are used in high frequency circuits as magnetic b:uEnþvaminEmnCaGgÁFatuclM gGKÁIsnIeT. eKeRbIvaenAkñúgesoKVEI dlman
cores.
eRbkg;x<s; dUcCasñÚlma: ejTicCaedIm.
Ferroelectric materials
Ceramic dielectrics that have a domain
rUbFatuEhV‘r:UGKÁÁIsnI
structure making them analogous to
ferromagnetic materials. They possess
EhVr‘ G:U KÀIsnICaDIeGLicRTicesra:micEdlGaceFIVeGayvakøayeTACarUbFatu
hysteresis and usually the piezoelectric effect. Eh‘rV mU: a:ejTic. vamanlkçN³GIeu sÞersIsu ehIy CaFmµtaeFIeV GayekItman
plBIhSÚGKÁIsnI.
Ferromagnetism
See magnetism.
EhV‘r:Uma:ejTic
emIl magnetism
F.E.T. F.E.T.
See transistor.
emIl transistor
Fibre optics
See optical fibres.
GubTicsrés (emIl optical fibres)
Field
A region in which a body experiences a force as
Edn
a result of the presence of some other body or
bodies. For example, a body that has mass is
tMbn;mYyEdlkñúgenaHGgÁFatumYybeBa©jkMlaMgmYyEdlman
surrounded by a region in which another body GMeBICamYyGgÁFatuepSg²eTot. ]TahrN_ GgÁFatumYy Edlmanma:s;
that has mass experiences a force, (the
gravitational force), tending to draw the two B½TÞCv¿u ijedaytMbn;mYyEdlGaceFIVeGayGgÁ
bodies together. This is the gravitational field.
The strength of the gravitational field at any Fatumanma;s;d¾éTbeBa©jkMlaMgtbvij¬kMlaMgTMnaj¦ ehIy
point is defined as the gravitational force per
unit mass acting on a body at that point.
kMlaMgenHeFIVeGaymanTMnajrcUlKñavagGgÁFatuTaMgBIr.enHKW CaEdnTMnaj.
Similarly, The strength of the electric field at GaMgtg;sIuetEdnTMnajRtg;cMnucNamYykMnt;
any point is defined as the electric force per unit
charge acting on a charged body at that point. edaykMlaMgTMnajkñúgmYyxñatma:sm; anGMeBIelIGgÁFatuRtg;cM nucenaH.
RsedogKñaEdr GaMgtg;seIu tEdnGKIÁsnIRtg;cMnuc NamYy
kMnt;edaykMlaMgGKIÁsnIkñúgmYyxñatbnÞúkmanGMeBI
elIbnÞúkGgÁFatuRtg;cMnucenaH.
Field coil
The coil in an electrical machine that produces
EdnbUb‘Ín
the magnetic field bUbn‘Í enAkëúgma:sInu GKÀIsnIEdlGacbegÝItEdnma:ejTic'an.
Field-effect transistor (F.E.T.)
See transistor.
plEdnRtg;sIusþr (F.E.T.)
emIl transistor
 80

Field lens
The lens in the compound eyepiece of an
EdnLg;TI
optical instrument that is furthest from the eye.
Its function is to increase the field of view by
Lg;TIenAkñúgsmasFatuGKU yu Elén]bkrN_GubTic Edl
refracting towards the eye that would otherwise enAq¶aybMptu BIEPñk. muxgarrbs;vaKWCaGñkbegáInEdnKMehIj
miss it.
edaycMNaMgEbrmkrkEPñkEdlminGacemIlvaeXIj.
Field magnet
The magnet that provides the magnetic field in
EdnemEdk
an electrical machine. In some small motors it
is a permanent magnet but in most machines it
emEdkEdleFIVeGaymanEdnma:ejTickñúgma:sIunGKÁIsnI. enA
is an electromagnet. kñúgm:TU ½rtUc²xøHvaCaemEdkGciéRnþ EtenAkñúgma:suInCaeRcInva
CaeGLicRtUemEdk¬emEdkGKÁIsnI¦.
File
A collection of data stored in a computer. It
hVal
may consist of program instructions or
numerical, textual or graphical information. It
karRbmUlpþTú¿ inñn½yEdlpÞúkkñúgkMBüÚT½r. vaGacmanCakar begItá kmµviFI b¤
usually consists of a set of similar or related CacMnYnelx / CaGtßbT b¤ CaRkab. CaFmµta vamansMnRMu bFanbTmYy
topics.
EdlRsedogKña b¤ Tak;TgKña.
Filter
1. (in physics). A device placed in the path of a
tRmg
beam of radiation to change its energy
distribution. For example, a piece of coloured
!> ¬kñúgrUbviTüa¦ Ca]bkrN_EdleKdak;kñúgKnøg)ac;BnWøedIm,I
glass placed over a camera lens will alter the eGayERbRbYlr)ayfamBlrbs;va. ]TahrN_ bMEnkEkv
relative intensity of the component wavelengths
of the light entering the camera. 2. (in EdlmanBN’dak;xagelILg;TIkaemra: vaGaceFIVeGayman
chemistry) A device for separating solid
particles from a fluid.3. (in electronics) An karpøas;bþÚrGaMgtg;sIueténkMb:Usg;Ch¿ anrlkBnøWcUleTAkñúg kaemra:. @>
electrical network, often consisting of resistors,
inductors and inductors, that transmits signals
¬kñúgKImI¦]bkrN_sMrab;EjkPaKl¥ti rwgBIGgÁ Faturav. #> ¬kñúgeGLicRtUnci ¦
within a certain frequency range, but attenuates bNþajGKIÁsnI EdlkñúgenaH manersIusþr/ GaMgDucT½r nig GaMgDucT½r
other frequencies.
EdlbBa¢nÚ sIBu aØal;enA kñúgkMrwteRbkg;Cak;lak;
EteFIVeGayeRbkg;epSgeTotfycuH.
Filter pump
A simple laboratory vacuum pump in which air
sñb;tRmg
is removed from a system by a jet of water
forced through a narrow nozzle. In accord with
sñb;sBu aØakasgayEdleKeRbIkñúgTIBiesaFn_ enAkñúgenaH
the Bernouilli principle the pressure in the xül;ecjBIRbB½n§edaymanr)aj;ecjTwkxøaMgqøgkat;k,albM Bg;tUcmYy.
flowing water is lower than that of the
surroundings, so the pressure of the system is tameKalkarN_Eb‘nlU I sMBaFkëúgcrnþTwkTab CagsMBaFC¿uvji
reduced. The lowest possible pressure is the
vapour pressure of water. dUcenHsMBaFénRbB½n§RtUvfycuH. sMBaF
TabbMputEdlGacmanKWCasMBaFcMhayTwk.
Filtrate
The clear liquid obtained by filtration
eRcaH
GgÁFaturavføaEdl)anmkBIcMeraH.
Filtration
The process of separating solid particles from a
cMeraH
fluid using a filter. dMenIrénkarEjkPaKl¥itrwgBIGgÁFaturavedayeRbItRmg.
 81

Finder
A small low-powered astronomical telescope,
hVajD½r
with a wide field of view, that is fixed to a large
astronomical telescope so that the large
EkvqøúHpáayEdlmanGnuPaBTab CaEkvEdlmanEdnKMehIj TUlay.
telescope can point directly towards a particular eKdak;vaCab;nwgEkvqøúHpáayFM dUecñHEkvqøúHFMGac
celestial body.
cg¥últMrg;eTArkGgÁFatuesLiesÞólNamYy.
Fine structure
Closely spaced optical spectral lines arising
TMrg;l¥it
from transitions between energy levels that are
split by the vibrational or rotational motion of a
ExSbnÞat;s,úci GubTicEdlxiteTACit²Kña edaysarkarbMElg
molecule or by electron spin. rvagnIvf:U amBlEdlEjkKñaedaylMj½r b¤ edayclnargVil
rbs;m:UlelKulmYy b¤ edays<nI eGLicRtug.
Finite series
See series
es‘rIkMnt;
emIl series
Fissile material
A nuclide of an element that undergoes nuclear
rUbFatuPIsIul
fission either spontaneously or when irradiated
by neutrons. Fissile nuclides, such as U-235 or
nuyKøtI ènFatumYyEdlTTYlrgnUvPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘Ég² b¤ edayrsIµNWRtug.
Pu-239, are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear nuyKøtI PIsIulmandUcCa U-235 b¤ Pu-239
weapons.
eKykvaeTAeRbIkúëgerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘ nwgkëúgGavuFnuyekøEG‘.
Fission
See nuclear fission.
PIsüúg
emIl nuclear fission
Fission products
See nuclear fission.
pllitplPIsüúg
emIl nuclear fission
Fixed point
A temperature that can be accurately
cMnucnwg
reproduced to enable it to be used as the basis
of a temperature scale. Examples are, the
sItuNPð aBEdlGacekIteLIgya:gCak;lak; edIm,IeGayeK
melting point of ice (0oC) and the boiling point GaceRbIvaCaeKalénmaRtdæansItuNPð aB. ]TahrN_ cMnuc rlayénTwkkk
of water (100oC).
(0 C) ehIycMnucTwkBuH (100 C).
o o

Fixed star
One of very many heavenly bodies that does
páaynwg
not appear to alter its position over a period of
time. They were so called to distinguish them
vaCaGgÁFatuya:gF¶nm; YykñúgcMeNamGgÁFatuF¶n;TaMgLayEdl
from the planets, which were once called the minGacmankarpøas;bþÚrTItaMgrbs;vakñúgry³eBlNamYy.
wandering stars.
eKniyayfavaxusBIPBd¾éTeTotEdlcrbt;cuHbt;eLIg.
Fizeau's method
A method of measuring the speed of light. A
vIFIPIsU
cogwheel rotating at high speed allows a series
of pulses of light to be transmitted to a distant
CaviFImYysMrab;vas;el,ÓnBnøW. kg;s<Wviledayel,ÓnelOn
mirror. The light reflected back to the cogwheel GaceFIVeGayes‘rIGaMBulsüúgBnøWbBa¢nÙ eTAkan;kBa¨kq; ¶ay.
is observed and the speed of light calculated
from the rate of rotation of the wheel at which BnøWcaMgpøatRtlb;mkvijb:Hnwgkg;sW< ehIyel,ÓnBnøWGac
the light returns through a slit adjacent to the
one through which it was transmitted. KNnatamGRtael,ÓnrgiVlrbs;kg; enAeBlEdlBnøWRtlb;
mkkat;cenøaHs<WenACab;nwgs<mW YyeTotEdlbBa¢nÚ va.
 82

Flame
A hot luminous mixture of gases undergoing
GNþatePøIg
combustion. The chemical reactions in a flame
are mainly free-radical chain reactions, and the
l,ayBnøWekþArbs;]sµ½nEdlrgcMehH. RbtikmµKImIkñúgGNþat
light comes from fluorescence of excited ePøIgKWCaRbtikmµbNþak; cMENkÉBnøWvjí )anmkBIhøúyGrer sg;
molecules or ions or from incandescence of
small solid particles, (e.g. carbon). Edlmanm:UelKul b¤ GIyu :ugpøas;TI\tQb; b¤ )anmkBI
cMehHrgÁMénpg;kñúgGgÁFaturwgtUc ¬]TahrN_ kabUn¦.
Flash point
The temperature at which the vapour above a
cMnucpøas
volatile liquid forms a combustible mixture
with air.
sItuNPð aBenARtg;cMnucmYy EdlcMhayGgÁFaturavehIr
GaceqHCamYyxül;.
Flip-flop (bistable circuit)
An electronic circuit that has two stable states.
esoKVIb‘Ísþab
It is switched from one stable state to the other
by means of a triggering pulse. They are
esoKVIeGLicRtUnicEdlmanPaBs‘b;BIr. vakøayCakugtak;BI
extensively used as logic circuits in computers. PaBs‘b;mYyeTAPaBs‘b;mYyeTottamry³KnøwHruj. eKeRbI
ya:gTUlTM UlayenAkñúgesOKVILÚsuickñúgma:sIunkMBu üÚT½r.
Floppy disc (diskette)
A flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating,
DIEsát
encased in a stiff envelope. It is used to store
information in a small computer system.
faspøasÞci EdlGacBt;)an vamanRsTab;ma:ejTiceRsab edayeRsamrwg.
eKeRbIvaedIm,IpkÛú Bt’manenAkëúgRbB½n§kMuBüÙT½r tUc².
Fluid mechanics
The study of fluids at rest or in motion. Fluid
emkanicsnÞnIy
statics is concerned with the pressure and forces
exerted on liquids and gases at rest.
karsikSasnÞnyI enAnwg¬sþaTic¦ b¤ snÞnIymanclna. snÞnIysþaTic
Hydrostatics is specifically concerned with the Tak;TgCamYysMBaF nigkMlaMgEdlbeBa©jelI GgÁFaturav b¤
behaviour of liquids at rest. In fluid dynamics
the forces exerted on fluids, and the motion that ]sµn½ EdlenAnwgfál; .GIuRdÚsþaTicKwCakarsikSa
results from these forces, are examined. It can
be divided into hydrodynamics: the motion of EdlTak;TgnwglkçN³GgÁFaturavenAnwgfál.; enAkñúgDINa micsnÞnIy
liquids; and aerodynamics: the motion of gases. kMlaMgEdlbeBa©jelIGgÁFaturav nig clna
Edl)anmkBIkMlaMgTaMgenHRtUv)aneKBinitü. eKGacEbgEck
vaeTACaGIuRdÚDINamic¬clnaGgÁFaturav¦ nig eTACaGaeGr:U DINamic
¬clnaén]sµ½n¦.
Fluorescence
See luminescence
høúyGrersg;
emIl luminescence
Fluorescent light
See electric lighting.
BnøWPøúyGrersg;
emIl electric lighting
Flux
1. See luminous flux. 2. See magnetic flux. 3.
Pøúc
See electric flux. 4. The number of particles per
unit area of cross section in a beam of particles.
!/ emIl luminous flux. @/ emIl magnetic flux #/ emIl electric flux.
$> cMnYnPaKl¥itkñgú mYyxñatépÞqøgkat; muxkat;)ac;bnøWPaKl¥it.
Flux density
1. See magnetic flux density. 2. See electric
dg;sIuetPøúc
flux density. !/ emIl magnetic flux density. @/ emIl electric flux density.
 83

Fluxmeter
An instrument used to measure magnetic flux.
PøúcEm:t
It is used in conjunction with a coil (the search
coil) and resembles a moving-coil
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIsMrab;vas;Pøcú ma:ejTic. eKeRbIvaCamYy nwgbUbn‘Í mYy
galvanometer, but without the restoring springs. ¬bUbn‘Í Binitü¦ vadUcKëanwgbUb‘Ínháal;va:NUEm:t cl½tEdr b:Eu nþKµanrWsr½ eT.
A change in the magnetic flux induces a
transient current in the search coil and in the bMErbMrYlPøúcma:ejTiceFIVeGay ekItmancrnþkëúgbUb‘ÍnBinti ü nig këgú bUb‘ÍnEm:t
coil of the meter, which turns in proportion and
stays in the deflected position. EdlmancMnYn C¿usmamaRtKña ehIyzitenAkñúgTItaMglMgak.
FM (frequency modulation)
See modulation.
EGhVGwm (bMErbMrYleRbkg;)
emIl modulation
f-number
See aperture.
cMnYn f

emIl aperture
Focal length
The distance between the optical centre of a
cMgaykMNMu
lens or pole of a spherical mirror and its
principal focus.
cMgayrvagp¨itGubTicrbs;Lg;TI b¤ b:lU ènkBa¨kE; sV‘nigkMNMu emrbs;va.
Focal point
See focus.
cMnuckMNMu
emIl focus
Focal ratio
See aperture.
pleFobkMNMu
emIl aperture
Focus
1. (in optics). The point at which light rays
kMnMu
converge, or from which they appear to diverge,
to form a sharp image. Other electromagnetic
!> ¬kñúgGubTic¦ cMncu EdlkaMBnWøsMedAeTArk b¤ TMngCaecjBI va
rays, such as microwave, and sound waves may edÍm,IbegItá CaTMrg;rUbPaB. kaMrsIeµ GLicRtÚma:ejTicxøH dUcCamIRkÚrlk nig
also be brought together at a focus. Rays
parallel to the principal axis of a lens or mirror rlksMelg GaceTAp¿þúKñaRtg;kMnu.M kaMBnWø RsbG½kSemrbs;Lg;TI b¤
are converged at, or appear to diverge from, the
principal focus. 2. (in mathematics) See conic. kBa¨kE; sV‘CYbKëa b¤ TMngdUcCaecjBI kMnueM m. @> ¬kñúgKNitvíTüa¦ emIl
conic.
Foot
The unit of length in f.p.s. units. It is equal to
hVú‘t
one-third of a yard and is now therefore defined
as 0.3048 metre.
xñatRbEvgkñúgxñatf.p.s .vaesIµnwgmYyPaKbIya:t ehIy\LÚv
enHeKkMnt;favaesIµngw 0/#0$* Em:t.
Forbidden band
See energy bands.
sm<½n§r)aMg
emIl energy bands
 84

Force (symbol F)
The agency, such as a push or pull, which tends
kMlaMg (nimitþsBaaØ F)
to change the momentum of a massive body, or
change its state (of tension or compression), or
Pñak;gardUcCa karruj b¤ Taj EdleFIVeGaymanbMErbMrYlbrimaNclna
position in a force field. The magnitude of a énGgÁFatumYyEdlmanma:s; b¤ bMErbMrlY PaB rbs;va¬tMnwg b¤ bENÑn¦.
force is defined as being proportional to the rate
of change of momentum of the body. For a m:UDulkMlaMgsmamaRteTAnwgbMErbMrYlbrimaNclnarbs;GgÁFatu. cMeBaH
body of mass m moving with a velocity v, the
momentum is mv. The force is therefore given GgÁFatumYyman ma:s;mpøas;TIedayel,Ónv brimaNclnarbs;vaKW mv.
by F = d(mv)/dt. If the mass is constant, F =
mdv/dt = ma, where a is the acceleration. The ehtudUcenHkMlaMgeGayedaysmIkar F  dtd (mv) . ebIma:sC; acMnYn
S.I. unit of force is the newton. Forces always
occur in equal and opposite action-reaction
pairs between bodies, though it is often
efrvij enaH F  dtd (mv)  m dv dt
 ma Edl aCasMTuH. xñat S.I
convenient to think of one body being in the
force field of the other. rbs;klM aMgKWjtÚ un. Canic©kalkMlaMg rvagKUGMeBI-RbtikmµCakMlaMg
Edlmanm:UDulesIµKañ EtTisedApÞúyKña eRBaHkMlaMgrbs;GgÁFatumYy
EtgEtrgEdnkMlaMgrbs;GgÁFatumYyeTot.
Forced convection
Hot fluid is transferred from one region to
kugviucsüúgbgçM
another by a pump or fan. snÞnyI ekþAepÞrBItMbn;myY eTAtMbn;mYyeTAedayeRbIsñb; b¤eRbI kgðar.
Force ratio (mechanical advantage)
The ratio of the output force (load) of a
pleFobkMlaMg ¬plemkanic ¦
machine to the input force (effort). pleFobénkMlaMgecj¬bnÞúk¦rbs;ma:sIuneTAnwgkMlaMgcUl ¬kMlaMgclkr¦.
Formula
1. (in chemistry) A way of representing a
rUbmnþ
chemical compound using symbols for the
atoms present. Subscripts are used for the
!/¬kñúgKImI¦ viFIsMrab;tagsmasFatuKImI edayeRbInmi itþsBaaØsMrab;tag
number of atoms. 2. (in mathematics and GatUm. eKeRbIsnÞsSn_sMrab;sKM al;cMnnY GatUm.
physics). A rule or law expressed in algebraic
symbols. @> ¬kñúgKNitvíTüa nig rUbvíTüa¦ víFan b¤ c,ab;EdlsMEdgCanimitsþ BaØa
BiCKNit.
Fossil fuel
Coal, oil and natural gas, the fuels used by man
\nÞn³pUsIul
as a source of energy. They are formed from the
remains of living organisms and all have a high
FüÚgfµ eRbgnig]sµ½nFmµCati TaMgenHKICa\nÞn³EdlmnusS eRbICaRbPB
carbon or hydrogen content. famBl. vamanTMrg;BIsMNl;srIragÁmanCÍvít ehIyvaTaMgGs;sm,Úreday
FatukabUn b¤ GIRu dUEsnx<s;.
Foucault pendulum
A simple pendulum in which a heavy bob
e)a:lpUkUl
attached to a long wire is free to swing in any
direction. As a result of the earth's rotation, the
e)a:leTalmYyEdlkñúgenaHmankUnTMgn;F¶nm; Yy cgP¢ab;eTA nwgExSePIøgEvg
plane of the swing slowly turns. At the poles of ehIyGaceyaledayesrItamTisedANa mYy. edaysarrgVilrbs;EpndI
the earth it makes one complete rotation in 24
hours. eFIVeGaybøg;leM yalvil yWt². enAb:UlEpndÍvavíl)anmYyC¿ukñúgry³eBl
@$ema:g.
Fourier analysis
The representation of a function f(x), which is
viPaKhVÚrIey
periodic in x, as an infinite series of sine and
cosine functions.
kartagGnuKmn_f(x)manxYbx eTACaes‘rIminkMnt;ènGnuKmn_ sin nig cos.
 85

Fourier series
An expansion of a periodic function as a series
es‘rIhVÚrIey
of trigonometric functions. Thus,
F(x) = a0 + (a1cosx + b1sinx) + (a2cos2x +
karBnøatGnuKmn_xYbeTACaes‘rèI nGnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRt. dUcenH F(x)  a0

b2sin2x) + …, where a0, a1, b1, b2, etc. are  (a cosx  b sinx)  a cos2x  b sin2x)  …Edl a , a , b , b …
1 1 2 2 0 1 1 2
constants called Fourier coefficients. The series
is used in harmonic analysis (Fourier analysis) CacMnYnefrehAfa em KuNhVrÚ Iey. es‘rIenHeKeRbIkëúgclnaGam:UnicviPaK
to determine the harmonic components of a
complex wave. ¬hVÚreI yvi PaK¦edIm,IkMnt;kMb:Usg;Gam:UnicénrlksaMjaMu.
Fourth dimension
In special relativity, if two events are observed
vimaRtTIbYn
by two observers moving relative to each other,
they will not agree about the simultaneity of the
kñúgkareFobBiess ebIRBwtiþkarN_BIRtUv)ansegátedayGñk
two events. However, they will agree that a segátBIrnak;paø s;TIeFobKñaeTAvíjeTAmk BYkeKnwgminÉk
quantity called the space-time metric s, defined
by s2 = x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 is invariant, that is, has PaBKñaGMBIkarekItmandMNalKñaénRBwtkiþ arN_TaMgBIr. eTaHCa
the same magnitude as determined by the two
observers. The quantity s has three dimensions ya:genHk¾eday BYkeKÉkPaBKñafa manbrimaNmYyeQµaH Em:tlMh-
of space and one of time, and is often called a
4-vector.
eBlskMnt;eday s  x  y  z  c t KW\tERb ®bYl mann½yfa
2 2 2 2 2 2

manm:DU uldUcKñaEdlkMnt;edayGñksegát TaMgBIr. brimaNsmanvímaRtlMhbI

nig manvímaRteBlmYy ehIyCajwkja;eKehAfavícu T½r$.
f.p.s. units
The British system of units based on the foot,
xñat f.p.s
pound and second. It has now been replaced for
all scientific purposes by S.I. units.
RbB½n§xñatGg;eKøs edayEp¥kelIfoot/ pound nig second.
\LÚvenHeK)anCMnYsvaedayRbB½n§xñatS.IvíjkñúgviTüasaRsþ.
Frame of reference
A set of axes that enables the position of a point
tMruy
(or body) to be defined relative to an origin. sMnMuG½kSTaMgLayEdlGaceGayTItaMgéncMnucmYy ¬b¤GgÁ
FatumYy¦RtUv)ankMnt;eFobnwgKl;tMruy.
Fraunhofer diffraction
A form of *diffraction in which the light source
DIR)ak;süúgRhVÚnhUEhV‘
and the receiving screen are at infinite distances
from the diffracting object, so that the wave
TMrg;DIR)ak;süúgmüa:g EdlkñúgenaHRbPBBnøW nigeGRkg;TTYl
fronts can be treated as planar rather than enAcMgayGnnþBIvtßDú IR)ak;süúg EdleFIeV GayrlkmuxCa
spherical
bøgr; abesIµRbesIrCagCaEsV.‘
Fraunhofer lines
Dark lines in the solar spectrum that result from
srésRhVÚnhUEhV‘
the absorption by elements in the solar
chromosphere (atmosphere) of some of the
ExSexµAenAkñgú s,úci RBHGaTitü Edl)anmkBIsrM UbedayFatu
wavelengths of visible radiation emitted by the TaMgLaykëúgRkUm:UEsV‘¬briyakas¦RBHGaTitü këúgenaHman
hot interior of the sun. Observation and
measurement of the Fraunhofer lines allows a C¿hanrlkxøHmankaMrsµbI eBa©jedaykMedAxagkñgú RBHGaTitü
determination of the elements present in the
atmosphere of the sun (star). GacemIleXIj. karsegÝtnigkarvas;srèsRhVÙnhUEhV‘Gac
eGayeKkMnt;vtþmanFatuTaMgLaykñgú briyakasRBHGaTitü b¤
briyakaspáay)an.
 86

Free energy
A measure of a system's ability to do work. The
famBlesrI
Gibbs free-energy, G, is defined by G = H – TS,
where G is the energy liberated or absorbed in a
karvas;RbB½n§mYyEdlGaceFIVkmµnþ. famBlesrIhbÁI G kMnt;eday G  H
reversible process at constant temperature (T) – TS, EdlGCafamBlrMedaHb¤famBl
and pressure, H is the enthalpy and S the
entropy of the system. sMrUbkñúgdMenIrkarrWuEvsIubenAsItuNðPaBefr(T) nig sMBaFefr HCaGg;talBI
ehIySCaGg;RtUBIrbs;RbB½n§.
Free fall
Motion resulting from a gravitational field that
Tnøak;esrI
is unimpeded by a resisting medium. Close to
the surface of the earth, free fall takes place at a
clnaEdl)anmkBIEdnTMnaj edayKµanraMgsÞHBImCÄdæan. enACitépÞEpndI
constant acceleration of 9.8 ms-2, a quantity GgÁFatuFøak;edaysMTuHefresIµnwg 9.8 ms brimaNenHtageday g
-2

denoted by g, independent of the mass of the

falling body. The reason for this independence vaminGaRs½ynwgma:s;GgÁFatuTnøak; eT.
is that the gravitational force acting on the body
is proportional to the mass of the body, but the ehtuEdlvaminGaRs½yKWedaysarkMlaMgTMnajmanGMeBI
acceleration for a given force is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
elIGgÁFatusmamaRteTAnwgma:s;GgÁFatu EtkMlaMgeGaysM
TuHRcassmamaRteTAnwgma:s;rbs;GgÁFatu.
Free space
A region in which there is no matter and there
lMhesrI
are no electromagnetic or gravitational fields.
The electric constant (see permittivity) and the
tMbn;EdlKµanrUbFatu nwg KµanEdneGLicRtUma:ejTic b¤ Edn TMnaj.
magnetic constant (see permeability) are efrGKIsÁ nI (emIl permittivity) nig efrma:ejTic (emIl
defined for free space.
permeability)RtUv)aneKkMnt;faCalMhesrI.
Frequency (symbol f)
The rate of repetition of a periodic event. The
eRbkg; (nimitþsBaØa f)
number of cycles per second of a wave or an
oscillator, expressed in hertz (Hz). The
GRtadEdl²énRBitþikarN_xYb. cMnnY C¿ukñúgmYyvinaTIénrlk b¤ lMeyal
frequency of a wave motion is given by f = c/, sMEdgecjCaEG‘k (Hz). eRbkg;clnarlkeGay edaysmIkar f  c/,
where c is the speed of propagation of the wave
and  its wavelength.
EdlcCael,ÓndMNalrlk ehIy CaC¿hanrlkrbs;va.
The frequency associated with a quantum of eRbkg;kñúgfamBleGLicRtUma:ejTic kg;Tic eGayedaysmIkar f  E/h
electromagnetic energy is given by f = E/h,
where E is the energy of the quantum and h is EdlECafamBlkg Tic ehIyhCaefrpøg;.
the Planck constant.
Frequency modulation (F.M.)
See modulation.
EGhVGwm (bMlas;brþÚ eRbkg;)
emIl modulation
Fresnel diffraction
A form of diffraction in which the light source
DIR)ak;süúgeRbsENl
or the receiving screen, or both, are at finite
distances from the diffracting object, so that the
TMrg;DIR)ak;süúgmüa:gEdlkñúgenaH RbPBBnøW b¤ eGRkg; TTYl b¤
wave fronts are not plane, but circular. TaMgBIrenHenAcMgaykMnt;BIvtßúDIR)ak;süúg dUcenH rlkmuxminEmnCabøg;eT
EtCargVg;.
Fresnel lens
A plastic lens with one side cut into a series of
Lg;TIeRbsENl
steps. It is very light and robust and has a very
short focal length with a large aperture. The
Lg;TIpaø sÞci EdlmanEpñkmçagkat;eTACaKnøak;². vamanTMgn;
Fresnel lens is used in projectors (as a RsalehIyrwgmaM RBmTaMgmanRbEvgkMNyMu :agxøI EtmanrgVH FM.
condenser lens) and for car headlights.
Lg;TIeRbsENleKeRbIkñúgRbUECkT½r nig eRbIsMrab; cegáogxagmuxrfynþ.
 87

Friction
The force that resists the motion of one surface
kkit
relative to another. For a body resting on a
horizontal surface there is a normal contact
kMlaMgEdlTb;clnaénépÞmyY eFobeTAnwgépÞmYyeTot. cMeBaHGgÁFatuenA
force, R, between the body and the surface, nwgfál; elIépÞrabesIµEdlmankMlaMgb:H R rvagGgÁFatunwgépÞ eBlenaH
acting perpendicularly (normal) to the surface.
If a horizontal force P is applied to the body kMlaMgkkitEkgeTAnwgépÞ. ebIGnuvtþkMlaMg P tambøg;edkeTAeGayGgÁFatu
with the intention of moving it to the right,
there will be an equal horizontal friction force, edayeFIV eGayvapøas;TIeTAsþaM eBlenaHnwgekItmankMlaMgkkittam bøg;edk
F, to the left, resisting the motion. If the F eTAeqVgedIm,ITb;clna ehIymanm:UDulesIK µ ña. ebI P ekInrhUtTal;Et
magnitude of P is increased until the body just
moves, the magnitude of F will also increase GgÁFatupaø s;TI eBlenaHtMél F nwgekInelIgEdr rhUtdl;vaeTAdl;kMlaMg
until it reaches the limiting frictional force (Fs)
which is the maximum value of F. Fs is then kkitkMnt; ( F ) EdlCatMélGtibrmaén F . F eBlenaHesIµnwg  R
s s s

equal to sR, where s is the coefficient of

static friction, the value of which depends on
Edl  KWCaemKuNkkitsþaTic tMélenHGaRs½ynwgFmµCatién kkit.
s

the nature of the surfaces. Once the body is GgÁFatumYypøas;TIedayel,Ónefr eBlenaHtMél F Føak; dl;tMélF Edl k
moving at a constant speed, the value of F falls
to a value Fk, which is equal to kR, where k esIµnwg R Edl KWCaemKuN kkitsIuenTic. TaMg nig minGaRs½ynwg
k k s k

is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Both s and épÞEdlGgÁFatub:HeT ehIyk¾minGaRs½ynwgvicu T½rel,Ónrbs;GgÁFatueFob

k are independent of the area of the surfaces in
contact, and of the relative velocity of the body nwgépÞEdr. ebIeKlabCatirMGwlrvagépÞb:HdUcCaeRbgma:sIunCaedÍm enaH
and the surface. If a lubricant such as oil is
introduced between the two surfaces, the
kMlaMgkkitfycuHya:geRcIn EtkMlaMgkkitnwgGa Rs½yelIel,ÓneFobrvag
frictional force is much reduced, but the épÞTaMgBI.
frictional force will depend on the relative
speed between the two surfaces.
Fuel
A substance that is oxidised in a heat engine to
\n§n³
release useful heat or energy. The most
common forms of fuel are fossil fuels such as
sarFatuEdlCaGuksIutkñúgma:sIunkMedA edIm,IeGayeKykkM edA b¤
coal or oil. The limited supply of fossil fuels famBleTAeRbIkar. TMrg;TUeTAbMputrbs;\nÞn³KW\nÞn³ pUslIu
has encouraged the development of nuclear
fuels to produce electricity. (See nuclear mandUcCaFüÚgfµ b¤ eRbgCaedÍm. karpþl;\nÞn³pUslIu dl;kMnt;
energy).
)anC¿rujeGayman\nÛn³nuyekøEG‘edÍm,IbegItÝ GKIÀ snI. emIl nuclear
energy.
 88

Fuel cell
A cell in which the chemical energy of a fuel is
vüÜlEsl
converted directly into electrical energy. The
simplest fuel cell is one in which hydrogen is
RbGb;müa:gEdlkñúgenaHfamBlKImIén\n§n³)anbMElgedaypÞal;eTACa
oxidised to form water over porous sintered famBlGKÁsnI. vüÜlEslsamBaØbMptu KWvüÜlEsl EdlmanGIuRdUEsneFIV
nickel electrodes. A supply of gaseous
hydrogen is fed to a compartment containing GuksItu begIátCaTwktamry³eGLicRtUdnIEkl. karpÁt;pÁg;]sµ½nGIRu dUEsnKW
the porous cathode and a supply of oxygen is
fed to a compartment containing the porous edÍm,IRTrRTg;katUd ehIykarpÁt;pÁg;GuksIEu snKWedÍm,IRTRTg;GaNUd eGLic
anode; the electrodes are separated by a third
compartment containing a hot alkaline
RtÚdx½N§ edaybøkú mYyEdlmandak;eGLicRtUlItGal;kaLaMg dUcCa
electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide. The b:UtasüÚmGIuRdúksItu CaedÍm. eGLicRtUtmanrn§tUc²EdlGaceGay]sµn½ eFIV
electrodes are porous to enable the gases to
react with the electrolyte, with the nickel in the RbtikmµCamYyeGLicRtUltI edaymannIEklkñgú eGLicRtUdedÍrtYrCakata
electrodes acting as a catalyst. At the cathode,
the hydrogen reacts with the hydroxide ions in lIkr. enAxagkatUdGIuRdUEsn eFIVRbtikmµCamYyGIyu :ugGIRu duksIudkñúgeGLicRtU
the electrolyte to form water, with the release of
two electrons per hydrogen molecule: H2 +
lId edÍm,IbegItá Twk edaybeBa©jeGLicRtugBIrkñúgmYym:UelKulGIuRdÚ EhSn :
2OH–  2H2O + 2e–. At the anode, the H  2OH  2H O  2e . enAxagGaNUd GuksIuEsneFIVRbtikmµCamYy
2

2


oxygen reacts with the water, taking up

electrons, to form hydroxide ions: ½ O2 + H2O Twkcab;ykeGLicRtug edÍm,IbegIát GIuyg:u GIuRdUEsn : ½ O + H O + 2e
2 2
–

+ 2e–  2OH–. The electrons flow from the

cathode to the anode through an external circuit  2OH . eGLicRtugpøas;TIBIkatUdeTAGaNUdtamry³esoKIeV RkA EdlCa
–

as an electric current. The device is efficient but

bulky, and needs a continuous supply of
crnþGKIsá nI. ]bkrN_enHmanRbsiTP§i aBb:uEnþsMBIgsMeBagbniþc ehIyRtUvkar
gaseous fuels. pþl\; nÞn³]sµ½nCab;rhUt.
Fuel element
See nuclear reactor.
Fatu\n§n³
emIl nuclear reactor
Full-wave rectifier
See rectifier.
]bkrN_tMrUvrlkeBj
emIl rectifier
Function
Any operation or procedure that relates one
GnuKmn_
variable to one or more other variables. If y is a
function of x, written y = f(x), a change in x
RbmaNviFI b¤ TRmg;karNamYy EdlTak;TgeTAnwgGefr mYyb¤GefreRcIn.
produces a change in y, and if x is known, y can ebI y CaGnuKmn_én x eKsresr y = f(x) kalNaxERbRbYl
be determined. x is known as the independent
variable and y is the dependent variable. yk¾ERbRbYlEdr ehIyebIeKsÁal; x eK GacKNna y)an. eKfa x
KWCaGefrminGaRs½y ehIy y CaGefrGaRs½y.
Fundamental
See harmonic.
RKwH
emIl harmonic
Fundamental constants (universal constants)
Those parameters that do not change
efrRKwH ¬efrTMnajskl ¦
throughout the universe. The charge on the
electron, the speed of light in free space, the
)a:ra:Em:tTaMgLayNaEdlminERbRbYlCaskl ]TahrN_
Planck constant, the electric and magnetic dUcCabnÞúkelIeGLicRtug/ el,ÓnBnøWkñúglMhesrI/ efrpøgk; _/ efrGKÁIsnI nig
constants are all thought to be examples.
efrma:ejTicCaedÍm.
 89

Fundamental interactions
The four different types of interaction that can
GnþrkmµRKwH
occur between bodies. The types of interaction
are as follows.
RbePTbYnepSgKñaénGnþrkmµEdlGacekIteLIgrvagGgÁFatu.
1. The gravitational interaction; a very weak
long-range force, always attractive, that acts
RbePTGnþrkmµmandUcteTAenH 
between all bodies in the universe that have !>GnþrkmµTMnaj CaGnþrkmµexSaybMputenAry³cMgayq¶ay.
mass. 2. The electromagnetic interaction; a
very strong long-range force, some times Canic©kalvaCaGnþrkmµTMnaj EdlmanGMeBIrvagGgÁFatuTaMg
attractive, sometimes repulsive, responsible for
the forces that control atomic structure, Gs;Edlmanma:s;kúñgcRkvaL. @> GnþrkmµeGLicRtUma:ej Tic
chemical reactions and all electromagnetic
phenomena. It accounts for the force between
CaGnþrkmµxaøgM enAry³cMgayq¶ay CYnkalCakMlaMg Taj
charged particles. 3. The weak interaction, a
nuclear force some 1010 times weaker than the
CYnkalCakMlaMgRcan. vaRKbdNþb;cMeBaHkMlaMgTaMg
electromagnetic interaction that occurs in beta LayEdlRtYtBinti üTMrg; GatUm/ RbtikmµKimI nig ral;)atu
decay. 4. The strong interaction, a very short-
range nuclear force, some 100 times stronger PUteGLicRtUma:ejTicTaMgGs;. varab;bBa¢lÚ TaMgkMlaMgrvag
than the electromagnetic interaction, which acts
between nucleons, providing the nuclear ‘glue’
PaKl¥ti EdlmanbnÞúk. #> GnþrkmµexSay kMlaMgnuyekøEG‘
that enables the nucleons to overcome the
proton-proton repulsion.
RbEhl10 dgexSayCagGnþrkmµeGLicRtÚma:ejTicEdl
10

ekItmankñúgbnSayEbta. $> GnþrkmµxøaMg !00dgxøaMgCag

GnþrkmµeGLicRtÚma:ejTic EdlGMeBIrvagnuyekøGugbegIát
eGaymanC½rkavnuyekøEG‘ GaceGaynuyekøGugC¿nHkaruj
rvagRbU00tugnigRbUtug.
Fundamental units
A set of independently defined units of
xñatRKwH
measurement that forms the basis of a system of
units. Such a set requires 3 mechanical units (of
kenSamÉktargVas;EdlbegItá CamUldæanénRbB½n§xñat.
mass, length and time), and 1 electrical unit kenSamrgVas;enHmanxñatemkanicbI¬ma:s;/ RbEvg nig ry³eBl¦ nig
(current). The metre-kilogram-second system
provides the mechanical basis for the S.I. xñatGKIÁsnImyY ¬crnþ¦. RbB½n§Em:t-KILÚ Rkam-
system of units.
vínaTICaxñatemkanicsMrab;RbB½n§xñatGnþrCati(SI).
Fuse
A length of thin wire made of a metal alloy of
hVúysIub
low melting point that is designed to melt at a
specified current loading in order to protect an
ExSePøIgtUcRTEvgeFIVeLIgBIsMelah³mancMncu rlayTab
electrical device or circuit from overloading. EdltMrvU eGayvarlayRtg;bnÞúkcrnþkMnt;mYy edÍm,IrkSa]b krN_ b¤
esoKIVGKÁIsnIeGayputBIbnÞúkhYsRbmaN.
Fusion
1. Melting. 2. See nuclear fusion.
Puysüúg
!> rlay. @> emIl nuclear fusion
Fusion reactor
See thermonuclear reactor.
er:Gak;T½rPuysüúg
emIl thermonuclear reactor
 90

Fuzzy logic
A form of logic that allows for degrees of
tkàviTüahVú‘yhSúI
imprecision used in artificial intelligence (AI)
studies. More traditional logics deal with two
TMrg;tkávíTüaEdlGaceGaylMdab;minR)akdRtUv)aneKykeTA
truth values: ‘true’ and ‘false’. Fuzzy logics are eRbIkúñgkarsikSabBaØasib,nimµit(AI). tkávíTüaCaeRcInTak;Tg
multivalued, dealing with such concepts as
‘fairly true’, and ‘more or less true’. These can nwgtMèlsMenIrBIrKW BitnigminBit. tkÝvéTüah‘úyV hSúmI antMèl eRcInrYmKëa
be represented by numbers within a range with
the number representing the degree of truth or edayTak;TgnwgsMenIrxøHdUcCa‘Bitya:gRtwmRtÚv’ nig ‘BitxøaMg b¤ Bittic ’.
certainty. sMenIrTaMgenHGactagedaycMnnY elxeTAtamtMNaglMdab;rbs;seM nIr b¤
lMdab;esckIþBit.
G
Gain
See amplifier
ekIn
emIl amplifier
Galaxy
A vast collection of stars, dust, and gas held
háaLak;sIu
together by the gravitational attraction between
its components. Galaxies are usually classified
karRbmUlp¿pþú aá y/ FUlI nig ]sµ½n d¾eRcInsn§wksn§ab; varYm
as elliptical, spiral, or irregular in shape. cUlKñaedaykMlaMgTMnajcUlrvagsmasFaturbs;va. CaTUeTA
Elliptical galaxies appear like ellipsoidal clouds
of stars, with very little internal structure apart háaLak;sIumanragCaeGlIb/ Caes<ó/ CaGniy½t. háaLak;
from (in some cases) a denser nucleus. Spiral
galaxies are flat disc-shaped collections of stars sIueGlIbmanTMngdUcCaBBkpáayrageGlIbsUGdIu CamYyrc
with prominent spiral arms. Irregular galaxies
have no apparent structure or shape.
nasm<½nx§ agkñúgya:gtUcXøatBIéNVy:URkas. háaLak;sIues<ó
The sun belongs to a spiral galaxy known as manragsMEb:tdUcfas RbmUlp¿úpþ áayTaMgLayedayédes<ód¾
the Galaxy (with a capital G) or the Milky Way
System. The galaxies are separated from each FM.háaLak;suIGniy½tKµanTMrg;b¤ragc,as;las;eT.RBHGaTitü
other by enormous distances, the nearest large
galaxy to our own (the Andromeda galaxy) CasmaCikrbs;haá Lak;seIu s<ó b¤ RbB½n§mIlKIev. háaLak;sIu
being about 6.7 x 105 parsecs away.
TaMgLayXøatKñaeTAvíjeTAmkedaycMgayd¾FMmhima háa
Lak;FMEdlenACíteyIgbMput¬háaLak;sIuGg;RdÚemda¦XøatBI eyIgRbEhl
6.7  10 )a:sic.
5

Galaxy cluster
A group of galaxies containing many hundreds
kBa©úMháaLak;sIu
of members extending over a radius of up to a
few megaparsecs.
RkumháaLak;sIuEdlmansmaCíkrab;rylatsn§wgelIrgVgm; an
kaMbIbYnemháa)a:suci .
Galilean telescope
See telescope
EkvqøúHháalIel
emIl telescope
 91

Galilean transformations
A set of equations for transforming the position
bMElgháalIel
and motion parameters from a frame of
reference with origin at O and coordinates (x, y,
kenSamsmIkarsMrab;bMElgTItaMg nwg )a:ra:Em:tclnaBItMruy mYymanKl;0
z) to a frame with origin at O’ and coordinates nwg kUGr½ edaen (x, y, z) eTAtMruymYyeTot EdlmanKl; O' nwgkUG½redaen
(x’, y’, z’), moving at speed v with respect to the
first reference frame. The equations are: (x', y', z'), pøas;TIedayel,Ón v eFobeTAnwgtMruyTImYy. smIkarvaKW ³
x’ = x - vt x' = x – vt
y’ = y
y' = y
z’ = z
t’ = t z' = z
The equations conform to Newtonian t' = t
mechanics, but not to Einstein’s special
relativity theory. Compare Lorentz
smIkaenHGnuelamtamsmIkaremkanicjÚtun b:uEnþmindUcsmI
transformations. kakñúgRTwseIþ Fobrbs;GaMgsþajeT. eRbobeFob Lorentz transformations
Gallon (or Imperial gallon)
The volume occupied by exactly ten pounds of
háaLúg b¤ GIumP½rerolháaLúg
distilled water of density 0.998859 gram per
millilitre. 1 gallon = 4.54609 litres.
maDEdlB½T§Cv¿u ijedayTwkdb;epan mandg;sueI t 0.998859
RkamkñúgmYylIRt. !háaLúg = 4.54609 lIRt.
Galvanic cell
See voltaic cell.
fµBilháalva:n;
emIl voltaic cell
Galvanised iron
Iron or steel that has been coated with a layer of
Edkháalva:n;
zinc to protect it from corrosion. Edk b¤ srésEdkEdlmaneRsabedayRsTab;sgásIedIm,I
karBarkMeu GayeRcHcab;.
Galvanometer
An instrument for detecting and measuring
háalva:NUEm:t
small electric currents. In the moving coil
instrument a pivoted coil of fine wire is wound
]bkrN_sMrab;emIlsIuBaaØl; nwgvas;crnþGKÁIsnIEdlmantM éltUc.
around a fixed soft-iron core supported between këúgbUb‘ÍneKykExScMlgEdlcMlgGKÀIsnIlb¥ Mput
the poles of a permanent magnet. Current
passing through the coil experiences a magnetic eTArMuCuv¿ ji sñÚlEdkEdlRTrcenøaHb:UlemEdkGciéRnþ. crnþqøg
force that results in a torque on the coil. The
moving coil carries a pointer, and the deflection kat;bUb‘ÍnbeBa¨jkMlaMgma:ejTic edaysarkMlaMgbgVilelI bUb‘nÍ .
of the pointer is proportional to the current
passing through the coil. The galvanometer can
RTnicpøas;TIcg¥úlRtg;tMélNamYy ehIylMgakRT
be converted to a voltmeter by adding a series niccg¥úlsmamaRteTAnwgcrnþpøas;TIqøgkat;bUb‘nÍ . hÝalva:NU
resistor, or to an ammeter by adding a parallel
(shunt) resistor. Em:tGacbMElgeTACav:ulEm:tk¾'anEdr edaybEnÜmer:sIusþg; tCaes‘rI b¤
bMElgeTACaGMEBEm:tk¾)anEdr edaybEnßmer sIsu þg;sWntCaExñg.
Gamma radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted by excited
kaMrsµIhÁama:
atomic nuclei during the process of passing to a
lower excitation state. Gamma radiation
kaMrsµIeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdl)anmkBIkarxÞatecjénéNVy:U GatUmTaMgLay
extends from about 10 keV to 10 MeV, kñúgeBlEdlvaelateTAkan;sNßanrMejac Tab. kaMrsµIhÁam:aekInBI 10 keV
corresponding to a wavelength range of about
10–10 to 10–14 metre. A common source of eTA 10 MeV RtUvKñanwgkM rwtC¿hanrlkRbEhl 10 eTA 10 Em:Rt.
-10 -14

gamma radiation is cobalt–60:  

  RbPBkaMrsIµháa ma:smBaØKWkU)al;^0: Co Ni  Ni .
60
27
60
28
27 Co  28 Ni  Ni .
60 60
 92

Gamma-ray Astronomy
Astronomy involving gamma-ray photons (with
taraviTüakaMrsIµháama:
energies in excess of 100 MeV). The cosmic
radiation with the highest energy can be
taravíTüaTak;TgnwgkaMrsIµháama:pUtug (edaybeBa©jfamBl
detected by electron-photon cascades, which elIsBI100Mev). kaMrsIeµ lakFatuCamYyfamBlx<s;Gac
take place in the atmosphere. Gamma rays
having lower energies can only be detected eGayeKsegáteXIjeGLicRtug-RbUtugFøak;cuHmkkñúgbriya kas.
above the atmosphere.
kaMrsIµhaá ma:EdlmanfamBlTabGaceGayeKemIl
eXIjenAxagelIbriyayas.
Gas
A state of matter in which the constituent atoms
]sµ½n
or molecules exist almost in isolation from one
another. In an *ideal gas, which obeys the *gas
sNßanrUbFatum:üagEdlkñúgenaHvapS¿eLIgedayGatUm b¤ m:U
laws exactly, the molecules themselves would elKulEdlenARtemacBIrUbFatud¾éT. kñúg]sµn½ brisTu §eK
have a negligible volume and negligible forces
between them, and collisions between TTYl)anc,ab;ya:gCak;lak; m:UelKulxøÜnvamanmaDGac ecal)an
molecules would be perfectly elastic.
ehIykMlaMgrvagKñak¾Gacecal)anEdr ehIykar
TgÁicrvagm:eU lKulKWCaTgÁicxÞat.
Gas constant (universal molar gas constant).
Symbol R
efr]sµ½n ¬efrm:Ul]sµ½n¦ (nimitþsBaaØR )
The constant that occurs in the universal gas
equation (see gas laws). It has the value 8.314
efrEdlmanenAkñúgsmIkar]sµ½nTUeTA ¬emIl gas laws ¦.
34 JK-1mol-1. efr]sµn½ mantMél 8.314 34 JK mol .
-1 -1

Gas-cooled reactor
See reactor.
er:Gak;T½r]sµ½nRtCak;
emIl reactor
Gas equation
See gas laws
smIkar]sµ½n
emIl gas laws
Gas laws
Laws relating the temperature, pressure and
c,ab;]sµ½n
volume of an *ideal gas. Boyle's law states that
the pressure (p) of a gas is inversely
c,ab;TaMgLayEdlTak;TgeTAnwgsItuNPð aB/ sMBaF/ nig
proportional to its volume (V) at constant maDèn]sµn½ brisuT§. c,ab;b‘yeBalfa sMBaF (p) én]sµn½
temperature (pV = constant). Charles’ law
states that the volume is directly proportional to RcassmamaRteTAnwgmaD (V)rbs;vaenARtg;sItuNPð aBefr (pV= efr).
the thermodynamic temperature (T) at constant
pressure (V/T = constant). The pressure law c,ab;saleBalfa maDKWBitCasmamaRteTA nwgsItuNðPaBETm:DU INamic
states that the pressure is directly proportional (T)Rtg;sItuNðPaBefr (V/T = efr ). c,ab;sB M aFeBalfa
to the thermodynamic temperature at constant
volume. The three laws can be combined in the sMBaFsmamaRteTAnwgsItuNð PaBETm:DU INamicenAeBlEdlmaDefr.
universal gas equation, pV = nRT where n is the
number of moles of gas in the specimen and R c,abTaMgbIenHbegátI )anCasmIkar]sµn½ TUeTA pV = nRT Edl n
is the gas constant.
CacMnYnm:Ulén ]sµ½n ehIyRCaefr]sµ½n.
 93

Gas thermometer
A device for measuring temperature in which
ETm:UEm:t]sµ½n
the working fluid is a gas. It provides the most
accurate method of measuring temperatures in
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;sItuNðPaB EdlkñúgenaHGgÁFaturaveFIV karCa]sµ½n.
the range 2.5 to 1337 K. Using a fixed mass of vaCa]bkrN_srM ab;vas;stI uNPð aBkñúgkMrtw 2.5 eTA 1337 K.
gas a constant-volume gas thermometer
measures the pressure of a fixed volume of gas ]bkrN_enHeRbIma:s;mYyEdlmanmaD ]sµ½nefr.
at relevant temperatures, usually by means of a
mercury manometer. ETm:EU m:t]sµn½ vas;sMBaFEdlmanmaD]sµn½ efr Rtg;sMBaFNamYy
CaTUeTAeKeRbIma:NUEm:t)ar:t.
Gas turbine
An internal-combustion engine in which the
TYb‘Ín]sµ½n
products of combustion of a fuel burnt in air are
expanded through a turbine. Atmospheric air is
cMehHxagkñúgma:sIun kñúgenaHplcMehH\nÞn³eqHkñúgxül;
compressed by a rotary compressor driven by eFIVeGaysayBaseBjTYb‘Ín. xüb;briyakasC¿uvji 'aneFIV
the turbine, fed into a combustion chamber
where it is mixed with fuel (e.g. kerosene); the eGaybENÑNedaysarkarbEnÜmsMBaFedayTYb‘nÍ eFIVeGay manbnÞb;ceM hH
expanding gases drive the turbine and power is
taken from the unit by means of rotation of the EdllayCamYy\nÛn³ ¬]/ eRbgkat¦ ]sµ½n saykëúgTYb‘Ín
turbine shaft (as in locomotives) or thrust from
a jet (as in aircraft).
ehIyGnuPaB'anmkBIkarrgVilrbs;dgTYb‘Ín ¬dUcCaenAkëgú k,alrfePøIg¦ b¤
karbBa¢nÚ BIceM hHRbtikmµ ¬dUcCakñúgynþehaH¦.
Gate
1. An electronic circuit with a single output and
ehÁt
one or more inputs; the output is a function of
the input or inputs. Gates are the basic
!> esoKVeI GLicRtUnicEdlmansIBu aaØl;ecjmYy ehIysIuBaaØl;
components of computers. 2. The electrode in a cUlmYyb¤eRcIn. sIuBaaØl;ecjKWCaGnuKmn_énsIuBaaØl;clU mYyb¤eRcIn.
field-effect *transistor that controls the current
through the channel. ehÁtKWCasmasFatuRKiHénkMBu üÚT½r. @> eGLic RtUdkñúgplEdnRtg;ssIu rÞ½
EdlRtYtBinitücrnþqøgkat;bNaþj
Gauss. Symbol G
The c.g.s. unit of magnetic flux density. It is
háÜs (nimitþsBaaØG)
equal to 10-4 tesla. xñat c.g.s éndg;suIetPøcú ma:ejTic vaesIµ nwg !0-$etsøa.
Gauss’ law
The total electric flux normal to a closed
c,ab;háÚs
surface in an electric field is proportional to the
algebraic sum of the charges enclosed within
PøúcGKÁIsnIsrubEdlEkgeTAnwgépÞbiTkñgú EdnGKÁIsnIsma
the surface. In mathematical notation: maRteTAnwgplbUkBiCKNiténbnÞúkkñúgépÞbiT. kñúgsBaØaN
q encl

 E  E.dA 
0
. KNitvíTüaeKsresr :    E.dA  q .
E
encl

0
Gaussmeter
A *magnetometer, especially one calibrated in
hÁÚsEm:t
Gauss. ma:ej:tUEm:t EdlRkwttamxñathásÚ .
Gay Lussac’s law
When gases combine chemically the volumes
c,ab;eháluysak;
of the reactants and the volume of the product,
if it is gaseous, bear simple relationships to
eBl]sµ½npS¿tamrebobKImI maDénGgÁFatuRbtikmµnwgmaD
each other when measured under the same énpllitpl¬ebIvaCa]sµ½n¦manTMnak;TMngKñaeTAvijeTAmk
conditions of temperature and pressure.
eBlvas;eRkamlkçx½NÐsMBaF nig sItu uNðPaBdUcKña.
 94

Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller counter)

A device used to detect and measure ionising
kugT½rháahÁr ¬kugT½rmUl½rháahÁ½r¦
radiation. It consists of a tube containing a gas
at low pressure (usually a mixture of methane
]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;emIl nwg vas;kaMrsµIGIuy:ug. vamanbMBg;
with argon) and a cylindrical hollow cathode ]sµn½ EdlmansMBaFTab ¬CaFmµtamanl,ayemtanCamYy nwgGakug¦
through the centre of which runs a fine-wire
anode. A potential difference of about 1000 V nigkatUdEdlmanragCasILu aMgRbehag ehIyp©it
is maintained between anode and cathode. An
ionising particle passing through a window into vaCaGaNUdEdlCaExScMlgqµar. plsgb:tU g;EsülRbEhl !000
the tube will cause an ion to be produced, and VenAcenøaHGaNUd nwgkatUd. GIuy:ugPaKl¥itqøgkat; bg¥ÜccUleTAkñúgbMBg;
the high potential difference will accelerate it
towards the anode causing an avalanche of eBlenaHeFIeV GaymanGIuy:ugekIteLIg
further ionisations by collision. The consequent
current pulses can be counted in electronic edayplsgb:Utg;Esülx<s;eFIeV GayvasÞHú cUleTAGaNUd ya:gelOn.
circuits.
cugeRkayeKGacvas;GMaBulsüúgcrnþkñúgesoKIV eGLicRtUnic)an.
Geissler tube
An early form of gas discharge tube that
bMBg;eháesø
demonstrates the luminous effects of an electric
discharge passing through a low-pressure gas.
TMrg;dMbUgénbMBg;epÞr]sµn½ EdlbgðajBIplBnøWénbenÞrGKÁI
The Geissler tube is also used as a spectral snIqøgkat;]sµ½nEdlmansMBaFTab. bMBg;eháesøRtUv)aneK
source in spectroscopy.
eRbICaRbPBs,úci kñgú s,úicRtUkUBI .
General theory of relativity
See relativity.
RTisþIeFobTUeTA
emIl relativity
Generation time
The average time that elapses between the
eBlbegIát
creation of a neutron by fission in a nuclear
reactor and a fission produced by that neutron.
ry³eBlmFümEdlknøgeTArvagkarekIténNWRtugmYykñúger
Gak;T½rnuyekøEG‘ nig karbegIÝtPIsüúgedayNWRtugenaH.
Generator
Any machine that converts mechanical power
ma:sIunePøIg
into electrical power. At the heart of any
generator is a coil of wire in which the
ma:sunI EdlbMElgGnuPaBemkaniceTACafamBlGKÁisnI.
magnetic flux through the coil is made to vary Rtg;ebHdUgma:suInePIøgKWCabUb‘ÍnExSePIøgmYy EdlkëúgenaHPøúc
in several ways. For example, if a coil is made
to rotate in a magnetic field, the changing ma:ejTicqøgkat;bUb‘ÍntameRcInrebob. ]TahrN_ ebIbUbÍn‘
magnetic flux generates an emf in the coil that
can be applied across a load; thus mechanical vílkñgú Ednma:ejTic enaHbMErbMrYlPøcú ma:ejTiceFIVeGayekIt
energy is converted to electrical energy.
Electromagnetic generators are the main source
mankMlaMgGKIÀsnIclkrkëúgbUb‘nÍ EdlGaceGayeKykeTA
of electrical power and may be driven by steam eRbIkúñg]bkrN_eRkA)an dUecñHfamBlemkanic)anbMElg
turbines, water turbines, internal combustion
engines or windmills. In power stations, eTACafamBlGKIÁsnI. ma:snIu ePIøgeGLicRtUma:ejTicKWCa
generators produce alternating current and are
often called alternators. RbPBfamBlGKÀIsnIcm,g ehIyGacbBa¢nÙ edayeRbITYb‘Ín cMhay/
TYb‘ÍnTwk/ ma:suIncMehHkëúg b¤ edayma:sunI EdledIr edaykMlaMgxül;.
kñúgsßanIy_GKIsÁ nI ma:sIunePIøgbegIát)an crnþqøas;
ehIyCYnkaleKehAvafaGal;ETNaT½r.
 95

Geocentric universe
A view of the universe in which the earth is
EpndÍp©itcRkvaL (cRkvaLEdlmanEpndICap©it)
regarded as being at its centre. Galileo finally
established that the earth revolves round the sun
karsegátemIlcRkvaL EdlkñúgenaHEpndÍcab;TukfaCap©it éncRkvaL.
(not the other way round, as the church cugeRkayelakháalIeL)ansegáteXIjfaEpn
believed); during the 20th century it has
become clear from advances in observational dÍvlí C¿uvjí RBHGaTitü¬xusBICe¿ nOrbs;RKisþsasna¦. kñgú GM LúgstvtSTI@0
astronomy that the earth is no more than one of
nine planets orbiting the sun, which is one of RTwsIþháalIeLbgðajkan;Etc,as;tamry³ karrIkcMerInEpñktaravíTüa.
countless millions of similar stars. eKsegáteXIjfaEpndÍCaPBEt
mYyKt;kñúgcMeNamPBTaMgR)aMbYnEdlvílC¿uvíjRBHGaTitü
EdlCapáaymYykñúgcMeNampáayRsedogKñarab;minGs;.
Geodesic (geodesic line)
The shortest distance between two points on a
ehSGUedsiuc (bnÞat;ehSGUedsiuc)
curved surface. On the surface of a sphere, a
geodesic is the great circle that joins two points
cMgayxIbø MputrvagcMncu BIelIè;pÛkMeNag. elIèpÛrbs;EsV‘ ehS
on the circle. GUedsiucKWCargVg;FMbMptu EdlP¢ab;cMnucBIrelIrgVg.;
Geodesy
The science concerned with surveying and
EpndÍviPaK
mapping the earth’s surface to determine, for
example, its exact size, shape and gravitational
viTüasaRsþEdlTak;TgCamYykarsÞg; nwg karKUEpnTIépÞrbs;
field. The information supplied by geodesy is of EpndIedÍm,IkMnt;dUcCa TMhMrbs;va/ ragrbs;va nig EdnTMnaj rbs;vaCaedÍm.
use in civil engineering, navigation, geophysics
and geography. Bt’manEdl'anmkedayEpndÍvPí aK KWykeTA eRbIkñúgvísVkmµsuvI Íl/
navacrN_/ rUbvíTüaEpndÍ nig PUmivíTüa.
Geomagnetism
The science concerned with the earth’s
ma:ejTicEpndÍ
magnetic field. A bar magnet suspended freely
at the earth’s surface points in a nearly south-
viTüasaRsþEdlTak;TgCamYyEdnma:ejTicEpndI. r)aemEdk
north direction, showing that the earth is EdlBüÜredayesrIRtg;épÞEpndI vacg¥úleTArkTisedAt,Úg- eCIg
surrounded by a magnetic field. The angle (D)
between the horizontal direction in which it karN_enHbgðajfa EpndIB½T§C¿uvji edayEdnma:ejTic.
points and the geographic meridian at that point
is called the magnetic declination. The compass mMDu rvagTisedAedkEdlvacg¥úl nig emrIdüanPUmisaRsþRtg;cM
needle will only be horizontal at the magnetic
equator. In all other positions it will make an
nucenaHehAfaDIKøIenhüúgPUmisaRsþ. m¢lú emEdkedkRtg;Et
angle (I) with the horizontal, called the enARtg;cMncu eGkVaT½rma:ejTicb:eu NÑaH. kñúgRKb;TItaMgTaMgGs;
inclination, or magnetic dip. The positions of
the north and south magnetic poles vary vanwgbegIát)anmMuICamYybnÞat;edk mMeu nHehAfaGaMKøeI nhSúg b¤ DIbma:ejTic.
somewhat randomly with time.
TItaMgrbs;b:UleCÍg-t,Úgma:ejTicERb RbYleTAtameBl.
Geometrical optics
See optics.
GubTicFrNImaRt
emIl optics
Geometric average
See average.
mFümFrNImaRt
emIl average
 96

Geometric series
A series of numbers in which the ratio of any
es‘rIFrNImaRt
term to the next term is constant. This ratio is
called the common ratio r. For example, 1, 4,
es‘rèI ncMnYnTaMgLayEdlkëúgenaHplEckènGnuKmn_Na
16, 64, … has a common ratio of 4. In general a mYyeTAnwgGnuKmn_bnÞab;va esIcµ MnnY efr. plEckenHehAfa plEckrYm r.
geometric series can be written a + ar + ar2 +
… + arn-1, and the sum of n terms is Sn = a(rn - ]TahrN_ !/ $/ !^/ ^$/ /// manplEckrYm $.
1)/(r - 1). If r < 1, the series converges, and the
sum of an infinite number of terms is S = a/(1
këúges‘rIFrNImaRtTUeTAGacsresrCa a  ar  ar  …  ar ,
2 n–1

– r) ehIyplbUkTIn KW S  a(r – 1)/(r – 1) . ebI r <1 eK'anes‘rrI Ym

n
n

ehIyebIplbUkrhUtdl;Gnnþ enaHeyIg )an S  a /(1 – r).



Geophysics
The branch of science in which the principles of
rUbviTüaEpndÍ
mathematics and physics are applied to the
study of the earth’s crust and interior. It
saxavíTüasaRsþ EdlkñúgenaHviFIKNitviTüa nig rUbviTüaRtUv)aneKGnuvtþn_
includes the study of earthquake waves, edIm,IsikSaBIsbM k nig EpñkxagkñúgEpndI. kñúg karsikSaenaHrYmmansikSa
geomagnetism and gravitational fields. This
study leads to the discovery of mineral BIrlkrBa¢ÜyEpndI/ ma:ejTicPUmi saRsþ/ nig EdnTMnaj.
resources.
karsikSaenHnaMeTAdl;rbkKMehIj énRbPBxnic.
Geosynchronous orbit
An orbit of the earth made by an artificial
G½rb‘ÍtsaMgRkUnPUmisaRsþ
satellite with a period exactly equal to the
period of the earth’s rotation about its axis i.e.
G½rb‘ÍtEpndIEdlekIteLIgedayrNbnimµit EdlmanxYbesIµKñaya:gCak;lak;
23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds. This is also eTAnwgxYbrgVilrbs;EpndIEdlvileFobG½kSrbs;va mann½yfa @#ema:g
called a geostationary orbit and it occurs at an
altitude of 35 900 km. %^naTI$>!vInaTI. eKehAG½rb‘Ít enHfa G½rb‘ÍtsÜanIPUmIsaRsþk¾'anEdr
ehIyvaekIteLIgenA ry³kMBs; #%(00 K>m.
Geothermal energy
Heat within the earth’s interior that is a
famBlkMedAEpndÍ
potential source of useful energy. Volcanoes,
geysers and hot springs are examples of
kMedAEdlmanenAEpñkxagkñúgEpndI EdlCaRbPBb:tU g;Esül
geothermal energy. Thermal energy from these énfamBlEdlmanRbeyaCn_. karpÞúHPñMePøIg/ TwkekþApusBI dIngi rdUvekþA
reservoirs can be tapped by drilling into them
and extracting their thermal energy by TaMgenHCa]TahrN_énfamBlkMedAEpndI.
conduction to a fluid. The hot fluid can then be
used to raise steam to drive a turbogenerator. famBlkMedAEdl)anmkBIRbPBTaMgenHGacykmkeRbI)an
edayxYgcUleTAkñúgenaH ehIyTajykfamBlkMedArbs;va
edaykarcMlgeTAeGaysnÞnyI . eBlsnÞnIekþAGacykcM
hayeTAeRbIedÍm,ITajtYbUma:sIunePIøg.
Getter
A substance with a strong affinity for another
hÁitT½r ¬Rbdab;RsUbxül;¦
substance. A getter may be used to remove the
last traces of a gas in achieving a high vacuum.
smasFatuEdlmanBn§PaBxøaMgcMeBaHsmasFatud¾éT. hÁti T½r
GaceRbIsMrab;beBa©j]sµn½ edIm,ITTYl)ansuBaØGakaskMrwtx<s.;
GeV
Gigaelectron volt, i.e. 109 eV. In the U.S.A. this
hIÁháaeGLicRtugv:ul
often written BeV, billion-electron volt. hÁIhÁaeGLicRtugv:ul mann½yfa !0(eV. kñgú U.S.A eKsr esrCa BeV
mann½yfaBan;laneGLicRtugv:lu .
 97

Giant star
A very large star that is highly luminous. Lying
páayd¾FM
above the main sequence on a Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram, giant stars represent a late
páayd¾FMmYyEdlbeBa©jBnøWxaøMg. pÝayenHzitenAxagelI sVtÍú‘ düaRkamEG‘k-
stage in stellar evolution. See red giant. ruEsül. páayFMtMNageGayd¿Nak;kal cugeRkaykñúgvívtþnP_ B. emIl red
giant.
Gibbous
See phases of the moon.
hÁIb‘s
emIl phases of the moon
Gibbs free energy
See free energy.
famBlhÁIbesrI
emIl free energy
Giga- Symbol G
A prefix used in the metric system to denote
hÁIháa (nimitþsBaaØG)
one thousand million times. For example, 10 9
joules = 1 gigajoule (GJ).
buBVbTEdleKeRbIkúñgRbB½n§Em:t sMrab;tageGayymYyBan; landg.
]TahrN_ !0( s‘Ul = ! hÀIhÝas‘Ul (GJ).
Gilbert Symbol Gb
The c.g.s unit of magnetomotive force equal to
hÁIbWt (nimitþsBaaØGb)
10/4 Ampere turns. xñat c.g.sénkMlaMgma:ejTicclkr esInµ wg10/4GMEBrC¿.u
Gimbal
A type of mount for an instrument (such as a
hÁIm)al
compass or gyroscope) in which the instrument
is free to rotate about two perpendicular axes.
]bkrN_müa:g¬dUcCam¢úlemEdk b¤ hÁIrUT: sSn_¦EdlkñúgenaH
]bkrN_GacviledayesrIeFobnwgG½kSEkgBIr.
Glass
An *amorphous solid in which the atoms form
Ekv
a random, non-crystalline structure. Unlike
most other solids glass can flow over a very
GgÁFaturwgm:üagKµanrUbragR)akd EdlkñúgenaHGatUmmanTM
long period of time, although it has a viscosity rg;Kaµ nsNþab;Fñab;¬KµanTMrg;RKIsþal;¦. xusBIGgÁFaturwgd¾éT eTot
greater than 1013 poise.
EkvGachUrkñúgry³eBlya:gyUr eTaHCavamanPaB si¥tFMCag10 poise.
13

Glass fibres (Fibreglass)

Melted glass drawn into thin fibres some 0.005
srésEkv
- 0.01 mm in diameter. The fibres may be
woven into fabrics, which are then impregnated
karrMlayEkveTACasésEdlmanGgát;p©it0.005-0.01 mm.
with resins to give a material that is both strong srésGact,ajeTACasMBt; EdleBlenaHeKRc)ac;layCa
and corrosion-resistant, used in car bodies and
boat building. mYyC½reQIedIm,IeGayvakøayeTACarUbFatuEdlCab;maM ehIy
GackarBarkMueGayeRcHsIu eKeRbIvakñgú tYrfynþ nwg kñúgkar sagsg;TUk.
Globular cluster
A spherical cluster of stars held together by a
kBa©úMPUeKal
mutual gravitational attraction, usually
containing between 104 and 106 stars.
kBa¨púM aÝ yEdlmanragCaEsV‘ varYmcUlKëaedaykMlaMgTMnaj eTAvijeTAmk
CaFmµtavamanpáayBI !0$dl; !0^páay.
 98

Glow discharge
An electrical discharge that passes through a
epÞrBnøW
gas at low pressure and causes the gas to
become luminous. The glow is produced when
karepÞrGKÁIsnIkat;tam]sµ½nenAsMBaFTab ehIyeFIeV Gay
excited atoms and molecules decay to a lower ]sµn½ eTACamanBnøW. BnøWekItmanenAeBlEdlGatUmnwgm:Uel
excited state or to the ground state, at which
time a photon is emitted with a frequency given KulelateTAkan;sNßanrMejacTabCag b¤ eTAsNßanRKwH na eBlenaH
by E = hf, where E is the energy difference pUtugbeBa©jeRbkg;eGayeday E  hf EdlE
of the two energy states and h is the Planck
constant. CaplsgfamBlénsNßanfamBlBIr ehIyhCaefrpøg;.
Gluon
See elementary particles.
Køúy:ug
emIl elementary particles
Governor
A device that maintains a motor or engine at a
niy½tkr
constant speed despite variations in the load,
using the principle of negative feedback.
]bkrN_Edlmanm:UT½rb¤ma:sIunEdlmanel,Ónefr eTaHbI
manbMErbMrYlbnÞúkk¾eday. eKeRbIeKalkarN_RbtikmµbkGví C¢man.
Grad (gradient) (Symbol ) Rkad b¤ Rkadüg; ¬nimitsþ BaØa ¦
  
 j  k , where i, j
The operator i
x y z RbmaNviFI i x  j y  k z Edl i , j , nig k KWCaviucT½r
and k are unit vectors in the x, y and z
directions. In physics F is a vector in the ÉkttatamTisedA x, y nig z . kñúgrUbviTüa F KWCaviucT½r
direction in which the rate of change of F is a
maximum. tamTisedAbMErbMrlY F Gtibrma.
Gradient
The slope of a line. In general English it can be
Rkadüg; ¬emKuNR)ab;TisbnÞat;b:H¦
defined as the vertical rise or fall of the line
divided by the horizontal run of the line. In
kMrwteRTt¬emKuNR)ab;TisbnÞat;b:H¦énbnÞat;myY . kñúgGg; eKøsTUeTA
Cartesian coordinates a straight line y = mx + c vaGackMNt;edaykMrwtekIneLIgénbnÞat;Eck[
has a gradient m. Also the gradient is given by
kMrwtrt;tambnÞat;edkénbnÞat;. kñúgkUG½redaenkaetsüag smIkarbnÞat;Rtg;
y  mx  c manRkadüg;m . Rkadüg; eGayedaysmIkar m  (y - y )/(x
m = (y2 - y1)/(x2 - x)
2 1 2

In this equation x2 is always greater than x1, but - x )kñúgsmIkarenH x Canic©kalEtgEtFMCag x b:uEnþ y GacFMCag b¤
1 2 1 2
y2 may be greater than or less than y1, so the
gradient can be positive or negative. For a curve tUcCag y dUecñHRkadüg;GacviCm¢ an b¤ GviC¢man. cMeBaHExSekag f(x)
1
f(x), the gradient at a point is the derivative
dy/dx at that point, i.e. the gradient of the Rkadüg;Rtg;cMnucmYy KWCaedrIev dy/dx Rtg;cnM ucenaH man n½yfa
tangent to the curve at that point.
CaRkadüg;énbnÞat;b:HeTAnwgExSekagRtg;cMnucenaH.
Graham’s law
The rate at which gases diffuse is inversely
c,ab;Rkaham
proportional to the square roots of their
densities. This principle is made use of in the
kMrwtEdl]sµ½nsayRcassmamaRteTAnwgrwskaeréndg;seIu t rbs;va.
diffusion method of separating isotopes. eKalkarN_enHRtUv)aneKeRbIenAkñúgviFIbnSayén karbMEbkGIustU Ub.
Gram (Symbol g)
One thousandth of a kilogram.
Rkam (nimitsþ BaaØg)
RkamesIµnwgmYyPaKBan;KILÚRkam.
 99

Graph
A diagram that illustrates the relation between
Rkab
two variables. It consists of two perpendicular
axes, calibrated in the units of the variables and
düaRkamEdlbBaa¢kB; ITMnak;TMngrvagbMErbMrlY GefrBIr. Rkab
crossing at a point called the origin. Points are manG½kSBIrEkgKña RkwtxañteTAtamGefr ehIykat;KñaRtg;cM nucmYyehAfa
plotted in the spaces between the axes and the
points are joined to form a curve. See also Kl; 0. cMnucTaMgLayRtÚv)aneKedAkñgú lMh vagG½kS
Cartesian coordinates; polar coordinates.
ehIyP¢ab;cnM cu TaMgenaHbegItá )anCaExSekag.
emIl Cartesian coordinates nig polar coordinates
Graticule (in optics)
A network of fine wires or a scale in the
RkaTIKul (kñgú GubTic)
eyepiece of a telescope or microscope or on the
stage of a microscope for measuring purposes.
bNaþjExScMlgqµar² b¤ karRkwtxñatkñgú GUKuyElEkvywt b¤ mIRkÚTsSn_ b¤
elIpasmIRkUTsSn_sMrab;vas;eKalbMNg.
Grating
See diffraction grating.
RkaFIg
emIl diffraction grating
Gravitation
See Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
TMnaj
emIl Newton’s law of universal gravitation
Gravitational collapse
A phenomenon in which matter compressed
sm<½nTMnaj
beyond a critical density collapses as a
consequence of gravitational attraction until it
)atuPUtm:üagEdlkñúgenaH rUbFatuRtUvbENÑncUlKñarhUtdl;
becomes a black hole. The final form of a dg;sueI tENndl;kMrtw edaysarplví)akénkMlaMgTMnaj
collapsing star depends critically on its initial
mass (and on how much matter is ejected cUlrhUtdl;vakøayCaEbøkhUl¬reNþAexµAggwt¦. TMrg;cug
during the collapse). If the initial mass is
between 4-10 solar masses the star will collapse eRkayénkarsm<½n§paá ycUlKña GaRs½yelIma:sedÍmrbs;va
into a *neutron star, but for greater masses the
star will collapse further into a black hole.
¬nigGaRs½yelIfaetIrUbFatuRcanKñarebobNakñúgGMLúgeBl cgsm<½n§¦.
ebIma:sedÍmmancab;BI$-!0páay eBlenaHpáay
cgsm<½nc§ UlKñaeTACapáayNWRtug EtebIma:skan;EteRcInEfm
eTotp¿cþú UlKñabegIát)anCaEbøkhUl.
Gravitational constant Symbol G
The constant that appears in *Newton’s law of
efrTMnaj (nimitsþ BaaØG)
universal gravitation; it has the value 6.664 x
10-11 N m2 kg-2.
efrEdlmanenAkñúgc,ab;TMnajsaklrbs;jÚtun vamantMél
6.664  10 N m kg .
-11 2 -2

Gravitational field
The region of space surrounding a body that has
EdnTMnaj
the property of *mass. In this region any other
body that has mass will experience an attractive
tMbn;lMhEdlB½T§C¿uvji GgÁFatumYyEdlmanma:s. kñúgtMbn; enH
force. The ratio of the force to the mass of the GgÁFatuNamYyEdlmanma:s c,as;CabeBa©jkMlaMgTM najmYy.
second body at a particular point is the
gravitational field strength at that point. pleFobénkMlaM geTAnwgma:srbs;GgÁFatuTIBIr
KWCaGaMgtg;suIetEdnTMnajEdleFIVGMeBIeTAGgÁFatuTImyY Rtg;
TItaMgénGgÁFatuTIBIr.
Gravitational interaction
See fundamental interactions.
GnþrkmµTMnaj
emIl fundamental interactions
 100

Gravitational mass
See mass.
ma:s;TMnaj
emIl mass
Gravitational redshift
See redshift
ridsIuvTMnaj
emIl redshift
Gravitational waves
Waves propagate through a gravitational field
rlkTMnaj
carrying gravitational energy. The prediction
that an accelerating mass will radiate
dMNalrlkqøgkat;EdnTMnajEdlmanfamBlTMnaj. eKkM nt;)anfa
gravitational waves (and lose energy) comes ma:ssÞúHedaybeBa©jrlkTMnaj¬ehIy)at;fam Bl¦mkBIRTwsþIeFobTUeTA.
from the general theory of relativity.
Graviton
A hypothetical particle or quantum of energy
RkavItun
exchanged in a gravitational interaction. tamkarsnµt; pg;b¤famBlkgTicmankarpøas;brþÚ kñúgGnþr kmµTMnaj.
Gravity
The phenomenon associated with the
TMnaj
gravitational force acting on any object that has
mass and is situated within the gravitational
)atuPUtEdlmankñgú kMlaMgTMnaj manGMeBIelIvtßúNamYyman ma:s;
field of another mass. The weight of a body is ehIyzitenAkñúgEdnTMnajénma:smYyepSgeTot. TM
equal to the force of gravity acting on the body.
According to Newton’s second law of motion F gn;énvtßúmYyesIµnwgkMlaMgTMnajmanGMeBIelIvtßúenaH. tam
= ma, where F is the gravitational force acting
on a body of mass m and a is the acceleration of c,ab;TIBIrjÚtunsIBþ Iclna F  ma EdlFCakMlaMgTMnajman
the body. The weight of a body is thus equal to
the product of its mass and the acceleration g of
GMeBIelIvtßúEdlmanma:sm ehIyaCasMTuHrbs;vtßú.eBlenaH TMgn;rbs;vtßú
free-fall. By combining Newton’s second law esIpµ lKuNénma:srbs;vanwgsMTuHgénTnøak; esrI.
of motion with his law of gravitation it follows
that g = GM/d2, where G is the gravitational edaypÁc¿ú ,ab;TIBIrjÚtunsIþBIclnaCamYyc,ab;TMnaj rbs;Kat; eK)an g 
constant, M the mass of the earth and d is the
distance of the body from the centre of the GM/d EdlGCaefrTMnajsakl/ MCama:srbs;EpndÍ
2

earth. For a body on the earth’s surface, g

 9.81. The weight of a body on the surface of
ehIydCacMgayvtßBú Ipí©tEpndÍ. cMeBaH vtßeú nAelIépÞEpndIpÞal; g  9.81.
the earth is approximately six times its weight
on the surface of the moon.
TMgn;vtßúelIépÞEpndÍesIµ RbEhlR)aMmYydgTMgn;rbs;vaelIépÞRBHc½n.Þ
Gray (Symbol Gy)
The derived S.I. unit of absorbed dose of
eRk (nimitþsBaaØGy)
ionising radiation. TajecjBIxañtS.I énkMrtw sMrbU kaMrsIµGyIu :ug.
Great circle
Any circle on a sphere formed by a plane that
rgVg;FM
passes through the centre of the sphere. The
equator and the meridians of longitude are all
rgVgm; YyenAelIEsV‘EdlekIteLIgedaybøg;Edlkat;p¨itEsV‘. eGkVaT½r nig
great circles on the earth’s surface. ExSry³beNþay KWCargVgF; MenAelIépÞEpndI.
 101

Greenhouse effect
1. The effect within a greenhouse in which solar
plRKInehA
radiation mainly in the visible range of the
spectrum passes through the glass walls and
!> plRKInhavCaplEdlkñúgenaHkaMrsIRµ BHGaTitümankMrwt
roof and is absorbed by the floor, earth and s,úci emIleXIjqøgkat;CBaa¢gM Ekv nig dMbUlEkv ehIyRtÚv RsUbedaykMral
plants which re-emit the energy as infrared
radiation. Because the infrared radiation cannot dÍnigrukCç atibeBa©jfamBlCakaMrsIµGaMg RhVaRkhm.
escape through the glass, the temperature inside
the greenhouse rises. 2. A similar effect in edayGaMgRhVaRkhmminGacecjBIEkv)anenaH
which the earth’s atmosphere behaves like the
greenhouse and the surface of the earth absorbs
sItuNPð aBenAkñúgRKInehAekIneLIg. @> manplRsedogKña
most of the solar radiation re-emitting it as enHEdrenAkñgú enaHbriyakasEpndI edayEpndÍRsUbykBnWø
infrared radiation. This is absorbed by carbon
dioxide, water vapour and ozone in the RBHGaTitüya:geRcIn rYcehIybeBa©jBnWeø naHvíjCakaMrsIµ GaMgRhVaRkhm.
atmosphere and is re-radiated back to earth.
kaMrsIµenHRsÚbedaykabUnDIGuksItu / cMhayTwk nig GUhSÚnkñúgbriyakas
rYcehIybBa¢nÚ Rtlb; eTAkan;EpndÍvjí .
Gregorian telescope
See telescope.
EkvqøúHRKIkU
emIl telescope
Grid
1. (in electricity) The system of overhead wires
RKId
or underground cables by which electrical
power is distributed from power stations to
!> ¬kñúgGKÁIsnI¦ RbB½n§ExSePIøgGakasb¤ExSkabeRkamdI Edlkñúg
users. 2. (in electronics). See control grid. enaHGnuPaBGKÁIsnIRtUv)anBRgayBIsaß nIeTAdl; GñkeRbI. @>
¬kñúgeGLicRtUnic¦ emIl control grid
Ground state
The lowest stable energy state of a system, such
sNßanRKwH
as a molecule, atom or nucleus. See energy
level.
sNßanfamBllMngw TabbMputénRbB½n§mYy dUcCam:UelKul/ GatUm b¤
éNVy.:U emIl energy level
Ground wave
A radio wave that travels in an approximately
rlkRKwH
straight line between points on the earth’s
surface. For transmission over longer distances
rlkviTüúEdlcresIÞrEtCabnÞat;Rtg;rvagcMnucenAelIépÞEpndI.
sky waves (via the ionosphere) have to be edIm,IbBa¢nÚ rlkeGaykan;Etq¶ayeTAelIemX ¬bBa¢nÚ tamGIu
involved. See radio transmission.
y:UNEU sV‘¦RtUvmanTMnak;TMngCamYyrlRKwH. emIl radio transmission
Gyrocompass
A *gyroscope that is driven continuously so
RtIvis½yrgVilC¿u
that it can be used as a non-magnetic compass.
When the earth rotates the gyroscope
hÁrI :UTsSn_EdlvilrhUt edIm,IeGayvaGaceRbICam¢úlminma: ejTic.
experiences no torque if its axis is parallel to eBlEpndIvil hÁIrT:U sSn_minbeBa©jkMlaMgbgVileT
the earth’s spin axis; however if these axes are
not parallel the gyroscope experiences torques RbsinebIG½kSrbs;vaRsbnwgG½kSrgVilEpndI. eTaHCaya:g enHk¾eday
which tend to align it with the earth’s axis, so
the gyrocompass is an accurate north-seeking ebIG½kSTaMgenHminRsbKñaeT eBlenaHhÁIrUT: sSn_
device. beBa©jkMlaMgbgVilEdleTareTArkCYrbnÞat;CamYyG½kSEpndI
dUecñHRtIvis½yrgilV KWCa]bkrN_Edlcg¥úleTATiseCIg.
 102

Gyroscope
A disc with a heavy rim mounted in a double
hÁIr:UTsSn_
gymbal so that its axis can point in any
direction in space. When the disc spins, it has
fasEdlmanEKmF¶n; eKdak;EKmRtYtKñaedIm,IeGayvaGac
rotational inertia, that is, if the support is cg¥últamTisedANamYykñúglMh. eBlfasvilvamannicl PaBrgVil
rotated the spinning disc maintains the same
orientation (direction) in space. Also, if a torque mann½yfaTMrrgVilfasmanlMgakdUcKñakñúglMh.
is applied to the gyroscope it precesses, that is,
its spin axis turns about an axis perpendicular to ebIbBa¢nÚ kMlaMgrgVileTAeGayhÁrI :UTsSn_ vaekItmaneRbEss
both its spin axis and the axis about which the
torque was applied.
mann½yfaG½kSrgVilrbs;vavileFobnwgG½kSEkgeTAnigG½kS
rgVilrbs;vaTaMgBIr ehIyk¾EkgeTAnwgG½kSEdlEdlbeBa©j
kMlaMgbgVilEdr.
H
Hadron
Any of a class of subatomic particles that
haRdúg
interact by the strong interaction. The class
includes protons, neutrons and pions.
EpñkénPaKl¥itGatUmrg EdlmanGnþrkmµedayGnþrkmµxøaMg. EpñkenHrYmman
RbUtug/ NWRtug/ nig BIj:úg.
Half-life
See *decay
knøHCIvit
emIl decay
Half-thickness
The thickness of a material that reduces the
kMras;Bak;kNaþl
intensity of a beam of radiation to half its
original value.
kMras;rbs;rUbFatuEdlmanGaMgtg;seIu ténkaMBnøWfycuHBak;
kNaþltMéledImrbs;va.
Half-wave plate
See retardation plate.
bnÞHBak;kNaþlrlk
emIl radiation plate
Half-wave rectifier
See rectifier.
]bkrN_tMrUvknøHrlk
emIl rectifier
Half-width
Half the width of a spectral line measured at
Bak;kNþalTTwg
half its height. Bak;kNþalTTwgénbnÞat;s,úci EdleKvas;Rtg;Bak;kNaþlkM Bs;rbs;va.
Hall effect
The production of an e.m.f. within a conductor
plhl
or semiconductor through which a current is
flowing when the conductor is in a transverse
karekItmankMlaMgGKÁsI nIclkrenAkñgú GgÁFatucMlg b¤ kñúg sWmIkugDucT½r
magnetic field. The potential difference EdlkñúgenaHenAeBlEdlGgÁFatuclM gzitenAkat;TTwgEdnma:ejTiceFIVeGay
develops at right angles to both the current and
the magnetic field. It is caused by the deflection mancrnþpøas;TI. plsgb:Utg;EsülekItelIgEkgnigcrnþ ehIyEkgnwgEdn
of charge carriers moving in the magnetic field.
The strength of the electric field EH set up ma:ejTic. vaekItelIgedaysarlMgakénbnÞúkEdlpøas;TIkúñgEdnma:ejTic.
across the conductor is given by the relationship
EH  RHjB, where j is the current density, B is
GaMgtg;sIuetEdnGKÁIsnI E ekItmanqøgkat;GgÁFatu cMlgmanTMnak;TMng
H

the magnetic flux density and RH is a constant
called the Hall coefficient. The value of RH can
be shown to be 1/ne, where n is the number of
charge carriers per unit volume and e is the
electronic charge. The effect is used to
investigate the nature of charge carriers in
semiconductors, and in the Hall probe, which is
used to measure magnetic field strength.
E = R jB Edl j KWCadg;sueI tcrnþ/ BCadg;sIuetPøc
H H ú ma: ejTic ehIy R
H
CaefrehAfaemKuN hl tMél R esIµnwg1/ne Edl n CacMnYnbnÞúkkñúgmYy
H
xñatmaD ehIyeCabnÞkú eGLicRtUnic. plhlRtUv)aneKeRbI edIm,Isegát
emIlFmµCatiénbnÞúk EdlpÞúkkñgú sWmIkugDucT½r nigkñúgsMTg;hl. eKk¾Gac
eRbIvasMrab;vas;GaMgtg;sueI tEdn ma:ejTicpgEdr.
 103

Halley's comet
A bright *comet with a period of 76 years. The
páayduHknÞúyhaLI
comet moves around the sun in a very eccentric
ellipse in the opposite direction to the planets.
páayduHknÞúyEdlmanBnøWRtcHRtcg; nigmanxYb&^qña.M
páayduHknÞúypøas;TIC¿uvji RBHGaTitümanGiucsg;RTIsuIetdUc eGlIb
ehIymanTisedApÞúyBIPBTaMgLay.
Halo
A luminous ring that is sometimes observed
haLÚ ¬Ex b¤ éf¶)aMgq½Rt¦
around the sun or moon. It is caused by
diffraction of their light by particles in the
kgBnøWEdlCYnkaleKeXIjB½T§C¿uvijRBHGaTitü b¤ RBHc½n.Þ vaekItmaneday
earth's atmosphere; the radius of the rings is sarDIR)ak;süúgénBnøWrbs;va edayPaKl¥ti kñúgriyakasEpndI kaMrbs;rgVg;
inversely proportional to the predominant
particle diameter. RcassmamaRteTAnwgGgÁt; p©ittMbn;PaKl¥ti .
Hamiltonian Symbol H
A function used to express the total energy
GamIltun (nimitþsBaaØ H )
(kinetic plus potential) of a system in terms of
momentum and positional coordinates. In
GnuKmn_EdleRbIedIm,IsMEdgfamBlsrub ¬sIeu nTic bUk
Hamiltonian mechanics, the usual equations b:Utg;Esül¦rbs;RbB½n§CaGnuKmn_ngw brimaNclna nigkUG½r
(based on forces) are replaced by equations
expressed in terms of momenta. edaenTItaMg.kñúgemkanicGamIltun CaTUeTAsmIkarGaRs½y
elIkMlaMgRtUv)anC¿unsY edaysmIkarmYyEdlCaGnuKmn_ngw brimanclna.
Hard ferromagnetic materials
See soft iron.
rUbFatumanEhV‘r:Uma:ejTicxøaMg
emIl soft iron
Hard radiation
Ionising radiation of high penetrating power,
kaMrsµIxøaMg
usually gamma rays or short-wavelength X-
rays. Compare soft radiation.
kaMrsµIGIuyg:u EdlmanGnuPaBRCabcUlxagkñúg. CaFmµtaman
dUcCakaMrsIµháama: b¤ kaMrsIµC¿hanrlkxøI X. eRbobeFob soft radiation
Hardware
See computer.
hatEv
emIl computer
Harmonic
An oscillation having a frequency that is a
Gam:Unic
simple multiple of a fundamental sinusoidal
oscillation. The fundamental frequency of a
Gam:UnicCalMeyalmüa:gEdlmaneRbkg; mann½yfaCaBhu
sinusoidal oscillation is called the first KuNénlMeyalsIunuysUGIdu RKwH. eRbkg;RKwHénlMeyalsIu
harmonic. In the case of a tube closed or open
at both ends, the second harmonic has a nuysUGdIu ehAfaGam:UnicTImYy. kñúgkrNIénbMBg;Edlmancug biT b¤ ebIk
frequency twice that of the fundamental and so
on. In the case of a tube open at one end and Gam:UnicTIBIrmaneRbkg;BIrdgebIeFobeTAnwgeRb kg;RKwH
closed at the other the second harmonic has a
frequency three times that of the fundamental,
ehIyecHEtekInbnþeTAeTot. kñúgkrNIEdlbMBg;ebIk
the third harmonic has a frequency five times cugmçagehIycugmçageTotbiT eBlenaHlMeyalGam:Unci TIBIr
that of the fundamental and so on.
maneRbkg;bIdgebIeFobeTAnwgeRbkg;RKwH r IÉGam:UnicTIbI
maneRbkg;R)aMdgebIeFobeTAnwgeRbkg;RKwH ehIyecHEt ekInteTAeTot.
Harmonic motion
See simple harmonic motion.
clnaGam:Unic
emIl simple harmonic motion
 104

Harmonic series
A series or progression in which the reciprocals
es‘rIGam:Unic
of the terms have a common difference between
them, e.g. 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/n.
es‘rI b¤ sVÍút‘ EdlkëúgenaHplbUkènmYyEckeGaytYnimYy²
manplsgrYmrvagKña. ]TahrN_ 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/n.
Health physics
The branch of medical physics concerned with
rUbviTüasuxPaB
the protection of medical, scientific and
industrial workers from the hazards of ionising
saxaénrUbviTüaeBTüEdlTak;TgnwgkarkarBar]sf/ Gñkvi TüasaRsþ/
radiation nwgGñkeFIVkarkñúgerag]sSahkmµ kMueGayman
eRKaHfñak;edaysarkaMrsIµGIuyg:u .
Heat
The process of energy transfer from one body
kMedA
to another as a result of a difference in the
temperature of the two bodies. A body
dMenIrénkarepÞrfamBlrvagGgÁFatuBIrEdlmansItuNðPaB xusKña.
possesses heat energy in the form of the kinetic GgÁFatumanfamBlkMedA eFIeV GayekItmanfam BlsIeu nTic
and potential energies of its atoms and
molecules, called internal energy U. When such nigfamBlb:tU g;EsüénGatUm b¤ GIuyg:u rbs;va eKehAfamBlenaHfaCa
a body changes its temperature or phase there is
a change in its internal energy, U, which
famBlkñgú U. eBlGgÁFatuman famBldUcenHpøas;bþrÚ sItuNðPaBb¤sNßan
(according to the first law of thermodynamics) eBlenaHeFI[V manbMErbMrYlfamBlkñúgUrbs;va ¬tamc,ab;TImYUyETm:Du I
is given by U = Q - W, where Q is the heat
absorbed by the body from the surroundings Namic¦eGay U = Q – W EdlQCakMedAEdlRsUbeday
and W is the work done on the surroundings by
the hot body.
GgÁFatuBImCÄdæanC¿uvij ehIyWCakmµnþEdl)aneFIeV lImCÄ
dæanC¿uvji edayGgÁFatuekþA.
Heat capacity (thermal capacity)
Symbol Q
ka)a:sIuetkMedA ¬nimitsþ BaaØ Q¦
The ratio of the heat supplied to a body to its
consequent rise in temperature. The specific
ka)a::sIuetkMedACapleFobénkMedAEdlpþl;eTAeGayGgÁFatu
heat capacity is the ratio of the heat supplied to mYyedIm,IeGayvaekInsItuNPð aB. ka)a:sueI tkMedAma:s KWCa
unit mass to its consequent change in
temperature. The quantity of heat Q required pleFobénkMedAEdlpþle; TAeGaymYyxñatma:s eTAnwgbMEr
to increase the temperature of a mass m of a
certain material through a temperature
bMrYlsItuNPð aB. brimaNkMedAQ Edlpþl;eGayedIm,IekIn
difference T is proportional to both m and sItuNPð aBénma:sm eGayqøgkat;plsgsItuNPð aB T
T. We have Q = mcT, where c is the KWsmamaRteTAnwgm ehIysmamaRteTAnwgT. eyIg)an Q  mcT
specific heat of the material.
EdlcCakMedAma:s; rbs;rUbFatu.
Heat engine
A device for converting heat into work. The
ma:sIunkMedA
heat is derived from the combustion of fuel. In
an internal combustion engine the fuel is burnt
]bkrN_srM ab;bMElgkMedAeGayeTACakmµnþ. kMedA)anmkBI cMehH\nÞn³.
inside the cylinders. The exploding fuel drives a kñúgcMehHxagkñúgma:suIn \nÞn³eqHxagkñúgsIu LaMg.
piston which finally provides mechanical power
to the wheels. bnÞHú \nÞn³rujBIsúþgeGayedIr ehIyTIbMptu pþl;GnuPaB
emkaniceTAeGaykg;.
 105

Heat exchanger
A device for transferring heat from one fluid to
]bkrN_bþÚrkMedA
another without permitting the two fluids to
come into contact with one another. The
]bkrN_sMrab;epÞrkMedABIsnÞnIymYyeTAeGaysnÞnyI umYy eTot
exchanger consists of a series of parallel tubes edaymin)ac;eGaysnÞnIyTaMgBIrb:HKña. ]bkrN_enH
through which one fluid flows enclosed in a
container through which the other fluid flows. rYmmanbMBg;TbI Evgdak;Rsb²Kña eGaysnÞnIyhUrkat;epIg EdlbiTCit
ehIysnÞnIymYyeTothUrtamTisedAxusKña.
Heat of atomisation
The energy required to dissociate one mole of a
kMedAGatUmkmµ
given substance into its dissociate atoms. famBlcaM)ac;edIm,Ipaþ c;mYym:UlénsmasFatueGayeTACabM
ENkGatUmrbs;va.
Heat of combustion
The energy liberated when one mole of a given
kMedAcMehH
substance is completely oxidised. famBlEdlrMedaH)an enAeBlEdlmYym:lU énsmasFatu
EdleKeGay)ankøayeTACaGuksIudTaMgRsug.
Heat of formation
The energy liberated or destroyed when one
kMedAkMN
mole of a compound is formed from its
constituent elements.
famBlEdlrMedaHb¤bMpaø j enAeBlEdlmYym:lU énsmas FatumYy
RtUv)anekItBIFatubgárbs;va.
Heat of neutralisation
The energy liberated in neutralising one mole of
kMedANWtkmµ
an acid or base. famBlEdlrMedaHkñúgkareFIVmYym:UlénGasIdu b¤ )aseGay eTACaNWt.
Heat of reaction
The energy liberated or absorbed as a result of
kMedARbtikmµ
the complete chemical reaction of molar
amounts of the reactants.
famBlEdlrMedaHb¤ RsUbedaysarRbtikmµKmI IéncMnYnm:Ul rbs;er:Gak;tg;.
Heat pump
A device for transferring heat from a low
sñb;kMedA
temperature source to a region at higher
temperature.
]bkrN_sMrab;epÞrkMedABIRbPBsItuNPð aBTabeTAeGaytM
bn;EdlmansItuNðPaBx<s.;
Heat radiation (radiant heat)
Energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
kaMrsIµkMedA ¬kMedAra:düg;¦
emitted by a liquid, solid or gas as a result of its
temperature. See black body, Planck's radiation
famBlkñgú TMrg;rlkeGLicRtUma:ejTic EdlbeBa©jeday GgÁFaturav/
law and Stefan's law. GgÁFaturwg b¤ ]sµn½ edaysarsItuNPð aBrbs; va.emIl black body,
Planck's radiation law and Stefan's law
Heat shield
A surface that prevents a spacecraft from
r)aMgkMedA
overheating as it re-enters the earth's
atmosphere.
épÞEdlkarBaryanGvkaskMueGaymankMedARCul kalNava
Rtlb;mkkan;briyakasEpndIvji .
Heat transfer
The transfer of energy from one body to
benÞrkMedA
another as a result of a temperature difference
between the two bodies. The heat is transferred
benÞrfamBlBIGgÁFatumYyeTAeGayGgÁFatumYyeTot eday
by conduction (see also conductivity), sarGgÁFatuTaMgBIrmansItuNðPaBxusKña. kMedARtUv)anepÞr
convection and radiation (see heat radiation).
edaysarkarcMlg (see conductivity) / bnþrÚ nig rsµI (see heat
radiation).
 106

Heaviside -Kennely layer

See earth's atmosphere.
RsTab;huIvIsay-xiEnllI
emIl earth's atmosphere
Heavy hydrogen
See deuterium.
GIuRdUEsnF¶n;
emIl deuterium
Heavy water (deutetrium dioxide)
Water in which hydrogen atoms 1H are replaced
TwkF¶n;¬edetrüÚ:mDIGuksIut¦
by the heavier isotope deuterium, 2H to form
D2O.
TwkEdlmanGatUmGIuRdUEsn H RtUv)anC¿nYsedayGIusUtUb edetrüÚ:mF¶n; H
1 2

eBlenaHeK)anTMrg;fµÍ D O.
2

Hecto- Symbol h
A prefix used in the metric system to define 100
hictU (nimitþsBaaØ h)
times. For example, 100 coulombs = 1
hectocoulomb (hC).
buBVbTeRbIkñúgRbB½n§Em:Rt edIm,IkMnt;KuNnwg!00 . ]TahrN_ !00KULúM = !
Gicu tUKULM (hc).
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
See uncertainty principle
eKalkarN_kMrwtel¥ógeGsinEb‘
emIl uncertainty principle
Heliocentric universe
A universe in which the sun is taken to be at its
eGlIGUsg;RTicsakl
centre. In fact the sun is at the centre of the
solar system, and the solar system is one of an
cRkvaLEdlmanRBHGaTitüCap©it. tamBitRBHGaTitüKWCa
enormous number of stars in the *galaxy which p©iténRbB½n§RBHGaTitü ehIyRbB½n§RBHGaTitüKWCaRbB½n§mYy
is itself one of an enormous numbers of
galaxies. énbNþMúpáayenAkñgú háaLak;sIu EdlkñúgenaHxønÜ vaKWCapáayd¾
FMmYykñgú cMeNampáayCaeRcInrbs;haá Lak;sIu.
Henry Symbol H
The *S.I. unit of inductance, equal to the
hg;rI (nimitþsBaaØ H)
inductance of a closed circuit in which an e.m.f.
of one volt is produced when the electric
xñat S.I rbs;GaMgDuctg; esIµnwgGaMgDuctg;énesoKVIbiT EdlkñúgenaHman
current varies at a constant rate of one ampere e.m.f mYyv:ulekItelIgenAeBlEdlman
per second.
crnþGKÁsI nIERbRbYlmYyGMEBkñúgmYyvinaTI.
Hertz Symbol Hz
The S.I. unit of frequency equal to one cycle
EG‘k (nimitþsBaaØ Hz)
per second. xñat S.I rbs;eRbkg; esInµ wgmYyC¿ukñúgmYyvinaTI.
 107

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
A graphical representation of the absolute
düaRkam EG‘kRs<aMg-rUEhSl
luminosity of stars (along the y-axis) plotted
against the spectral class (on the x-axis). The y-
kartagtamRkabénkarbeBa©jBnøWc,as;rbs;páay ¬tam
axis represents the energy output of the star and beNþayG½kS y ¦EkgnwgG½kSs,úci ¬G½kS x¦. G½kS ytag
the x-axis its surface temperature. Most stars lie
on a band running from the top left to the eGayfamBlecjrbs;páay ehIyG½kSxtageGaysItu uNð
bottom right of the graph. These stars, which
are in a state of steady evolution, are called PaBelIépÞrbs;va. páayCaeRcInzitenAelIkMrwtrt;BI kMBUleqVg
main-sequence stars; the sun is in this class.
The few stars in the lower left region are called
eTA)atsþaéM nRkab. páayTaMgenH KWCapáayEdlzitkñgú PaB vivtþn_CRBa¢aM
*white dwarfs. The *red giants are in a cluster EdleKGacehAfa páayemnsWkg; .RBHGaTitü manlkçN³dUcpáayenHEdr.
above the main sequence. The importance of
the diagram is that the evolution of stars of páaymYycMnYnkñúgtMbn;TMnab xageqVgehAfa páayetOs.
different mass can be shown very clearly.
páayykSRkhmCaRkumpáay
EdlenAxagelIpáayemnsWkg;.sar³sMxan;éndüaRkambgðaj
BIkarvivtþrbs;paá yEdlmanma:sepSgKñaeGayeXIjya:g c,as;elIRkab.
Heterodyne
A method of radio reception in which *beats
eGETr:UDIn
are produced by superposing a locally
generated radio wave on an incoming wave.
viFIènkareFIeV RKOgTTYlrlkviTüú Edlkëgú enaHb‘ÍtekItelIg
The intermediate frequency resulting from the edayrlkviTüúRtYtKñaelIrlkEdlcUlmkviTüú. eRbkg;mFüm
mixing of the two waves is amplified and
detected (demodulated). )anmkBIl,ayénrlkBIrbBa©ÚlKña ehIyGaccab;seM lg)an
Heuristic
A method of solving a problem for which no
hWrIsÞic
*algorithm exists. It involves trial and error, as
in *iteration.
viFIedaHRsaylMhat;EdlKµannBVnÐ.vaTak;TgnwgkarBiesaFn_ nig el¥óg
dUckñgú GnþrkmµEdr.
High frequency (HF)
A radio frequency in the range 3-30 megahertz,
eRbkg;x<s; (HF)
corresponding to a wavelength in the range 10-
100 metres.
eRbkg;viTüúkñúgkMrtw #-"0emkaEG‘kRtUvKëanwgC¿hanrlkkëúg kMrwt !0-!00
Em:t.
High tension (HT)
A high potential difference, usually of several
tg;süúgx<s;
hundred volts or more. plsgb:tU g;Esülx<s; CaFmµtavamanRbEhlbI b¤ bYnry v:lu b¤
elIsBIenH.
Hole
A vacant electron position in the lattice
hUl
structure of a semiconductor material such as
silicon.
TItaMgTMenrrbs;eGLicRtugkñúgTMrg;bNþajénrUbFatusWmIkgu DucT½r
dUcCasIulkI ugCaedIm.
 108

Holography
A method of recording and displaying a three-
GULÚRkab
dimensional image of an object. To produce a
hologram laser light is divided so that some of
viFIft nig bgðajrUbPaBénvtßkú úgñ vimaRtbI. edIm,IbegátI GULÚ
it (the reference beam) falls directly on a RkameKRtUvbMEbkBnøWLaEs‘ èlya:gNaeGay'ac;BnøWrbs;
photographic plate. The other part is reflected
back onto the photographic plate from the vaCHeTAelIbnÞHpUtURkab . RKb;EpñkvtßúTaMgGs;CHBnøWeTAelI bnÞHpUtURkab
object, and the superposition of the reference
beam and the reflected beam produces an ehIy)ac;BnWøRtYtKñanig)ac;BnWøcaMgpøatbegItá )anCaTMrg;GaMgetepr:ge; lIbnÞH.
interference pattern on the plate. When this is
illuminated with a laser beam, a three-
eBleKbBa©aMg)ac;BnWøLaEs‘ eTAelIvtÜú
dimensional image of the object is seen. GaceGayeKemIleXIjrUbPaBkñúgvímaRtbI.
Hooke's law
Within the elastic limit, the *strain set up in a
c,ab;hu‘k
body is proportional to the *stress applied to the
body. More simply; the tension set up in a beam
enAkñúglkçx½NPÐ aByWt tMngw EdlmanenAkñúgGgÁFatusma
is proportional to the extension of the beam. maRteTAnwgkMlaMgsgát;EdlGnuvtþeTAelIGgÁFatuenaH. tg;
süúgenAkñúg)ac;BnøWsmamaRteTAnwgKMlatén)ac;Bnø.W
Horsepower (hp)
An imperial unit of power equal to 745.7 watts.
GnuPaBesH ( hp )
xñatGnuPaB vaesInµ wg &$%/& va:t;.
Hubble constant
The rate at which the velocity of recession of
efrhab;b‘l
the galaxies increases with distance, as
determined by the *red-shift. The present
GRtaEdlviucT½rel,ÓnénkEnøgxUgrbs;háalak;seIu kInCamYy cMgay
estimate of the value of the Hubble constant is EdlkMnt;edayridsIuv. eKtagtMèlefrhab;b‘lkëúg cenøaH #& nig &$ km s -1

between 49 and 95 km s-1 per megaparsec. This

gives an approximate age of the universe of 2 x kñúgmYyemháa)a:sicmanGayuRb Ehl 2  10 qñaM. 10

1010 years.
Hue
See colour
l,ayBN’
emIl colour
Humidity
The concentration of water vapour in the
sMeNIm
atmosphere. The absolute humidity is the mass
of water vapour per unit volume of air. The
karpþú¿KñaéncMhayTwkkñúgbriyakas. sMeNImdac;xat KWCa
relative humidity is the ratio of moisture in the ma:scMhayTwkkñúgmYyxñatmaDénxül;. sMeNImeFobKWCa
air to the amount it could contain if it were
saturated at the same temperature and pressure. pleFobénsMeNImkñúgxül;eTAnwgsMeNImEq¥tenARtg;sBM aF nig
sItuNPð aBdUcKña.
Huyghen's construction (Huyghen's principle)
Every point on a wavefront acts as a source of
sMNg;hu‘yKin ¬eKalkarN_hu‘yKin¦
secondary waves. The construction can be used
to derive the laws of reflection, refraction,
RKb;cMnucenAelIrlkmux manGMeBICaRbPBmYyénrlkTIBIr.
diffraction and interference of waves. eRbIeKalkarN_enHTajecj)anc,ab;cMNaMgpøat/ cMNaMgEb/ DIR)ak;süúg nig
c,ab;GaMgETepr:g;énrlk.
Hydraulic press
A device in which a force applied to a small
XñabGIuRdUlic
piston creates a pressure in a fluid which is
transmitted through the fluid to a larger piston
]bkrN_müa:gEdlkñúgenaHeKGnuvtþn_kMlaMgeTAeGayBIsþúg tUcmYy
where it gives rise to a larger force. begáIt)anCasMBaFkñúgsnÞnIyEdlbBa¢nÚ kat;snÞnyI eTABIsþúgFM
edIm,IeFIVeGayTTYl)ankMlaMgFM.
 109

Hydraulics
The study of water or other fluids at rest or in
GIuRdUlic
motion. The study is based on the principles of
*hydrostatics and *hydrodynamics.
karsikSaBITwk b¤ snÞnIyd¾éTeTotenAeBlvaenAnwg b¤ eBl vamanclna.
karsikSaenHEp¥keTAelIeKalkarN_GIuRdUsþa Tic nig GIuRdUDINamic.
Hydrodynamics
The study of the motion of incompressible
GIuRdÚDINamic
fields. karsikSaBIclnaénEdnEdlminGacbENÑn)an.
Hydroelectric power
Electric power generated by the flow of water.
GnuPaBGIuRdUGKÁIsnI ¬GnuPaBvarIGKÁIsnI¦
Water, usually stored in a dam, flows under
gravity through a water turbine which is
GnuPaBGKÁIsnIEdlekItelIgedayTwkhUr. CaFmµtaeKsþúk
coupled to a generator to produce electric TwkenAkëúgTMnb;mYy ehIyeKeGayTwkhUrTajTYb‘Ín Edl
energy.
manCnitabegáItfamBlGKÁIsnI.
Hydrogen bomb
See nuclear weapons.
RKab;EbkGIuRdUEsn
emIl nuclear weapons
Hydrogen ion
See pH.
GIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn
emIl pH
Hydrogen spectrum
The atomic spectrum of hydrogen contains
s,iúcGIuRdUEsn
spectral lines whose wavelength corresponds to
a value of energy equal to the energy difference
s,icú GatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlmansréss,úic manC¿hanrlkRtUv
between two energy levels of the hydrogen KñanwgtMélrbs;famBl esIµnwgplsgfamBlrvagnIv:Ufam
atom. The Balmer equation relating the
wavelength to the numbered excited states is BlBIrénGatUmGIuRdUEsn. smIkar)al;EmTak;TgC¿hanrlk
1/ = R(1/n12 + 1/n22),
eTAnwgsNßanejacKW
1/ = R(1/n12 + 1/n22),
where R is the Rydberg constant. The Balmer
series of lines (in the visible spectrum) occurs
Edl R CaefrrIdEb‘k. es‘rIènsrèss,úic'al;Em ¬kñúgs,icú
when n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5, In the Lyman EdlGacemIleXIj¦ekIteLIgenAeBl n = 2 nwg n = 3, 4, 5.
1 2
series, (in the ultraviolet region), n1 = 1. In the
Paschen series, (in the infrared), n1 = 3. këúges‘rIlIEmn ¬këúgtMbn;sVayG‘ulRta¦ n = 1. këgú es‘rI'a:qin
1

¬kñúgRkhmGaMgR)a¦ n = 3.
1

Hydrometer
An instrument for measuring the density or
GIuRdUEm:t
relative density of liquids. It consists of a glass
tube with a long bulb at one end. The bulb is
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;dg;seIu t b¤ dg;seIu teFobrbs;GgÁFaturav.
weighted so that it floats vertically in the liquid, ]bkrN_enHmanbMBg;EkvmYymanGMBUlenAcugmçag. GMBUl
the relative density being read off its calibrated
stem according to the depth of its immersion. manTMgn;mYyEdlGaceGayvaGENþtQrRtg;kñúgGgÁFaturav
dg;sueI teFobfycuHeTAtamC¿erAénkarRCmucva.
Hydrostatics
The study of fluids at rest.
GIuRdUsþaTic
kasikSaBIsnÞnyI enAnwg.
Hygrometer
An instrument for measuring the humidity of
GIuRkUEm:t
the atmosphere. The mechanical type uses a
human hair under tension that expands when
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;sMeNImbriyakas. RbePTemkanicEdl
the humidity increases, and which operates a eRbIsk;mnusSeRkamtMnwgEdlGacsn§wgenAeBlEdlsMeNIm ekIn
needle to display the humidity.
nwgeRbIml¢ú mYyedIm,IbgðajBIkMrwtsMeNIm.
 110

Hyper
A prefix meaning over, above or high, e.g.
GIuEB
hypersonic. buBVbT mann½yfaelIs/ hYs/ b¤x<s;eBk. ]TahrN_ GIuEBsUnic
¬elIssUr¦.
Hyperbola
A *conic with eccentricity e > 1. It has two
GIuEBbUl
branches. For a hyperbola centred at the origin,
the transverse axis runs along the x-axis
muxkat;ekanEdlmanGuicsg;RTIsueI t e > 1. vamanEmkBIr.
between the vertices and has length 2a. The cMeBaHGIuEBbUlEdlmanp©itRtg;Kl;G½kSTTwgvart;tam beNþayG½kS
conjugate axis runs along the y-axis and has
length 2b. The equation of the hyperbola is xcenøaHG½kSQrehIymantMél 2a. G½kSqøas; rbs;vart;tambeNþayG½kS y
x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1,
and the asymptotes are y =  bx/a.
ehIymanRbEvg 2b. smIkar GIEu BbUlKW x /a + y /b  1
2 2 2 2

ehIymanGasIumtUtKW
y   bx/a.
Hyperbolic function
A set of functions; sinh, cosh and tanh that have
GnuKmn_GIuEBbUl
similar properties to *trigonometric functions
but are related to the hyperbola in the same way
sMnMuGnuKmn_ sinh, coshnigtanh EdlRsedogKñaeTAnwg lkçN³
that trigonometric functions are related to the GnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRtEdr EtvaTak;TgeTAnwg GIuEBbUl.
circle. The hyperbolic sine (sinh) of the angle x
is defined by: ÉGnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRtmaRtvijTak;TgnwgrgVg;. GIuEBbUl sine (sinh) énmMu
Sinhx = 1/2(ex - e-x).
Similarly x kMnt;eday³
Coshx = 1/2(ex + e-x) Sinhx  1/2(ex - e-x)
and
tanhx = (ex - e-x)/(ex + e-x).
RsedogKñaEdr
Coshx  1/2(ex + e-x)
ehIy
tanhx = (ex - e-x)/(ex + e-x)

Hyperfine structure
See fine structure
TMrg;GIuEBhVaj
emIl fine structure
Hypermetropia
Long-sightedness. A defect of the eye in which
GIuEBemRtUb
the eye is unable to focus on nearby objects. A
long-sighted person needs spectacles with
EPñkEdlminGacemIleXIj)anq¶ay. mnusSGacemIleXIj qøay
convex lenses to bring the image from behind caM)ac;RtUveGayEkvEPñkpþityk rUbPaBBIxageRkay
the retina to its surface.
erTIneTAkan;épÞxagmuxrbs;va.
Hypersonic
Denoting a speed greater than Mach 5. (See
GIuEBsUnic
Mach number) sMKal;el,ÓnsMelgFMCag%ma:c. ¬emIl Mach number).
Hypo-
A prefix denoting under, below, low, e.g.
GIub:U
hypotonic. buBVbT mann½yfaeRkam/ xageRkam/ Tab . ]TahrN_ GIubUt: Unic
¬semøgTab¦.
Hypotonic
A fluid having a lower osmotic pressure than
GIub:UtUnic
other fluids. snÞnyI EdlmansMBaFGUsµÚTabCagsnÞnIyd¾éTeTot.
 111

Hypsometer
A device for calibrating thermometers at the
GIubsUEm:t
boiling point of water. The apparatus can also
be used to measure altitude, because the boiling
]bkrN_sMrab;RkwttamxñatETm:EU m:tRtg;cMnucrMBuHTwk.
point varies with atmospheric pressure, and ]bkrN_enHeKk¾GaceRbIedIm,Ivas; ry³kMBs;k¾)anEdr eRBaH
therefore with altitude.
cMnucrMBuHERbRbYltamsMBaFbriyakas dUcenHehIyk¾ERb
RbYltamkMBs;Edr.
Hysteresis
In magnetism the phenomenon in which a plot
GIuesþersIus
of magnetic flux density B against the applied
magnetic field intensity H is in the shape of a
)atuPUtkñúgma:ejTicEdlmandg;sIuetPøcú ma:ejTicBQmnwg
closed loop. This demonstrates that the two GaMgtg;sIuetEdnGKÁIsnIHenAkñúgExSbiT. eKeFIVdUcenHedIm,I
physical quantities are related in a manner that
depends on whether one quantity is increasing RsaybBaa¢kf; abrimaNrUbTaMgBIrTak;TgKñaGaRs½yelIbri maNmYyekIn b¤
or decreasing with respect to the other.
fycuHeFobeTAnwgbrimaNmYyeTot.
I
Ice-point
The temperature at which there is equilibrium
cMnuckk
between ice and water at standard atmospheric
pressure. It can be used to define a temperature
sItuNPð aBRtg;cMnuclMnwgrvagTwkkk nig Twk Rtg;sBM aF briyakasFmµta.
of 0oC. eKeRbIvaedIm,IkMnt;stI uNðPaBenA 0 C.
o

Ideal gas (perfect gas)

A hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws
]sµ½nbrisuT§
exactly. An ideal gas would consist of
molecules that (i) occupy negligible space, (ii)
]sµn½ EdlGaceGayeKGnuvtþc,ab;]sµ½nRtUvya:gCak;lak;.
have negligible forces between them and (iii) ]sµn½ brisTu §manm:UelKulEdl (i) minRKbdNþb;kñúglMh (ii)
collide perfectly with one another and with the
walls of the container. mankMlaMgrvaKñaGacecal)an nig (iii) TgÁicCamYym:UelKul mYyeTot
ehIyTgÁicCamYyCBaa¢gM epIg.
Identity (Symbol  )
A statement of equality that applies for all
smPaB (nimitþsBaaØ  )
values of the variable quantity. For example, GMNHGMNagénsmPaBEdlGnuvtþcMeBaHtMélTaMgGs;énbri maNGefr.
the identity sin2x + cos2x  1 states that the
left side of the equation is always equal to the ]TahrN_ sin x + cos x  1 eKniyayfa GgÁxageqVgén
2 2

right side whatever the value of x.

smIkarEtgEtesIµnwgGgÁxagsþaMRKb;tMélTaMg Gs;rbs; x.
Ignition temperature
1. The temperature to which a substance must
sItuNðPaBcMehH
be heated to burn in air. 2. The temperature to
which a plasma must be raised in order that
!> sItuNðPaBEdlsmasFatuGaceqHkñúgxül;. @> sItuNð
nuclear fusion will occur. PaBEdl'aøsµaekIteLIg edIm,IeGaymanPuysüúgnuyekøEG‘.
Illuminance (Symbol E)
The energy in the form of visible radiation
PøúcBnøW ¬nimitþsBaaØE¦
reaching a surface per unit area in unit time. i.e.
the luminous flux per unit time. It is measured
famBlénkaMBnøWemIleXIjeTAdl;épÞkñugmYyxañteBl man
in *lux (lumens per square metre). n½yfaCaPøúcBnøWkñúgmYyxñateBl. xñatrbs;vaKitCaluc
¬BnøWkñúgmYyEm:tkaer¦.
 112

Image
A representation of an object formed by a lens.
rUbPaB
If the rays actually pass through the image, it is
called a real image. If the rays appear to pass
tMnagénvtßúmYyEdlbegItá edayLg;TI. ebIkaMBnøWBitCakat; rUbPaB
through the image but do not actually do so, it eKehAvafa rUbPaBBit. ebIkaMBnøWTMngCakat;rUbPaB
is called a virtual image. If a screen is placed in
the plane of a real image it will become visible. EtminEmnCakaMBnøWBit¬CabnøayénkaMBnøw¦ eKehAfa rUbPaBminBit .
If a screen is place in the plane of a virtual
image no image will be formed. ebIeGRkg;mYydak;kgñú bøgr; UbPaBBiteKGac emIlrUbPaBenaHeXIj.
ebIeGRkg;dak;kñúgbøg;rbU PaBminBit eKminGacemIlrUbPaBeXIjeT.
Image converter
An electronic device in which invisible
bMElgrUbPaB
radiation, such as ultraviolet or infrared
radiation, is converted into visible radiation.
]bkrN_eGLicRtUnci EdlmankaMBnøWminGacemIleXIj dUc
CakaMrsIµsVayG‘ulRta nig kaMrsIµRkhmGaMgR'a RtUv'aneKbM
ElgeGayeTACaGacemIleXIj.
Imaginary number
cMnYnnimµit
A number that is a multiple of  1 , which is
denoted by i; for example 3 = i 3.
cMnYnEdlCaBhuKN u én  1 EdleKtageday i ]TahrN_  3 =
i 3.
Impedance (Symbol Z)
The quantity that measures the opposition to the
GaMeb:dg; (nimµitsBaaØ Z )
passage of current through a circuit. In a d.c.
circuit this is the resistance R alone, defined as:
brimaNEdldak;eGaycrnþqøgkat;esoKVI. kñúgesoKVI d.c vaKWCaersIusþg;
R = V/I. In the a.c. circuit the reactance (X) of REtÉg eKkMnt; R= V/I. kñúgeso KIV a.c erGak;tg; (X)rbs;kugdg;saT½r
capacitors and inductors also has to be taken
into account, according to the equation Z = nig GaMgDucT½rRtUv)aneK KNnatamsmIkar Z = R  X .
2 2

R 2  X 2 . The complex impedance is given GaMeb:dg;kpMu øicKW R+jX, Edl j esIµnwg  1 . plsgpas 
by R + jX, where j is equal to  1 . The rvagtg;süúgkñúgcrnþKW tan(X/R).
phase difference  between the voltage in the
current is given by:  = tan(X/R).
Imperial units
The British system of units based on the pound
xñatGg;eKø
and the yard, now replaced for all scientific
purposes by the S.I. system of units.
RbB½n§xñatGg;eKøsEdlEp¥kelI epan nig ya:t \LÚvRtUv)an
eKC¿unYsedayRbB½n§xñatS.ITaMgGs;.
Implosion
The inward explosion of a container, especially
GaMbøÚsug
because of the evacuation of the container. bnÞHú kñúgkugTIn½r CaBiessedaysarkarpÞúHecjénkugTIn½r.
Impulse (Symbol J)
GMaBulsüúg ¬nimitsþ BaaØ J ¦
The product of a force F and the time t for
which the force acts. If the force is variable J = plKuNénkMlaMg F nig ry³eBl t EdlkMlaMgmanGMeBI.
t2
t2

 Fdt , which is also equal to the area under a

t1
F-t graph, hence is equal to a change in
momentum, i.e. J = m(v2 - v1).
ebIklM aMgCakMlaMgERbRbYl J =  Fdt , EdlesIµngw RklaépÞ xageRkamRkab
t1
F-t dUcenHvaesInµ wgbMErbMrYlbrimaNclna KW J = m(v - v ).
2 1

Incandescence
The emission of light by a substance as a result
cMehHrgÁM
of raising it to a high temperature. An
incandescent light is one which light is emitted
karbnSayBnøWedaysmasFatuEdlmansItuNPð aBx<s.; BnøW
by an electrically heated tungsten filament. eqHrgÁúMKCW aBnøWmYyEdlbeBa©jedayGKÁsI nIEdleqHsréstg; Esþn.
 113

Inclination
The angle between the plane of a planet and the
GaMgKøIensüúg
plane of the earth's ecliptic. mMurvagbøg;rbs;PB nig bøg;eGKIøbTicEpndI.
Indefinite integral
See integration.
GaMgetRkalminkMNt;
emIl integration
Inductance
The property of a coil that causes an e.m.f. to be
GaMgDuctg;
generated in it as a result of a change of current
in the coil, (self inductance), or of a change in
lkçN³ènbUbn‘Í EdleFIVeGayman e.m.f ekIteLIgedaysar
the current flowing in a nearby coil with which manbMErbMrYlcrnþkëúgbUbn‘Í ¬GUtUGaMgDuctg;¦ b¤edaysarbMEr
it is magnetically linked, (mutual inductance).
In both cases the changing current sets up a bMrYlènbUb‘ÍnenACitemEdk eFIV[mancrnþpøas;TI(GaMgDuctg; eTAvijeTAmk)
changing magnetic field which induces an
e.m.f. (because a changing magnetic field sets kñúgkrNITaMgBIrenH bMErbMrYlcrnþekItman enAeBlmanbMErbMrYlEdnma:ejTic
up an electric field that pushes an electric
current around the coil). In the case of self
eFIV[ekItman e.m.f ¬eRBaHbMErbMrYlEdnma:ejTic
inductance the e.m.f. generated is given by  = eFIVeGayekItmanEdnGKÀsI nI EdlrujcrnþGKÀIsnICuv¿ ijbUb‘Ín¦.
- Ldi/dt. In the case of mutual inductance, M,
the e.m.f 1 induced in one coil is given by 1 =
kñúgkrNIGUtUGaMgDuctg; e.m.fekItmaneGayedaysmIkar   – Ldi/dt.
- Mdi2/dt, where i2 is the instantaneous kñúgkrNI enHGaMgDuctg;eTAvijeTAmk M, kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkr  ekIt
1
(changing) current in the second coil.
mankëúgbUbn‘Í mYyeGayedaysmIkar   – Mdi /dt Edl i
1 2 2

KWCabMErbMrYlcrnþxN³këúgbUb‘nÍ TIBIr.
Induction
A change in the state of a body produced by a
GaMgDucsüúg
changing field. bMErbMrYlPaBénGgÁFatumYyekIteLIgedaybMErbMrYlEdn.
Induction coil
A type of *transformer used to produce a high-
bUb‘ÍnGaMgDucsüúg
value alternating voltage from a low-value
direct-current source. The induction coil is used
RbePTénRtg;sV½rma:T½rEdleKeRbIedIm,IbegáIttg;süúgqøas;
to produce a very high voltage across the spark eGaymantMèlx<sB; IRbPBcrnþCab;EdlmantMèltUc. bUb‘nÍ GaMgDucsüúg
plugs in the internal combustion engine from a
12 V battery. In such an engine the battery is RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IbegáIttg;süúgeGay)anya:g x<s;
connected to the primary winding of the coil
through a circuit-breaking device driven by the ehIyeGayqøgkat;bUsuIkúñgcMehHxagkñúgma:snIu BIGaKuy 12V.
engine and the e.m.f. generated in the
secondary winding of the coil is connected to
enAkëúgma:sIunRbePTenH eKP¢ab;GaKuyeTAnwgrbu¿b‘ zm
the spark plugs via the distributor. The primary rbs;bUbn‘Í eGayqøgkat;]bkrN_mYyEdlbBa¢nÙ edayma:sIun ehIybegÝIt
coil has relatively few turns whereas the
secondary coil has many, so the output from the e.m.f enAkëúgrbu¿m
‘ Fümrbs;bUbn‘Í EdleKtP¢ab;
secondary is very high. Also the very rapid rate
of change of the input voltage provided by the eTAnwgbUsIutamDIsRTIbüÚT½r.eKrMubUb‘ÍnbzmticCagbUbn‘Í mFüm
circuit breaker further increases the output
voltage.
dUcenHePøIgecjBIbUb‘nÍ mFümmantMèlFM. kalNamanbMErbM
rYltg;süúgcUlrh½seFIVeGayekIntg;süúgecj.
Induction heating
The heating of an electrically conducting
kMedAGaMgDucsüúg
material by eddy currents induced by a varying
magnetic field. The effect is used for melting,
karkMedAGgÁFatucMlgGKÁIsnIedaycrnþGaMgDVEI dlekIteLIg
rolling and heat-treating metals. The effect is a edayEdnma:ejTicERbRbYl. plenHRtUv)aneKeRbIsrM ab;rM lay b¤
problem in the unwanted heating of
transformers and other electrical devices. bt;elah³. plenHKWCabBaaðmYyEdleKminRtUvkar
eGayekItmanenAkñúgRtg;s½rV ma:T½r nig ]bkrN_GKÁIsnIepSg eToteT.
 114

Induction motor
See electric motor.
m:UT½rGaMgDucsüúg
emIl electric motor
Inelastic collision
A collision in which some of the kinetic energy
TgÁicsÞk;
of the colliding bodies is into internal energy of
the bodies (kinetic and potential energy of the
TgÁicEdlmanfamBlsIuenTicmYycMnnY énTgÁicGgÁFatu køay
constituent atoms), so that kinetic energy is not eTACafamBlkMedAénGgÁFatu ¬famBlsIeu nTic nig famBl
conserved. However in all collisions in an
isolated system (i.e. a system on which no bU:tg;Esülrbs;GatUmTaMgGs; ¦ dUecñHfamsIuenTicminRtUv
external force acts) momentum is always
conserved. See also elastic collisions. )anrkSaeTkñúgTgÁicenH. eTaHCay:agNak¾edayral;TgÁci TaMg
Gs;kñúgRbB½n§Rtemac ¬RbB½n§mYyEdlKµankMlaMgeRkAmanGM eBIelIva¦
brimaNclnaRtUv)anrkSa. emIl elastic collision
Inertia
The property of matter that causes it to resist
niclPaB
any change in its motion. Thus a body at rest
remains at rest unless acted upon by an external
lkçN³énrUbFatuEdleFIeV GayvaTb;Tl; bMErbMrlY clnarbs; va.
force, and a body moving with constant dUecñHGgÁFatuenAnwgfál;varkSaenAnwgfál;rhUt ebIKµankM
velocity (i.e. at a constant speed in a straight
line) continues to do so unless acted on by an laMgeRkANamanGMeBIelIvaeT ehIyebIGgÁFatumYypøas;TI
external force. This is a statement of Newton's
first law of motion, sometimes called the law of edayvicu T½rel,Ónefr ¬el,ÓnefrtambnÞat;Rtg;¦ enaHvabnþ
inertia. The *mass of a body is a measure of its
inertia.
pøas;TIedayel,ÓnefrrhUt ebIKµan kMlaMgeRkANamanGMeBI elIvaeT.
enHKWCac,ab;TImyY rbs;jÚtun CYnkaleKehAfa c,ab;niclPaB.
ma:sr; bs;GgÁFatumYyKWbBaa¢kB; IniclPaB rbs;va.
Inertial frame.
A *frame of reference is a non-accelerating
tMruynicl
reference frame, in which Newton's first law
holds. That is, a body moving with constant
tMruyniclKWCatMruyEdlKµansMTuH CatMruyEdleKGacGnuvtþ
velocity (i.e. at a constant speed in a straight c,ab;TImYyjÚtnu )an. kñúgtMruyenHGgÁFatupøas;TIedayvicu T½r el,Ónefr
line) continues to do so unless acted on by an
external force. ¬el,ÓnefrtambnÞat;Rtg;¦rhUt RbsinebIKµankM
laMgeRkAmanGMeBIelIvaeT.
Inertial mass See mass.
ma:s;nicl
emIl mass
Infinite series See series
es‘rIminkMnt;
emIl series
Infinitesimal
Vanishingly small but not zero. Examples are
tUcGnnþ
dx and dt. The symbols x and t refer to tUcCaTIbMptu b:Eu nþmindl;sUnüeT. ]TahrN_ dx nig dt. nimti þsBaaØ x
increments in x and t significantly greater than
dx and dt. nig t KWCakMenIn x nig kMenIn t EtcaM)ac;va FMCag dx nig dt.
Infinity (Symbol  )
A quantity having a value that is greater than
Gnnþþ (nimitþsBaaØ  )
any assignable value. brimaNEdlmantMélFMCagtMélkMnt;NamYy.
 115

Inflection
A point on a curve at which the tangent changes
rbt;
from rotation in one direction to rotation in the
other. If the curve y = f(x) has a stationary
cMnucenAelIExSekagEdlbMErbMrYlbnÞat;b:H)anmkBIkarrgVil
point, i.e. where the first derivative dy/dx = 0, mYyC¿eu FobcMncu mYyeTot. ebIExSekag y  f(x) mancMncu nwg mYy
there is either a maximum, a minimum or an
inflection at this point. If the second derivative mann½yfaCacMncu EdlmanedrIevTImYyesIµsUnü KW dy/dx  0
d2y/dx2 = 0, the stationary point is a point of
inflection. Also at a point of inflection the enaHKµantMélGtibrma/ Gb,brma b¤ cMncu rbt; Rtg;cMnucenaHeT.
radius of curvature is infinite, i.e. the curve is a
straight line at the point.
ebIedrIevTIBIr d y/dx  0, enaHeK)ancM nucnwgmYyEdlCacMnucrbt;
2 2

Rtg;cMnucenaHmankMakMeNag esIGµ nnþ mann½yfakMeNagCabnÞat;Rtg;.

Infrared astronomy
The study of radiation from space in the
taraviTüaRkhmGaMgRhVa
infrared region of the spectrum. See infrared
radiation.
karsikSaBIkaMrsIµEdl)anmkBIlMhkñúgtMbn;RkhmGaMgR)aén s,úic. emIl
infrared radiation
Infrared radiation
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
kaMrsIµRkhmGaMgR)a
longer than that of red light but shorter than
radio waves, i.e. radiation in the range 700
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlmanC¿hanrlkEvgCagkaMBnøW Rkhm
nanometres to 1 millimetre. Infrared radiation is b:uEnþxøICagrlkviTüú mann½yfakaMrsIµkñúgkMrtw 700
also called heat radiation. It can be felt as heat,
but not seen. NaNUEm:teTAdl;!mIlEI m:t. vaGacekþAb:Eu nþemIlmineXIj.
Infrasound
Sound like waves with a frequency below the
sUrGaMgR)a
audible limit of about 20 Hz. See also
ultrasound.
rlksMelgEdlmaneRbkg;eRkameRbkg;sNþab;lWRbEhl 20Hz. emIl
ultrasound
Insolation (from incoming solar radiation)
The solar radiation that falls on the earth's
suriykar ¬mkBIrsIµRBHGaTitü¦
surface. It is measured in
MJ m-2. The average solar power received is
kaMrsIµRBHGaTitüEdlCHmkelIépÞdI. eKvas;vaCa MJ m .
-2

approximately 1.4 kW m-2. GnuPaBmFümEdlTTYlBIRBHGaTitüRbEhl 1.4 kW m . -2

Instantaneous value
The value of any varying quantity at a specified
tMélxN³
instant. For example the instantaneous velocity
of a moving body at time to is equal to the
tMélrbs;brimaNERbRbYlNamYyRtg;xN³eBlCak;lak;. ]TahrN_
gradient of a tangent to a displacement-time vicu T½rel,ÓnxN³énclnaRtg;xN³ t KWesIµ
0
graph at the instant of time to.
nigRkadüg;rbs;bnÞat;b:HeTAnwgRkabbMlas;TI-eBlRtg;xN³ eBl t enaH.
0

Insulator
A substance that is a poor conductor of heat and
GIusULg;
electricity. Both properties occur because of a
lack of mobile electrons.
sarFatuEdlcMlgkMedA nig cMlgGKÁIsnIya:gticbMp;ut. lkç
N³TaMgBIrenHekItelIgedaysarvaKµaneGLicRtugpøas;TI .
Integral calculus
See calculus.
KNnaGaMgetRkal
emIl calculus
Integrand
See integration.
GaMgetRkg;
emIl integration
 116

Integrated circuit
A miniature electronic circuit produced within a
esoKVIrlaycUlKña b¤ IC
single crystal of a *semiconductor such as
silicon. The range from logic circuits about 1
esoKVIGKÁIsnItUc² EdlmanenAkñúgRkammYyénsWmIkugDucT½r
mm square to large-scale circuits about 8 mm dUcCasIulkI ugCaedIm. TMhrM bs;esoKVIcab;BI 1mm eTAdl; 8mm
2 2

square containing more than one million

transistors, resistors and capacitors. They are kñúgenaHrYmmanRtg;suIsrþ / ersIusrþ / nigkugdg;saT½r mYylan.
used in memory circuits, microcomputers,
pocket calculators and electronic watches. They eKeRbIvakñúgesoKVmI im:UrI mIRkUkBuM üÚT½r ma:sunI Kit elx tUc² nig
are made by introducing impurities into specific
regions of the semiconductor material by a
naLikareGLicRtUnci . eKplitvaedaykarsM
variety of techniques. eyaKcUleTAkñúgtMbn;rbU FatusmW IkugDucT½rtamviFIEbøk²Kña.
Integration
The process of continuously summing changes
GaMgetRkalkmµ
in a function f(x). It is the basis of the integral
calculus, and is the inverse process of
dMeNIrénkarbUkbnþCab;²Kñakñgú GnuKmn_ f(x). vaKWCaRKwHén
differentiation. The function to be integrated is karKNnaGaMgetRkal ehIyvaKWCacMras;énedrIev.
called the integrand, and the result of the
integration is called the integral. The GnuKmn_EdleKeFIVGaMgetRkalehAfaGaMgetRkg; ehIy
integration of f(x) is written as  f ( x )dx , lT§plBIkareFIVGaMgetRkalkmµehAfaGaMgetRkal. GaMget Rkalén f(x)
where the symbol  means a summation. The RtUv)aneKsresrCa  f ( x)dx EdlnimitþsBaaØ  mann½yfakarbUk.
differential dx means that the function must be
integrated with respect to x. Integration can also DIepr:g;Esül dx mann½yfaGnuKmn_ RtUveFIVGaMgetRkaleFobx.
be thought of as finding the area under a plot of
the function f(x). If no limits are given, the GaMgetRkalkmµk¾Gaccat;TukCa RklaépÞxageRkamGnuKmn_ f(x)pgEdr
integral is written as above and a constant of
integration C must be added. An integral with ebIeKmineGayEdn eT enaHGaMgetRkalsresrdUcGaMgetRkalxagelI
no limits is called an indefinite integral. If
limits are given, such as a for the lower limit
ehIy efrGaMgetRkalCRtUvbUkbEnßm. GaMgetRkalEdlKµanEdn
and b for the upper limit, the integral is written kMnt;ehAfa GaMgetRkalminkMnt; . ebIeKeGayEdnkMnt;
b
a
f ( x )dx , and no constant of integration is enaHeKehAvafaCaGaMgetRkalkMnt;. ebIaCaEdnkMnt;eRkam ehIy
bCaEdnkMnt;elI eBlenaHGaMgetRkalsresr  f ( x)dx
needed. Such an integral is called a definite b
integral. Because differentiation and integration a
are inverse processes it follows that
ehIymincaM)ac;manefrGaMgetRkaleT. eday edrIev nig
d/dx  f ( x )dx = f(x).
GaMgetRkalKWCacMras;rvagKña eKGacsresr dxd  f ( x)dx  f(x).
Intensity
1. The rate at which radiant energy is
GaMgtg;sIuet
transferred per unit area. 2. The rate at which
sound energy is transferred as measured relative
!> kMrtw EdlfamBlPayecj RtUv)anepÞrkñúgmYyxñatépÞ. @>
to a reference value, usually defined as the kMrwtfamBlsMelgEdleKvas;eFobeTAnwgtMélmYy. Ca
lowest intensity that can be detected by the
human ear. 3. Magnetic intensity. See magnetic TUeTAeKkMnt;ykGaMgtg;seIu tTabbMputEdlGaccab;)aneday RtecokmnusS
field. 4. Electric intensity. See electric field. 5.
See luminous intensity. . #> GaMgtg;sueI tma:ejTic emIl magnetic field. $> GaMgtg;sueI tGKÁIsnI
emIl electric field. %> emIl luminous intensity
Interaction
An effect involving different bodies acting on
Gnþrkmµ
one another, as a result of which some physical
or chemical change takes place to one or more
plEdlTak;TgeTAnwgGgÁFatuBIrepSgKña manGMeBIelIKañ eTA vijeTAmk
of the bodies. EdlGMeBIenaHeFIVeGaymanbMErbMrYlrUb b¤ bMErbM rYlKImIceM BaHGgÁFatumYy b¤
GgÁFatueRcIndak;CitKña.
 117

Interference
The *superposition, (or addition), of two or
GaMgETepr:g;
more waves affecting the same medium coming
from *coherent sources. The instantaneous
karpÁÜb¬b¤karbUk¦énrlkBIr b¤ rlkeRcInkñgú mCÄdæandUcKña
disturbance in the medium is the vector sum of Edl)anmkBIRbPBkUeGr:g.; lMj½rxN³kñúgmCÄdæanKWCapl
the instantaneous disturbances in the interfering
waves. If the waves are in phase, that is their bUkviucT½rlMj½rxN³kñúgrlkGaMgETr:g.; ebIrlkmanpasRsb Kña
crests and troughs coincide, constructive
interference occurs, and the resultant intensity mann½yfakMBUlrlkRtYtsIKu añ )atuPUtenHeFIVeGayman GaMgETepr:g;
is a maximum. If only two waves are involved
the resultant intensity is four times greater than
ehIyGaMgtg;sueI tpÁbÜ mantMélGtibrma. ebI manEtrlkBIrTak;TgKña
that of each wave. If the two waves are out of eBlenaHGaMgtg;sIuetpÁÜbFMCag GaMgtg;sIuetnImYy²bYndg.
phase, that is, the crest of one coincides with
the trough of the other, destructive interference ebIrlkBIrmanpasQmKña man
occurs, and the intensity is a minimum. In order
to produce two coherent sources the apparatus n½yfakMBUlrlkmYyRtYtCamYy)atrlkmYyeTot eBlenaH
used in Young's experiment is often used. Light
from a small source is passed through a narrow
eFIVeGaysayGaMgETepr:g; ehIyGaMgtg;sIuetmantMélGb, brma.
slit and *diffracts towards two other narrow
slits. Light waves diffracted from these two slits
edIm,IbegátI RbPBkUeGr:g;BIr eKeRbIGbu krN_dUckarBi esaFn_rbs;yuaMg.
interferes, and an interference pattern consisting BnøWecjBIRbPBtUcmYyrYcehIyqøgkat; cenøaHtUcceg¥otmYy
of bright and dark bands is observed on a
screen. This experiment provides strong ehIycaMgpøatRtlb;eTAcenøaHtUcBIr epSgeTot.
evidence for the wave nature of light.
rlkBnøWpaø tBIcenøaHTaMgBIrenH eFIVeGayman BnøWGaMgETepr:g;PøW nig
ggwtenAelIeGRkg;. karBiesaFn_enH tMrvU eGaymanFmµCatirlkBnøWxøaMg.
Interferometer
An instrument designed to produce optical
GaMgETepr:UEm:t
*interference fringes for measuring the
wavelength of light, testing the flatness of plane
]bkrN_eFIVeLIgsMrab;begItá kgGaMgETepr:gGubTicsMrab;vas; C¿hanrlkBnWø
optical surfaces, measuring small distances etc. etsþrkPaBrabesIéµ népÞbøg;GubTic nig sMrab; vas;RbEvgxIø².l.
Intermediate frequency
See heterodyne.
eRbkg;kNþal
emIl heterodyne
Intermolecular forces
Weak forces, called van der Waals' forces
kMlaMgGnþrm:UelKul
occurring between molecules. kMlaMgexSayb¤ehAfakMlaMgva:ndWva:l; vaekItmanenøaHm:UelKul.
Internal- combustion engine
A *heat engine in which fuel is burned in
ma:sIuncMehHkñúg
combustion chambers, called cylinders. In this
kind of engine a piston descends in a cylinder,
ma:sunI kMedA EdlkñúgenaH\nÞn³eqHkñúgbnÞb;ceM hHmYyEdleK
drawing in a mixture of fuel and air through an ehAfasIuLaMg. kñúgma:snIu RbePTenH BIsþúgrt;cuHelIgkñúgsIu LaMg
inlet valve. After reaching the bottom of its
stroke the piston rises in the cylinder with the rYcTajl,ay\nÛn³ nig xül;tamry³s‘U'a:b;. eRkay BIvaeTAdl;'at
valves closed and compresses the fuel-air
mixture. At the top of its stroke the mixture is vak¾Rtlb;mkvijedayTajs‘U'a:b;biT ehIy eFIVeGaysgÝt;\nÞn³ nig
ignited by a spark across the spark plug. And
the resulting increase in pressure from the
xül;eGaylayKña. eBlvaeTAdl; kMBUlvij l,ay\nÞn³-xül;qøgkat;bs‘U Iu
explosion forces the piston down again. On the CaehtueFIVeGay kInsMBaFBIkarpÞHú rujBIsþúgcuHeRkamvíjmþgeTot. enAtg;bnþ
following upstroke the exhaust valve opens and
the burnt gases are pushed out of the bnÞab;mkeTot eBlEpSgFak;ecjeFIVeGayva:l;ebIk ehIy
combustion chamber. The cycle is then
repeated. The up-and-down motion is converted ]sµn½ eqHrujecjBIbnÞb;cMehH bnÞab;mkcab;epÍmþ siucsarcuH eLIgdEdl².
to rotational motion via the crankshaft, and is
finally transmitted to the wheels of the car.
clnaeLIg-cuHbMElgeTACaclnargViltam ry³édsIuLaMg
ehIycugeRkaybBa¢nÚ eTAeGaykg;Lan.
 118

Internal energy (Symbol U)

The total of the kinetic energies of the atoms
famBlkñúg (nimitþsBaaØ U)
and molecules of which a system consists and
the potential energies associated with their
famBlsIeu nTicsrubrbs;GatUm nig m:eU lKul EdlkñúgenaH
mutual interactions. For a closed system the RbB½n§manfamBlb:tU g;EsülenAkñúgGnþrkmµeTAvijeTAmk rbs;va.
change in internal energy is equal to the heat
(Q) absorbed by the system from its cMeBaHRbB½n§biTvij bMErbMrlY famBlkñgú esIµnwg
surroundings, less the work done (W) by the
system on its surroundings. i.e. U = Q - W.
kMedA(Q)EdlRsUbedayRbB½n§BI mCÄdæanCMvu ijvadkkmµnEþ dl )aneFIV
(W)edayRbB½ne§ lImCÄdæanCMvu ij. mann½yfa

U = Q – W.
Internal resistance
The resistance r inside a source of electric
ersIusþg;kñúg
current, such as a cell or generator. The output
voltage V at the terminals of a cell with an
er:sIusþgr; enAxagkñúgRbPBcrnþGKÁIsnI dUcCafµBil b¤ Cnita. tg;süúgecj
open-circuit e.m.f. E passing current through a VRtg;b:Ulrbs;fµBilEdlmanesoKVeI bIkmankM laMgGKÁIsnIclkr E
load with resistance R is given by V = Er/(R +
r), so the terminal voltage is always less than eFIVeGaymancrnþqøgkat;ersIusgþ ;eRkA R KWV  Er/(R + r)
the e.m.f. of the cell.
tg;süúgenAelIb:UlCnitaEtgEttUcCag
kMlaMgGKÁIsnIclkrrbs;CnitaCanic©.
International dateline
An imaginary line on the earth's surface that
ExSbnÞat;GnþrCati
joins the north and south poles and
approximately follows the 180o meridian
ExSbnÞat;nmi µitenAelIb:UlEpndIEdlrYmKñaRtg;bU:leCIg nig b:Ult,Úg
through the Pacific ocean. ehIyRbEhl 180 qøgkat;mhasmuRT)a:s: IuhcVi .
o

Interplanetary space
The space between the sun and the planets
lMhrGnþrPB
within the solar system. lMhrvagRBHGaTitünigPBTaMgLayenAkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü.
Interstellar space
The space between the stars.
lMhGnþrpáay
lMhrvagpáayTaMgLay.
Intrinsic semiconductor
See semiconductor.
swmIkugDucT½rCak;
emIl semiconductor
Invar
An alloy of iron (63.8%), nickel (36%) and
GaMgva:
carbon (0,2%) that has a very low thermal
expansivity. It is used in watches and other
sMelah³manEdk (63.8%), nIEkl (36%) nigkabUn (0,2%)
sensitive instruments to reduce their sensitivity EdlmankMrwtrIkkMedATabbMput. eKeRbIvaenAkñúgnaLikar nig
to changes in temperature.
]bkrN_sinsIuTIvepSgeTot edIm,IbegIátkMrwtsinsIuTIvrbs;va
eGaypøas;bþÚrsItuNðPaB.
Inverse functions
If y = f(x) and a function can be found so that x
GnuKmn_Rcas
= g(y), then g(y) is said to be the inverse
function of f(x). If y is a trigonometric function
ebI y  f(x) ehIyGnuKmn_mYyGackMnt;)an edÍm,IeGay
of x, say y = sinx, then x = arcsiny, (sometimes x = g(y) Edl g(y)ehAfaGnuKmn_Rcasén f(x). ebI y
written as sin-1y), is the inverse function of y.
CaGnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRtén xvij ebI y = sinx enaHeK)an
x = arcsiny b¤ sin y CaGnuKmn_Rcasén y.
-1
 119

Inverse square law

A law in which the magnitude of a physical
c,ab;cMras;kaer
quantity, such as force, is proportional to the
reciprocal of the square of the distance between
c,ab;Edlmanm:UDulénbrimaNrUb dUcCakMlaMgRcassma
the bodies between which the force acts. maRteTAnwgkaercMgayrvagGgÁFatuEdlkMlaMgeFIVGMeBI. ]Ta hrN_
Examples are Newton's law of gravity (F =
GMm/r2) and Coulomb's law c,ab;TMnajrbs;jÚtun (F  GMm/r ) nig c,ab;KLU M (F = kQq/r ).
2 2

(F = kQq/r2).
Ion
An atom that has lost one or more electrons,
GIuy:ug
making it electrically positive. GatUmEdl)an)at;bg;eGLicRtugmYy b¤ eGLicRtugeRcIn
eFIVeGayvamanGKÁsI nIviC¢man.
Ion engine
A type of jet engine being developed for
ma:sIunGIuy:ug
propelling spacecraft. It consists of a unit
producing a beam of atoms which are
RbePTénma:snIu RbtikmµEdleKplitsMrab;rujynþehaHeTA mux.
accelerated by an electric or electromagnetic vamanRbdab;begItá kaMrsIµGatUmmansMTuHedayEdnGKIÁ snI b¤
field.
EdneGLicRtUma:ejTic .
Ion implantation
The technique of implanting ions in the lattice
karbegáItGIuy:ug
of a semiconductor crystal in order to modify
its electronic properties.
viFIbegáItGIuy:ugkñúgbNþajRkamsWmIkugDucT½r edIm,IeGay
paøs;bþrÚ lkçN³eGLicRtUnicrbs;va.
Ionisation
The process of producing ions. Certain
GIuy:ugkmµ
molecules (see electrolytes) ionise in solution;
for example, acids ionise when dissolved in
dMenIrkarbegIátGIyu :ug. ]TahrN_ m:UelKUlTaMgLaykøayCa
water: GIyu :ugkñúgsUluysüúg GasIdu køayCaGIyu :ugeBlrlaykñúgTwk ¬emIl
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Atoms can also be ionised when irradiated by a electrolytes ¦: HCl  H + Cl+ –

quantum of radiation.
GatUmTaMgLayk¾GackøayeTACaGIyu :ugEdr enAeBlEdl
eK)aj;BnøWkg;Tci eTAelIva.
Ionisation chamber
An instrument for detecting *ionising radiation.
bnÞb;GIuy:ugkmµ
It consists of two electrodes contained in a gas-
filled chamber with a potential difference
]bkrN_sMrab;segátrsIGµ yIu :ug. ]bkrN_enHmaneGLicRtUd
applied between them. Ionising radiation BIrdak;kgñú tMbn;Edlman]sµ½neBj manplsgb:tU g;Esül GnuvtþcenøaHva.
entering the chamber ionises gas atoms,
creating electrons and positive ions. The rsIµGIuy:ugcUleTAkñúgbnÞb;]sµ½nGIyu :ugGatUm eFIeV GayekItmaneGLicRtug nig
electric field between the electrodes drives the
electrons to the anode and the ions to the GIyu :ugviCm¢ an. EdnGKÁIsnI cenøaHeGLicRtUd bBa¢nÚ eGLicRtugeTAGaNUd
cathode. This current is detected and indicates
the presence of the ionising radiation.
ehIybBa¢nÚ GIuyg:u eTAkatUd.crnþenHbgðajeGayeXIjfamanrsIµGIuy:ug.
 120

Ionisation gauge
A vacuum gauge consisting of a three-electrode
háÚcGIuy:ugkmµ
system placed in the container where the
pressure is to be measured. Electrons from the
hácÚ suBaØakasmanRbB½n§eGLicRtUdbIdak;kñúgepIg Edlman sMBaFkMNt;.
cathode are attracted to the grid, which is eGLicRtugBIkatUdxøHetagCab;r)aMgsMNaj;
positively biased. Some pass through the grid
but do not reach the anode, which is negatively eFIVeGayvakøayeTACaGIuyg:u viC¢man ehIyeGLicRtugxøHqøg
biased. Some of the electrons collide with gas
molecules, ionising them and converting them kat;r)aMgsMNaj;EtmineTAdl;GaNUdeT vak¾kaø yeTACaGIu y:ugGviCm¢ an.
to positive ions. These ions are attracted to the
anode, and the resulting anode current is a
eGLicRtugxøHeTotTgÁicCamYym:UelKul]sµ½n
measure of the density, hence pressure, of the ehIyk¾køayeTACaGIyu :ugviC¢man. GIyu :ugTaMgenHTajeTAxag GaNUd
gas. Pressure as low as 10-6 Pa can be measured
in this way. ehIyeFIVeGayGaNUdmandg;sIuetcrnþ CaehtunaM eGay]sµ½nmansMBaF.
]bkrN_enHGacvas;sBM aFeRkam
10 Pa .
–6

Ionisation potential
The minimum energy needed to remove an
b:Utg;EsülGIuy:ugkmµ
electron from an atom. famBlb:tU g;EsülTabbMputEdlcaM)ac; edIm,Ipþac;eGLic
RtugBIGatUmmYy.
Ionising radiation
Radiation of sufficiently high energy to cause
kaMrsIµGIuy:ug
ionisation in the medium through which it
passes.
kaMrsµImanfamBlx<s;RKb;RKan; edIm,IeFIVeGaymanGIuy:ugkmµ
kñúgmCÄdæanEdlvaqøgkat;.
Ion pump
A type of vacuum pump that can reduce the
sñb;GIuy:ug
pressure in a container to about 10-9 Pa by
passing a beam of electrons through the residual
sñb;sBu aØakasmüa:gEdlGacbnßysMBaFkñúgkugTInr½ eGay dl; 10 Pa
-9

gas. The gas is ionised and the positive ions are edayeGay)ac;kaMrsIeµ GLicRtugqøgkat;]sµn½ enAsl;.
attracted to a cathode in the container where
they remain trapped. ]sµn½ køayeTACaGIuyg:u ehIyGIyu :ugviC¢manrt;eTAka tUdkñúgkugTIn½r
CakEnøgEdlvaenACab;rhUt.
IR
See infrared radiation.
GIuEG‘
emIl infrared radiation
Iris
See diaphragm.
RbRsI¬EPñk¦
emIl diaphragm
Irradiance
The radiant flux per unit area reaching a
GIura:düg;
surface, measured in watts per square metre
(Wm-2)
PøúcBnøWkñúgmYyxñatépÞEdldaleTAb:HépÞmYy ehIymanxñat
KitCava:t;kñúgmYyEm:Rtkaer (Wm ).
-2

Irradiation
Exposure to any form of radiation; often
bnSaykaMrsIµ
exposure to ionising radiation is implied. kardak;eGayRtUvkaMrsIµ CaTUeTAeKdak;eGayRtUvkaMrsIµGyIu :ug
Irrational number
A number that cannot be expressed as the ratio
cMnYnGsniTan
of two integers. An irrational number can be a cMnYnEdlminGacsMEdgCapleFobénBIrcMnnY Kt;. cMnnY Gsni TanmandUcCa
2 or a transcendental number such
2 b¤  b¤ eCaedIm.
surd, as in
as  or e.
 121

Irreversible process
See reversible process.
dMenIrkarminrWuEvsIub
emIl reversible process
Isobar
A line on a map or chart that joins points that
GIusU)ar
have the same pressure. bnÞat;enAelIEpnTI b¤ enAelIRkab EdlcMncu RbsBVKañ man sMBaFdUcKña.
Isotherm
A line on a map or chart that joins points or
GIusUETm
places at equal temperature. bnÞat;enAelIEpnTI b¤ enAelIRkab EdlcMnucRbsBVmansItu NðPaBesIKµ ña.
Isothermal process
Any process that takes place at a constant
dMenIrkarGIusUETm
temperature. dMenIrkarEdlmansItuNðPaBefr.
Isotope
One of two or more atoms of the same element
GIusUtUb
that have the same number of protons in the
nucleus but a different number of neutrons.
GatUmmYy b¤ GatUmeRcInmanFatudUcKña mancMnYnRbUtugkñúg éNVy:UdUcKña
Hydrogen (1 proton, no neutrons), deuterium (1 EtmancMnYnNWRtugxusKña. GIuRdUEsn ¬manRbU tug! KµanNWRtugeT¦
proton, 1 neutron) and tritium (1 proton, 2
neutrons) are all isotopes of hydrogen. edetrüÚ:m¬manRbtug! manNWRtug!¦ ehIyRTIcmU ¬manRbUtug! NWRtug@¦
TaMgGs;enHKWCaGIusU tUbrbs;GRIu dÚEsn.
Isotope separation
The separation of two isotopes of an element on
bMEbkGIusUtUb
the basis of a slight difference in their physical
properties, such as mass or size. The chemical
karbMEbkGIusUtUbBIrénFatumYy edayeFIVeGaylkçN³rUb
properties are identical, so no chemical method mUldæanrbs;vaxusKñabniþcbnÞcÜ dUcCama:s b¤ TMhCM aedÍm.
is possible.
lkçN³KImIenArkSadUcKña dUecñHvíFIKImmI inGaceRbI)aneT.
Isotopic number (neutron excess)
The difference in the number of neutrons in a
cMnYnGIusUtUb ¬NWRtugelIs¦
nucleus and the number of protons. plsgcMnYnNWRtugenAkñúgéNVy:U nig cMnYnRbUtug.
Isotropic
Denoting a medium whose physical properties
GIusURtUb
are independent of direction. mCÄdæanEdlmanlkçN³minGaRs½ynwgTisedA.
Iteration
The process of successive approximations used
GIuETra:süúg
as a technique for solving mathematical
problems. The technique is well suited for
viFIEdleKeRbIsMrab;edaHRsaylMhat;KNitviTüa. viFIenH gaysMrab;kuMBüÚT½r
computers and is part of a branch of ehIyvaCasaxamYyrbs;KNitvíTüavíPaK cMnYn.
mathematics called numerical analysis.
J

Jet propulsion
The propulsion of a body by means of a force
rbujRbtikmµ
produced by discharging fuel in the form of a
jet.
karbBa¢nÚ GgÁFatumYyedayeRbIkMlaMg EdlbegátI eLIgeday
karepÞr\nÞn³CaTMrg;Rbtikmµ.
Josephson effect
Electrical effects observed when two
plcUsibsun
superconducting materials (at low temperature)
are separated by a thin layer of insulating
plGKÁsI nIEdleKsegáteXIj enAeBlEdlsarFatumankM rwtcMlgx<s;BIr
material. ¬enAsItuNPð aBTab¦ RtUv)aneKbMEbkeday
RsTab;esþIgénsarFatuGsIu ULg;.
 122

Joule (Symbol J)
The *S.I. unit of work and energy equal to the
s‘Ul (nimitþsBaaØ J )
work done when the point of application of a
force of 1 newton moves through a
xñat S.I rbs;kmµnþ nig famBl vaesIµ nwgkmµnþEdl)aneFIV
displacement of 1 metre in the direction of the eBleKGnuvtþkMlaMg!jÚtuneGayGgÁFatupaø s;TI)anRbEvg!
force. 1 joule = 107 ergs = 0.2388 calories.
Em:ttamTisedAkMlaMg.
!s‘Ul = !0&ergs = 0.2388 kaLÚrI.
Joule heating
The production of heat in a conductor as a
kMedAs‘Ul
result of the flow of an electric current through
the conductor. The quantity of heat produced is
karekItmankMedAkñgú GgÁFatuclM g edaysarbMlas;TIcrnþ
given by *Joule’s law. GKÁIsnIqøgkat;GgÁFatucMlg. brimaNkMedAEdlbegátI )an
eGayedayc,ab;sl‘U .
Joule’s laws
1. The heat (Q) produced when an electric
c,ab;s‘Ul
current (I) flows through a resistance (R) for a
time (t) is given by Q = I2Rt. 2. The internal
!> kMedA(Q)ekItmanenAeBlEdlmancrnþGKÁIsnI (I) pøas;TI qøgkat;ersIusþg;
energy of a given mass of gas is independent of (R) kñúgry³eBl (t) KW Q = I Rt. @>famBl kñg
2
ú énma:s]sµn½
its volume and pressure, being a function of
temperature alone. minGaRs½ynwgmaD nig sMBaFrbs;vaeT
vaCaGnuKmn_EtsItuNðPaBmYyb:ueNÑaH.
Joule-Thomson effect
The change in temperature that occurs when a
pls‘Ul-fmsun
gas expands through a small hole into a region
of lower pressure. The temperature falls
bNþÚrsItuNðPaB enAeBlEdl]sµn½ PaytamRbehagtUc
because the gas has to do internal work in mYycUleTAkñúgtMbn;EdlmansMBaFTab. sItuNðPaBfycuH
overcoming the intermolecular forces to enable
the expansion to take place. edaysar]sµn½ )aneFIVkmµnþxagkñúgedIm,IQñHkMlaMgGnþrm:eU l Kul
edÍm,IeGaykarIkGacRbRBwteTA)an.
Junction transistor
See transistor.
Qñab;Rtg;sIuT½r
emIl transistor
K

Kater’s pendulum
A complex *pendulum designed to measure the
e)a:lkaET
acceleration of free fall. It consists of a metal
bar with knife edges attached near the ends and
e)a:lsaMjaMúeFIeV LIgsMrab;vas;sMTuHTnøak;esrI. e)a:lenHman
two weights that can slide between the knife r)arelah³mYyEdlmanEKmRsYcenAxagcug ehIymankUn
edges. The bar is pivoted from each knife edge
in turn and the positions of the weights are TMng;BIrEdlGacrt;cenøaHEKmRsYcenaH. r)ardak;eFVICasñÚl
adjusted so that the period of the pendulum is
the same with both pivots. The period is then cenøaHEKmRsYceGayvil dUcenHxYbrbs;e)a:ldUcKñaCamYy
given by the formula for a simple pendulum,
which enables g to be calculated.
nwgsñÚlTaMgsgxag. xYbe)a:leGaytamrUbmnþe)a:leTal
EdlGaceGayeKKNnag)an.
Keeper
A piece of soft iron used to bridge the poles of a
]bkrN_rkSa
permanent magnet when it is not in use. It
reduces the leakage field and thus preserves the
bMEnkénEdkTn;EdleKeRbIsMrab;dak;cMlgb:UlemEdkGciéRnþ
magnetisation. eBleKmineRbIva. vaCYykat;bnßyC¿urabEdn nig rkSama:ej Tickmµ.
 123

Kelvin (Symbol K)
The S.I. unit of *thermodynamic temperature.
Eklvin ¬nimµitsBaaØ K¦
The magnitude of the Kelvin is equal to that of
the degree centigrade, but the zero of the Kelvin
xñat S.I rbs;sItuNðPaBETm:DU INamic. m:DU ulEklvinesIµ
scale is equivalent to – 273.16oC. nwgGgSarsg;TIRkad EtsUnüEklvinesInµ wg – 273.16 C.
o

Kelvin effect
See Thomson effect.
plEklvin
emIl Thomson effect
Kepler’s laws
Three laws of planetary motion. They state that
c,ab;ekEBø
(1) the orbits of the planets are elliptical with
the sun at one *focus of the ellipse; (2) each
c,ab;bIsþBI IclnaPBTaMgLay. c,ab;TaMgenHeBalfa (1)
planet orbits the sun so that an imaginary line Knøgrbs;PBmanragCaeGlIb manRBHGaTitüenARtg;knM Mu mYy (2)
(the radius vector) connecting the planet to the
sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times; (3) KnøgPBnimYy²vilCMvu ijRBHGaTitü manviucT½rkaM
the square of the period of each planet is
proportional the cube of its distance from the ekos)anépÞesIµKñakñúgry³eBlesIµKña (3) kaerénxYbrbs;
sun, i.e. T2 = kR3. PBnimYy²smamaRteTAnwgKUbcMgayrbs;vaBIRBHGaTitü mann½yfa T 2
=

kR .
3

Kerr effect
The change in the optical properties of certain
plEKr
materials, such as nitrobenzene, when placed in
an electric field. The effect allows a Kerr cell,
karbþÚrlkçN³GubTicrbs;rbU Fatu dUcCanIRtUbg;EsneBl
consisting of two capacitor plates placed in the eKdak;vakñúgEdnGKÁIsnI. plenHGaceFIeV GayekIt)anCafµ BilEKr
fluid to allow light to pass through the cell
when a voltage is applied across the plates, EdlmanbnÞHkugdg;saT½rBIrdak;kñúgsnÞnIy eFIV
thus acting as an optical switch.
eGayekItmanBnøWqøgkat;fµBileBlmantg;süúgGnuvtþelI bnÞH
dUcenHeFIVeGayvaeTACakugtak;GubTic.
kilo- (Symbol k)
A prefix used in the metric system to denote
KILÚ (nimitþsBaaØ k)
1000 times. For example, 1000 volts = 1
kilovolt (kV).
buBVbTEdleKeRbIkúñgRbB½n§rgVas; EdlesIµnwg !000dg. ]TahrN_
!000v:ul = !KILÚv:ul (kv).
Kilowatt hour Symbol kWh
The commercial unit of electrical energy. It is
KILÚva:t;ema:g (nimitþsBaaØ kWh)
equivalent to a power consumption of 1 kW for
one hour.
xñatCMnjY famBlGKÁIsnI.vasmmUlnwgGnuPaBEdleRbIR)as; 1kW
kñúgmYyema:g.
Kinematic equations
See equation of motion.
smIkarsIuenm:aTic
emIl equation of motion
Kinematics
The branch of mechanics concerned with the
sIuenma:Tic
motions of bodies without being concerned
with the forces that cause the motion. In this
sIuenma:Tci CaEpñkmYyénemkanic EdlTak;Tgnwgclnarbs; GgÁFatu
respect it differs from *dynamics which is edayminKitBIbuBVehtuénkMlaMgEdleFIVeGayGgÁ Fatumanclna.
concerned with the forces that affect motion.
sIuenma:Tci xusBIDINamic EdlTak;TgnwgkM
laMgEdleFIVeGayGgÁFatumanclna.
Kinetic energy
See energy.
famBlsIuenTic
emIl energy
 124

Kinetic theory
A theory that explains the physical properties of
RTisIþsIuenTic
matter in terms of the motion of its constituent
particles. In a gas, for example, the pressure is
RTisIþEdlBnül;BIlkçN³rUbrbs;rUbFatu CaGnuKmn_énclna
due to the impacts of the gas molecules on the rbs;PaKlit¥ nimYy²kñúgrUbFatu. ]TahrN_ kñúg]sµ½nsMBaF
walls of the container. It can be shown that the
pressure p exerted by one mole of gas eFIVeGaymankarTgÁci énm:UelKul]sµ½neTAnwgCBaa¢MgepIg. sMBaF p
containing n molecules, each of mass m in a
container of volume V, is given by: EdlbeBa©jedaym:eU lKul]sµ½nmYykñgú cMeNam n m:UelKul
p = nm<c2>/3V,
where <c2 >is the mean of the square of the
Edlm:UelKulnImYy²manma:sm ehIyepIgman maD V KW ³
speed of the molecules. It can also be shown p  nm<c >/3V/ 2

that for one mole of gas: pV = RT, where T is

the thermodynamic temperature and R the Edl <c > CamFümkaerénel,Ónm:UelKul. mYym:eU lKul én]sµ½nman³ pV
2

molar *gas constant, hence

RT = nm<c2>/3, = RT Edl T CasItuNðPaBETm:D U INamic ehIy R Caefrm:Ul]sµ½n
thus the thermodynamic temperature of a gas is
proportional to the mean square speed of its
eyIg)an³
molecules. As the average kinetic energy of RT  nm<c >/3/ 2

translation of the molecules is m<c2>/2, the

temperature is given by dUcenHsItuNðPaBén]sµ½nsmamaRtnwgel,ÓnkaermFümrbs; m:UelKul.
T = (m<c2>/2)(2n/3R).
The number of molecules in one mole of any famBlsIeu nTicmFüménbMlas;TIrbs;m:UelKulKW ½ m<c > 2

gas is the Avogadro constant, NA; therefore in

this equation n = NA. The ratio R/NA is equal to
dUcenHsItuNðPaBeGay ³
the Boltzmann constant (k). The average kinetic T  (m<c2>/2)(2n/3R)
energy of translation of the molecules of one
mole of gas is therefore 3KT/2. For monatomic
cMnYnm:eU lKulkñúgmYym:Ulrbs;]sµ½nNamYyesIµnwgefrGav:Uka RdU N
A

gases this is proportional to the internal energy dUecñHkñúgsmIkarenH n = N . pleFob R/N esIµ nwgefrbulsµan (k).
A A
(U) of the gas, i.e.
U = NA3kT/2 famBlsIeu nTicmFüménclnarMkil rbs;myY m:eU lKul]sµ½nesInµ wg
and as k = R/NA
U = 3RT/2. 3kT/2.cMeBaHGatUm]sµ½nmYy smIkarenHsmamaRtnwgfamBlkñúg

(U)rbs;]sµn ½ man n½yfa U = N 3kT/2

A

eday k = R/N A U = 3RT/2

L
Laminar Flow
*Streamline flow of a fluid in which the fluid
lMhUrLamIEn
moves in layers without *turbulence karhUrènsnÛnyI EdlkëúgenaHsnÛnyI pøas;TIkúëgRsTab;Edl KµanTYrb‘Ín.
Laminated core
A transformer core in which the ferromagnetic
sñÚlLamIent
alloy is made into thin sheets (laminations)
which are varnished so that they are electrically
sëÙlRtg;sVrma:Tr½ Edlkëgú enaHmansMelah³EhV‘rUm: a:ejTic
insulated from each other. This has the effect of eFIVeGayeTACaRsTab;esIgþ ¬LamINasüúg¦EdlCaEv:knI va
reducing *eddy currents which are set up by the
varying magnetic flux linking the core eFIVeGayGKÁsI nIminGacqøgKñaeTAvijeTAmk. lT§plenHeFIV
eGaymankarfycuHcrnþGaMgDVEI dlekIteLIgedaysarbMErbM
rYlPøúcma:ejTicqøgkat;slñÚ .
Laplace equation
The Partial differential equation:
smIkarLapøas
2u/  x2 +  2u/ y2 +  2u/ z2 = 0. smIkarDIepr:gE; süledayEpñk ³
It may also be written in the form:
 u/  x +  u/ y +  u /z = 0 vaGacsresrCaTMrg; ³  u = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2u = 0
k¾)an.
 125

Laser
(light amplification by stimulated emission of
LaEs‘
radiation). A light amplifier used to produce
*monochromatic coherent radiation
(light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) .
karBRgIkBnøWedayeRbIkaMrsIµkUeGr:gm; :UNURkUma:Tic.
Latent heat Symbol L
The quantity of heat absorbed or released when
kMedALatin (nimitþsBaaØ L)
a substance changes its physical phase (for
example, from solid to liquid, or from liquid to
brimaNkMedAEdlRsUb b¤ beBa©jenAeBlEdlsarFatubrþÚ
vapour) at a constant temperature. The latent PaBrbs;vaenAsItuNðPaBefr. ¬]TahrN_ bþÚrBIrwgeTArav b¤
heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required
to overcome the attractive forces between the BIraveTAcMhay¦. kMedALatinénbgðÜtKWCakMedAEdlfam
molecules in the liquid phase.
BlRtUvkaredIm,IC¿nHkMlaMgRsUbTajrvagm:UelKulTaMgLay
kñúgtMNak;kalrav.
Latitude & longitude
Imaginary lines on the earth’s surface, enabling
ry³TTwg nig ry³beNþay
any point to be defined in terms of the two
angles subtended at its centre. Parallels of
ExSnimitþenAelIépÞEpndI EdlGaceGayeKkMnt;cMncu NamYy
latitude are circles drawn around the earth CaGnuKmn_eTAnwgmMuKlM atBIrRtg;p©itrbs;va. ExSTTwgRsbKW
parallel to the equator. Meridians of longitude
are half *great circles passing through both CargVg;EdlKUsB½T§CMuvji EpndIRsbCamYyExSeGkVaT½r. ExSbeNþayemrIdüan
poles; they cross parallels of latitude at right
angles. The meridian passing through esIµnwgknøHrgVgF; MEdlkat;tamb:lU TaMg BIr
Greenwich in London is the prime meridian,
and defines 0o of longitude.
vakat;RsbnwgExSbeNþayRtg;m(Mu 0dWeRk. emrIdüanEdl
kat;tamRKInvIcu kñgú RkugLúgd_ KWCaExSemrIdüandMbUg ehIy
manry³beNþaysUnüdWeRk.
Latus rectum
See ellipse, parabola hyperbola.
erTImLaTus
emIl ellipse, parabola hyperbola
Lawson criterion
A condition for the release of energy from a
lkçx½NÐLsun
*thermonuclear reactor first laid down by J. D.
Lawson. It is usually stated as the minimum
l½kxç ½NsÐ Mrab;beBa¨jfamBlBIerGak;T½rETm:nU uyekøEG‘ 'an
value for the product of the density (nG) of the dak;ecjCaelIkdMbUgeday J.D Lawson. vaCalkçx½NÐ
fusion-fuel particles and the *containment time
() for energy breakeven, i.e. it is a measure of bBa¢ak;BItMélGbb,rmarbs;plKuNéndg;sIuetpg;\nÞn³Puy süúg(n ) G

the density of the reacting particles required and

the time for which they need to react in order to
produce more energy than was used in raising
the temperature of the reacting particles to the
*ignition temperature. For a 50:50 mixture of
deuterium and tritium at the ignition
temperature, the value of nG is between 1014
and 1015 cm-3s.
nigry³eBlkugEtnm:g;()beBa©j)anfamBlesIµ man
n½yfavavas;sIuetpg;caM)ac;sMrab;Rbtikmµ nig vas;ry³
eBledIm,IbegIátfamBlkan;EteRcIn edaybegIná sItuNðPaB
rbs;pg;RbtikmµrhUtdl;stI uNðPaBeqH. cMeBaHl,ayedET
rüÚm%0nigRTIcUm%0enAsItuNð PaBeqH tMélrbs;n enA
G

cenøaH10 nig10 cm s.
14 15 –3

Lead-acid accumulator
An accumulator (battery) in which the
GaKuysMnr-GasIut
electrodes are made of lead and the *electrolyte
is dilute sulphuric acid.
GaKuymüa:gEdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtUdeFIVeLIgedaysMnr ehIy
eGLicRtUlItKWCaGasIuds‘ulpYrci .
 126

Leclanche cell
A primary *voltaic cell consisting of a carbon
fµBilLWkøg;es
rod (the anode) and a zinc rod (the cathode)
dipping in an electrolyte of a 20% solution of
fµBilv:lu tad¿bUgEdlmancgáwHkabUn¬GaNUd¦nig cgáHw sgásI ¬katUd¦
ammonium chloride. The e.m.f. of the cell is dak;RtaMkñúgeGLicRtUlItEdlmansUlyu süúgGam:U j:mÚ køra:t@0°
1.5 V.
kMlaMgGKÁIsnIclkrrbs;fµBilesIµ 1.5v.
LED
See light-emitting diode.
düÚtBnøW
emIl light-emitting diode
Lens
A curved, ground and polished piece of glass
Lg;TI
used for the refraction of light. A converging
lens is a *convex lens that brings parallel rays
Lg;TIKCW aEkvrekagelag eKeRbIvasMrab;lMgakkaMBnø.W
of light to a real focus. A diverging lens is a Lg;TIbRgYmKWCaLg;TeI )a:g CaLg;TIEdlnaMykaMBnWøRsb[
concave lens that causes parallel rays of light to
diverge, as if from a virtual focus. RbsBVKañ Rtg;kMnBMu it. Lg;TIBRgIkKWCaLg;TpI t CaLg;TI
EdlnaMykkaMBnøWRsbrIkEbkecj hak;dUcCaecjBIkMnMurg.
Lenz’s law
An induced electric current always flows in
c,ab;Lin
such a direction that it opposes the change
producing it.
crnþGKÁsI nIGaMgDVImanTisedApÞúynwgbMErbMrlY Pøcú EdlbegIátva.
Level
An instrument used in surveying to determine
nIv:U
heights. ]bkrN_EdleKeRbIsMrab;vas;kMBs;.
Lever
A simple machine consisting of a rigid bar
Xñas;
pivoted about a fulcrum. The mechanical
advantage, or force ratio of a lever (the ratio of
ma:sunI gaymanr)armYykl;elIkMnl;myY . plemkanic b¤
load to effort) is equal to the ratio of the pleFobkMlaMgénXñas; esIµngw pleFobéncMgayEkgrbs;
perpendicular distance of the line of action of
the effort to the axis to the ratio of the cMnuccab;kMlaMgclkreTAnwgcMgayEkgrbs;bnÞúkBIG½kS kMnl;.
perpendicular distance of the line of the load
from the axis.
LF
See low frequency.
GwleGhV
See low frequency
Light
The range of electromagnetic radiation to which
BnøW
the eye is sensitive. The wavelength ranges
from 700 nm at the red end of the visible
BnøWCakMrwtcMgaykaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTiceTAdl;EPñk. kMrtw CMhanrlkcab;BI
spectrum to 400 nm at the violet end. The 700nm Rtg;cugBnøWRkhméns,ic ú GacemIl eXIjeTAdl; 400nmRtg;cugBnøW
phenomenon of *interference shows that light
has wave-like properties; the photoelectric BN’saV y. 'atuPUtGaMgET epr:gbgêajfaBnøWmanlkçN³Carlk
effect shows that light also has particle-like
properties. cMEnkplpUtUGKÁsI nI bgðajfa BnøWmanlkçN³Capg;.
Light bulb
See Lighting.
GMBUlePIøg
emIl Lighting
Light-emitting diode
A rectifying semiconductor device that converts
düÚtbeBa©jBnøW
electrical energy into light. The most commonly
used LED emits red light, light being emitted at
]bkrN_sWmIkgu DucT½rEdlbMElgfamBlGKÁIsnIeGayeTACa BnøW.
a p-n junction, when electrons and holes CaTUeTAeKeRbI LED bBa¢nÙ BnøBW N’Rkhm BnøWbBa¢nÙ Rtg; Qëab; p-n
recombine.
eBleGLicRtug nig hUlrYmcUlKñaeLIgvíj.
 127

Lightning
A high-energy luminous electrical discharge
epøkbenÞar
that passes between a charged cloud and a point
on the surface of the earth.
BnøWEdlmanfamBlGKÁIsnIx<s;enAcenøaHBBkEdlmanbnÞúk nig
cMnucmYyenAelIépÞEpndI.
Light-year
A unit of distance used in astronomy; the
qñaMBnøW
distance travelled by light in a vacuum during xñatcMgay eKeRbIenAkñúgtaraviTüa.vaCacMgayEdlcreday
one year. It is equal to 9.465 x 1015 metres. BnøWkñúgsuBaØakaskñúgry³eBlmYyqñaMKW 9.465  1015m.
Limit
The value that a function approaches as the
lImIt
independent variable approaches a specified
value.
tMélEdlGnuKmn_kalNamanGefrmYyxitCittMélBiess mYy.
Limiting friction
The friction force that just balances a force
kkitkMnt;
applied to a body resting on a rough surface
when the body fails to move.
kMlaMgkkitEdlTb;Tl;nwgkMlaMgGnuvtþcMeBaHGgÁFatumYy
EdlenAnwgfál;elIépÞRKat eBlEdlGgÁFatuminpøas;TI.
Linear accelerator (Linac)
A type of particle accelerator in which charged
Gak;eselra:T½rlIenEG‘ (lINak;)
particles are accelerated in a straight line by
means of radio-frequency electric fields. The
PaKl¥ti EdleKBenøOneGaypøas;TItambnÞat;Rtg; edayeRbI
passage of the particles is synchronised with the EdlGKÁIsnImaneRbkg;dUcviTüú. karqøgkat;rbs;PaKl¥ti
oscillating electric field in such a way that the
charged particle being accelerated always KWRsbeBlCamYyKñaniglMeyalEdnGKÁIsnI edIm,IeGayPaK
experiences an accelerating force from the field.
l¥itmanbnÞúkbeBa©jkMlaMgsÞúHecjBIEdn.
Linear equation
An equation between two variables that gives a
smIkarlIenEG‘
straight line when the value of one variable is
plotted against the value of the other. It has the
smIkarrvagGefrBIrEdlbegáIt)anCasmIkarbnÞat;Rtg; enA
general form y = mx + b, where x and y are the eBlEdltMélénGefrmYyQmnwgGefrmYyeTot. CaTUeTA vamanTMrg; y=
variable quantities, m is the gradient of the line
and b is the intercept of the line on the y-axis. mx + b Edl x nig y CabrimaNGefr mCa

Rkadüg;¬emKuNR)ab;Tis¦rbs;bnÞat; ehIybCacMncu Edl

bnÞat;kat;elIG½kS y .
Linear expansivity
See expansivity
emKuNrIkbeNþay
emIl expansivity
Linear motor
A form of induction motor in which the stator
m:UT½rlIenEG‘
and armature are linear and parallel, rather than
cylindrical and coaxial.
TMrg;mT:U ½rGaMgDucsüúg EdlkëúgenaHsþaT½r nig Gama:T½rlIenEG‘ nwgKëa
ehIyRsbKña vagayRsYlCagsIuLaMg nig G½kSrYmKña.
Lines of force
Imaginary lines in a *field of force that enable
ExSkMlaMg
the direction and strength of the field to be
visualised
ExSnimµitkñgú EdnkMlaMgmYy EdlGaceGayeKdwgBITisedA nig
GaMgtg;sIuetrbs;EdnenAkñúgKMnti .
Line spectrum
See spectrum
s,úicsés
emIl spectrum
 128

Liquefaction
The conversion of a gaseous substance into a
karBRgav
liquid by compressing the gas, provided that the
gas is below its critical temperature. Above its
karbMElgsarFatu]sµ½neGayeTACaGgÁFaturav edayeFIV bENÑn]sµ½n
critical temperature the gas cannot be liquefied eFIVya:gNaeGay]sµn½ fitenAeRkamsItuNð PaBkMrwtrbs;va.
however great the pressure.
xagelIsItuNðkMrwt ]sµ½nminGaceGayeK BRgav)aneT
eTaHbIsMBaFFMke¾ day.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Various petroleum gases, principally propane
BRgav]sµ½neRbgkat
and butane, stored as a liquid under pressure. It
is used as an engine fuel and has the advantage
]sµn½ eRbkatepSg² CaTUeTACaRbU)a::n nig b:uytan vakøay
of causing very little cylinder head deposits. CaGgÁFaturaveRkamsMBaFmYy. eKeRbIvaCa\nÞn³sMrab;ma:suIn
ehIyGacpþl;plb:HBal;bnicþ bnÞÜcdl;k,alsIuLaMg.
Liquid
A phase of matter between that of a solid or a
GgÁFaturav
gas. In a liquid, that large-scale structure of the
solid is absent, but so is the total
CadMNak;kalénrUbFatuEdlenAcenøaHGgÁFaturwg nig ]sµ½n. kñúgGgÁFaturav
disorganization of the gas. TMrg;rbs;GgÁFaturwgRtUv)at;bg; EtvaRcbUk Rcbl;CamYy]sµn½ .
Liquid crystal display
A digital display unit used in watches,
eGRkg;RkamGgÁFaturav
calculators, etc. eGRkg;DICÍflEdleKeRbIenAkñgú naLikar ma:sIunKitelx.l.
Liquid-drop model
A model of the atomic nucleus which the
KMrUtMnk;GgÁFaturav
nucleons are regarded as being analogous to the
molecules in a liquid, the interactions between
KMrUéNVy:UGatUm EdlnuyekøGugRtUv)aneKcat;Tku fadUcKñaeTA
which maintain the droplet shape by surface nwgm:UelKulkñúgGgÁFaturav GnþrkmµrkSarvagtMnk;tUc²eday sartMnwgépÞ.
tension. The model enables the energy levels of
the excited states of a nucleus to be determined. KMrUGaceFIVeGayeKkMnt;nvI :UfamBlénsNßanrM ejacrbs;éNVy):U an.
Lissajous figures
A curve in one plane traced by a point moving
rUblIsaCU
under the influence of two independent simple
harmonic motions
ExSekagkñúgbøgm; YyEdlKUsedaycMncu mYy pøas;TIeRkam
\Ti§BlénclnaGam:UnicBIrEdlminGaRs½yKña.
Lloyd’s mirror
An optical arrangement for producing
kBa©k;Ly
interference fringes. A slit is illuminated by
monochromatic light and placed close to a
karerobcM]bkrN_GubTicsMrab;begáItRbg;GaMgETepr:g.;
plane mirror. Interference occurs between direct cenøaHBIrlkmYyeTArlkmYyRtUv)anbMPøWedayBnøWmN :U URkUma: Tic nig
light from the slit and light reflected from the
mirror. dak;eTACitkBa©kb; øg.; GaMgETepr:g;ekIt elIgcenøaH TisBnøBW IcenøaHrlk
ehIyBnøWcaMgpøatBIkBa©km; kvij.
Local oscillator
An oscillator in a heterodyne radio receiver. It
lMeyalLÚkal;
supplies the radio-frequency signal that beats
with the incoming signal to produce the
lMeyalkñgú eRKOgTTYleGETr:UDInviTüúú. vapþl;sIuBaa:Øl;eRbkg;vi
intermediate signal. TüúEdledIrCamYysIBu aaØ:l;clU edIm,IbegáIt)anCasIuBaaØ:l;mFüm.
Locus
A set of points whose location is specified by
sMnMucMnuc
an equation. For example, if a point moves so
that the sum of its distances from two fixed
sMnMucMnucEdlTItaMgvabBa¢ak;edaysmIkar. ]TahrN_ ebIcnM cu mYypøas;TI
points is constant, the locus of the point is an dUcenHplbUkcMgayrbs;vaBIcMnucnwgBIr mantMélefr
*ellipse.
eBlenaHsMnMuéncMncu enaHmanragCaeGlIb.
 129

Logarithm
The power to which a number, called the base,
LÚkarIt
has to be raised to give another number. For
example, if y = 10n, n is then the logarithm to
sV½yKuNéncMnYnNamYyehAfaeKal ekIn)ancMnYnmYyeTot. ]TahrN_ ebI
the base 10 of y, i.e. n = log10y. In this case, if n y  10 eBlenaHnKWCaLÚkarIteKal!0én y, i.e. n  log y. kñg
n
10 ú krNIenH
= 3, then y = 1000  log101000 = 3. If the
base is 10, the logarithms are called common ebI n  3 eBlenaH y  10  1000  log 1000 = 3. ebIeKalesIµ !0
3
10
logarithms. Natural logarithms are to the base e
= 2.718. A logarithm contains two parts, an
LÚkarItenHehA faLÚkarItFmµta. rIÉLÚkarItFmµCatimaneKal e  2.718.
integer and a decimal. The integer is called the
characteristic, and the decimal is called the
LÚkarItmanBIrEpñkKW EpñkKt; nig EpñkTsS PaK. EpñkKt; ehAfakara:kE; T
mantissa. For example, the logarithm to the ehIyEpñkTsSPaKehAma:nTIsa. ]TahrN_
base 10 of 210 is 2.3222, where 2 is the
characteristic and 0.3222 is the mantissa. LÚkarIteKal!0én@!0KW@>#@@@ Edl@Cakara:k; ET
ehIy0>#@@@Cama:nTIsa.
Logarithmic scale
1. A scale of measurement in which an increase
maRtdæanLÚkarIt
of one unit represents a tenfold increase in the
quantity measured. The decibel measure of
!> maRtdæanEdlkñúgenaHkMenInmYyxañttageGaykMenIndb;
sound intensity is an example of a logarithmic EpñkbrimaNrgVas;. rgVas;edsIEu blrbs;GaMgtg;sueI tsMelg
scale of measurement. 2. A scale on the axis of
a graph in which an increase of one unit KWCa]TahrN_énmaRtdæanLÚkarIténrgVas;. @> maRtdæan
represents a tenfold increase in the variable
quantity. For example if a function y = x n is EdlRkwtenAelIG½kSrbs;Rkab EdlkñúgenaHkMenInmYyxñat
plotted on graph paper with logarithmic scales
on both axes, the result is a straight line of slope
tageGaykMenIndb;PaKénbrimaNGefr. ]TahrN_ebI GnuKmn_ y  x n

n. i.e. logy = nlogx, which enables n to be RtUv)aneKdak;tagenAelIRkabEdlmanmaRt dæanLÚkarItelIG½kSTaMgBIr

determined.
eBlenaHeK)anRkabCabnÞat;Rtg; manemKuNR)ab;Tisn mann½yfa logy
 nlogx, EdlGac eGayeKkMnt;n)an.
Logarithmic series
The expansion of a logarithmic function, such
es‘rILÚkarIt
as loge(1 + x) into a power series: loge(1 + x) =
x – x2/2 + x3/3 - x4/4 + …
karBnøatGnuKmn_LÚkarIt dUcCa log (1 + x) eGayeTACa es‘rsI ½yV KuN
e

log (1  x)  x – x /2 + x /3 – x /4 + ….
e
2 3 4

Logic circuits
The basic switching circuits or gates used in
esoKVILÚsiuc
digital computers. The output signal, expressed
in binary notation, is controlled by the logic
esoKVIkugtak; b¤ ehátEdleKeRbIenAkñúgkMBu üÚT½rDICIfl. sIu BaaØ:l;ecj
circuit in accordance with the input signal. The eGayplCasBaaØNTIVPaK EdlCasIuBaa:ØlR; tYt
three basic logic circuits are the and, or, and not
circuits. BInitüedayesoKVILÚsiucEdlGaRs½yeTAnwgsIBu aa:Ølc; Ul.
esoKVILÚsiucmaneKalbIKW and, or nig not.
Longitude
See latitude and longitude.
ry³beNþay
emIl latitude and longitude
Longitudinal wave
See wave.
rlkbeNþay
emIl wave
Long-sightedness
See hypermetropia.
emIleXIjq¶ay
emIl hypermetropia
 130

Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction
The contraction of a moving body in the
PaBrYjLÚr:g;-hVIúthÁra:l;
direction of its motion. It was proposed to
explain the null result of the Michelson-Morley
PaBrYmrbs;GgÁFatukMBugpøas;TItamTisedAclnarbs;va. va
experiment. The contraction was given a CasMenIredÍm,IBnül;lT§plsUnüénkarBiesaFn_ Michelson-Morley.
theoretical explanation in Einstein’s special
theory of relativity. In this theory, an object of PaBrYjGaceGayeKBnül;RTwseIþ Fobrbs;GaMg sþaj. kñúgRTwsþeI nH
length l0 at rest in one frame of reference will
appear, to another observer in another frame vtßúmanRbEvgl enAnwgfál;kñúgtMruymYy
0

moving with speed v relative to the first, to eFobeTAnwgGñksegátkñúgtMruymYyeTotpøas;TIedayel,Ón v

have a length l0 1  v 2 / c 2 , where c is the
v2
speed of light. eFobtMryu TImYy manRbEvg l 0 1 Edlc Cael,Ón Bnø.W
c2
Lorenz transformations
A set of equations for transforming the position
bMElgLÚr:g;
and motion parameters from a frame of
reference with origin at O and coordinates
kenSamsmIkarsMrab;bMElgTItaMg nig )a:ra:Em:tclnaBItMruy
(x,y,z) to a frame moving relative to it with mYyEdlmanKl; OmankUG½redaen (x,y,z)eTAtMruymYyeTot
origin at O’ and coordinates at (x’,y’,z’). They
replace the Galilean transformations used in pøas;TIeFobnwgva ehIymanKl; O' nigkUG½redaen (x', y', z' )
Newtonian mechanics and are used in
relativistic mechanics. They are: eKCMnYsbMElgháalIel EdleRbIkñúgemkanicjÚtun nig eRbI
x’= (x – vt) kñúgemkaniceFob. eK)an ³
y’ = y
x'= (x – vt)
z’= z
y' = y
t’= (t - vx/c2), z'= z
where v is the relative velocity (in the x- t'= (t - vx/c2),
direction) between O and O’, c is the speed of
light, and  = 1/ 1  v2 / c2
Edl v CaviucT½rel,ÓneFob¬tamTisedA x¦ rvag O nig O' cCael,ÓnBnøW
ehIy   1 .
v2
1
c2
Loudness
The sensation of sound intensity experienced by
PaBB¤xøaMg
the ear. For a given intensity the loudness
depends on the frequency of the sound.
kardwgénGaMgtg;sueI tsMelgEdlTTYl)anedayRtecok. cM
eBaHGaMgtg;sIuetEdlTTYl)an PaBB¤xøaMgGaRs½yelIeRbkg;
sMelg.
Loudspeaker
A transducer for converting an electrical signal
Rbdab;bMBgsMelg ¬GU)a:l½r¦
into an acoustic signal. The loudspeaker
consists of a moving coil device. In this a
]bkrN_sMrab;bMElgsIuBaØa:l;GKÁsI nIeTACasIBu aØa:l;sMelg.
conical diaphragm is attached to a coil and is këúgRbdab;bMBgsMelgman]bkrN_bUbn‘Í cl½t. düaR'amrag
made to vibrate in accordance with the
electrical signal by the interaction between the ekanP¢ab;eTAnwgbUb‘Ín ehIyvamanlMj½reTAtamsIuBaØal;GKIÀ
current passing through the coil and a steady
magnetic field provided by a permanent magnet snIedaysarGnþrkmµrvagcrnþqøgkat;bUb‘Ín nigEdnma:ejTic
surrounding the coil. Cab;'anmkBIemEdkGcièRnþB½T§C¿uvéjbUb‘nÍ .
Low frequency (LF)
A radio frequency in the range 30-300
eRbkg;Tab (LF)
kilohertz; i.e. having a wavelength in the range
1-10 kilometre.
eRbkg;TabCaeRbkg;vTi üúkñúgkMrtw #0-"00KWLÙEG‘k mann½y fa
manCMhanrlkkñúgkMrwt !-!0 KILÚEm:Rt.
 131

Lubrication
The use of a substance, such as oil, to prevent
eRbgrMGil
contact between surfaces in relative motion in
order to reduce friction.
sarFatudUcCaeRbg EdleKeRbIedIm,IkarBarkarb:HrvagépÞ
xagkñgú ]bkrN_ma:sIun edIm,Ikat;bnßykarkkit.
Lumen (Symbol lm)
The SI unit of luminous flux equal to the flux
luym:g; (nimitþsBaaØ lm)
emitted by a point source of 1 candela in a solid
radian of 1 steradian.
xñat S.I rbs;Pøcú BnøW vaesInµ wgPøúcEdlbeBa©jedaycMnucRb
PBmanGaMgtg;seIu t!kg;dWLacUleTAkñúgmMuslU It!esþra:düg; .
Luminescence
The emission of light by a substance for any
luymIensg;
reason other than a rise in its temperature. In
general, atoms of substances emit *photons of
karbeBa©jBnøeW dayKµankMedA. CaTUeTAGatUmrbs;sarFatu
electromagnetic energy when they return to the beBa©jpUtugmanfamBleGLicRtUma:ejTic eBlEdlvaRt
*ground state, (i.e. state of lowest possible
energy), after having been in an excited state. lb;eTAkan;sNßanRKwH¬sNßanfamBlTabbMptu ¦ eRkay
mkeTAkan;sNßanejacvíj.
Luminosity
*Luminous intensity; the apparent brightness of
kMrwtBnøW
an image. 2. The brightness of a star defined as
the total energy radiated in unit time. The
!> GaMgtg;sIuetBnøWEdlekIteLIgedayPaBPøTW Mngrbs;rUbPaB. @>
Stefan-Boltzman law for a black-body defines PaBPørW bs;paá ykMnt;edayfamBlsrubEdlPaykñgú mYy xñateBl.
the luminosity L, giving
L = AT4, where  is the Stefan constant, A c,ab;esþpan-bulEmncMeBaHGgÁFatuexµAkMnt;eday kMrtw BnøW L Edl L 
the surface area of the star and T its AT EdlCaefresþpan ACaRkla épÞrbs;paá y
4
thermodynamic temperature.
ehIyTCasItuNðPaBETm:DU INamicrbs;va.
Luminous intensity (Symbol I)
A measure of the light-emitting ability of a light
GaMgtg;sIuetBnøW (nimitþsBaØa I)
source, measured in candelas. rgVas;BnøEW dlbeBa©jedayRbPBPøW manxñatCakg;dWLa.
Lunar eclipse
See eclipse
c½nÞRKas
emIl eclipse
Lyman series
See hydrogen spectrum.
es‘rIlIEmn
emIl hydrogen spectrum
M

Machine
A device able to make the performance of
ma:sIun
mechanical work easier. A machine enables an
effort to do work on a load, usually by applying
]bkrN_EdlGacbegIátkmµneþ mkanic)anya:ggay. ma:snIu
a small force to lift a heavy load. The six simple GaceGaykMlaMgclkreFIVkmµnþelIbnÞkú CaTUeTAeKbeBa©jkM
machines are the* lever, the wedge, the inclined
plane, the screw, the pulley, and wheel and axle laMgtUcedIm,IelIkbnÞúkF¶n;. ma:sIungayTaMg^KW Xñas;/ esñot/ bøg;eT/
(gearbox).
dUy/ r:k/ nig kg;ruj ¬sMnMus<W¦.
Mach number
The ratio of the speed of a body in a medium to
cMnYnma:c
the speed of sound in the same medium. The
speed of sound is called mach 1. If the speed of
cMnYnma:cCapleFobénel,Ónrbs;GgÁFatukgñú mCÄdæaneTAnwg
a body is greater than mach 1 it is said to be el,ÓnsMelgkñgú mCÄdæandUcKña. el,ÓnsMelgehAfa!ma:c
supersonic.
ebIel,Ónrbs;GgÁFatuFMCag!ma:c eKfavaelOnCagsMelg.
 132

MacLaurin’s series
The infinite power series of derivatives into
es‘rIma:k;LÚrIn
which a function can be expanded: f(x) = f(0) +
xf’(0) + x2/2!f’’(0) + x3/3!f’’’(0) + … es‘reI drIevEdlmansVy½ KuNminkMnt;RtUv'aneKBnøatCa 
f(x)  f(0) + xf '(0) + x2/2!f ''(0) + x3/3!f '''(0) + ...
Magellanic clouds
Two small galaxies situated close to our galaxy
BBkma:eKLanic
(the Milky Way) that are only visible from the
southern hemisphere.
háaLak;sIutUcBIrEdlmanTItaMgenACitháaLak;seIu yIg¬mIlKI ev¦
EdlGacemIleXIjEtRtg;BIknøHEsV‘b:UlxageCIgb:ueNÑaH.
Magic numbers
Numbers of neutrons or protons that occur in
cMnYnma:hÁic
atomic nuclei to produce very stable structures.
The relationship between magic numbers and
cMnYnNWRtug b¤ RbUtugEdlekItmanenAkñúgéNVy:UGatUm edim,I
nuclear stability led to the nuclear shell model, eFIVeGaysm<½nm§ anlMnwgs‘b;l¥. TMnak;TMngrvagcMnYnma:hÀci
analogous to the electron shell model of the
atom. niglMnwgs‘b;nuyekøEG‘naMeGayeKGackMnt;RsTab;KMrUrbs; nuyekøEG‘
dUcKñaeTAnwgRsTab;KMrrU bs;eGLicRtugénGatUm.
Magnet
A piece of magnetic material that has been
emEdk
magnetized and is therefore surrounded by a
magnetic field. A magnet that retains its
bMEnkénsarFatuma:ejTicEdlmanlkçN³ma:ejTic ehtudUc
magnetism indefinitely is called a permanent enHehIyeTIbenAC¿uvijvamanEdnma:ejTic. emEdkEdlrkSa
magnet.
lkçN³ma:ejTicrbs;vaehAfaemEdkGciéRnþ.
Magnetic bottle
A non-uniform magnetic field used to contain
dbma:ejTic
the plasma in a thermonuclear experimental
device. In a magnetic bottle the charged
Ednma:ejTicminÉksNßanEdleKeRbIedIm,IpÞúkpøasµaenAkñgú
particles are constrained by magnetic forces to ETm:nU yu ekøEG‘.këgú dbma:ejTic PaKl¥ti manbnÛúkRtUv'anTb;
move along the magnetic field lines. In such a
way that the plasma does not come into contact edaykMlaMgma:ejTiceGaypøas;TItambeNþaybnÞat;Ednma: ejTic.
with the walls of the container.
kñúgkrNIdUcenHpøasµamineTAb:HCamYyCBa¢aMgdbeT.
Magnetic circuit
A closed path containing a *magnetic flux, for
esoKIVma:ejTic
example a transformer core. ExSbiTEdlmanPøúcma:ejTicenAkñúgenaH. ]TahrN_dUcCa
sñÚlRtg;srV½ ma:T½rCaedIm.
Magnetic compass
See compass.
m¢úlma:ejTic
emIl compass
Magnetic constant
See permeability.
efrma:ejTic
emIl permeability
Magnetic declination
See geomagnetism.
edKøIensugma:ejTic
emIl geomagnetism
Magnetic dip
See geomagnetism.
DIbma:ejTic
emIl geomagnetism
 133

Magnetic disc (hard disc)

An aluminium disc, usually 35.6 cm in diameter
fasma:ejTic ¬hadDIs¦
coated with magnetic iron oxide. The discs are
used as a recording medium in computers.
fasGaluymIjÚ:m CaTUeTAmanGgát;p©it35.6cmeRsabeday
GuksItu Edkma:ejTic. fasenHRtUv)aneKeRbICamCÄdæansM rab;ftTukÉksar
nig kmµviFIkñúgkMBu üÚT½r.
Magnetic domain
See magnetism.
tMbn;ma:ejTic
emIl magnetism
Magnetic field
A field of force that exists around a magnetic
Ednma:ejTic
body or an electric current. Within a magnetic
field a moving charge may experience a force,
EdnénkMlaMgEdlmanenAC¿uvji GgÁÁFatuma:ejTic b¤ C¿uvji crnþ GKÁIsnI.
and a magnetic dipole may experience a torque. enAkñúgEdnma:ejTic bMlas;TIbnÞúkGacbeBa©jkM laMg
The strength and direction of the field can be
given in terms of the magnetic flux density (or ehIyDIbl:U ma:ejTicGacbeBa©jm:mU :g;. GaMgtg;seIu t nig
magnetic induction), symbol B, unit the tesla. It
can also be given in terms of the magnetic field TisedArbs;EdnGackMnt;CaGnuKmn_éndg;sueI tPøúcma:ej Tic ¬b¤
strength (magnetising force or magnetic
intensity), symbol H. The magnetic flux
GaMgDucsüúgma:ejTic¦nimitþsBaØa B manxñatKitCaet søa.
density is a vector quantity and is the magnetic vak¾GacsMEdgCaGnuKmn_énGaMgtg;sIuetEdnma:ejTic ¬kMlaMgma:ejTic
flux per unit area of a magnetic field in a
direction at right angles to the magnetic force. It b¤GaMgtg;sIuetma:ejTic¦nimitþsBaØa Hpg Edr.
can be defined in terms of the effect the field
has on a moving charge: F = qvBsin, where F
dg;sueI tPøúcma:ejTicKWCabrimaNviucT½r ehIyesIµnwg
is the magnetic force and  is the angle Pøúcma:ejTickñúgmYyxñatépÞénEdnma:ejTictamTisedAEkg
between the velocity vector and the magnetic
induction vector. eTAnwgkMlaMgma:ejTic. vaGackMnt;CaGnuKmn_énplEdn
The magnetic field strength is also a vector and
EdlmanelIbnÞkú pøas;TI : F  qvBsin, Edl FCakMlaMg ma:ejTic
is related to B by: H = B/, where  is the
*permeability of the medium. ehIyCamMru vagvicu T½rel,Ón nig viucT½rGaMgDuc süúgma:ejTic.
GaMgtg;sIuetEdnk¾CaviucT½rEdr ehIymanTM nak;TMngeTAnwgBtamrUbmnþ H =
B/, Edl KWCaCMrabén mCÄdæan.
Magnetic field strength
See magnetism.
GaMgtg;sIuetEdnma:ejTic
emIl magnetism
Magnetic flux (Symbol  Pøúcma:ejTic (nimitþsBaaØ 
The magnetic flux  passing through an area is
equal to the total number of magnetic field lines Pøúcma:ejTicqøgkat;épÞ esInµ wgcMnnY ExSEdnma:ejTicsrub qøgkat;épÞenaH.
passing through the area. The flux is given by:
 = BA. The unit of magnetic flux is the
Pøúcma:ejTiceGayedayrUbmnþ BA. xëatrbs;PøúcKitCaevEb‘r.
weber.
Magnetic flux density
See magnetic field.
dg;sIuetPøúcma:ejTic
emIl magnetic field
Magnetic force
The force exerted on a magnetic pole or moving
kMlaMgma:ejTic
electric charge in an electric field. kMlaMgEdlbeBa©jelIb:lU ma:ejTic b¤ bnÞkú GKÁIsnIpaø s;TIkñúg EdnGKÁsI nI.
Magnetic induction
See magnetic field.
GaMgDucsüúgma:ejTic
emIl magnetic field
 134

Magnetic intensity
See magnetic field.
GaMgtg;sIuetma:ejTic
emIl magnetic field
Magnetic meridian
See meridian.
ExSbeNþayma:ejTic
emIl meridian
Magnetic mirror
A device used to contain *plasma in
kBa©k;ma:ejTic
thermonuclear experimental devices. ]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,IeGaymanpøasµakëúgETm:Unyu ekøEG‘.
Magnetic moment
m:Um:g;ma:ejTic
The ratio between the maximum torque ( max)
exerted on a magnet situated in a magnetic field pleFobrvagkMlaMgbgVli Gtibrma ( ) EdlbeBa©jelI
max
and the strength of that magnetic field. This
quantity is max /B or max /H.
emEdkdak;kñúgEdnma:ejTiceTAnwgGaMgtg;sIueténEdnma:ej TicenaH.
brimaNenHKW  / B b¤  / H.
max max

Magnetic monopole
A hypothetical quantity consisting of an
m:UNUb:Ulma:ejTic
isolated north or south pole, whose existence
was postulated by P.A.M. Dirac.
ma:ejTicEdlmanb:UlEtmYy b:lU eCIg b¤ b:lU t,Úg Edlman sV½ys½teday
DIra:k; (P.A.M. Dirac) .
Magnetic permeability
See permeability
CMrabma:ejTic
emIl permeability
Magnetic poles
The regions of a magnet from which magnetic
b:Ulma:ejTic
field lines appear to originate. A bar-magnet
has magnetic poles at either end. A magnet
tMbn;ma:ejTicEdlekItmanbnÞat;Ednma:ejTic. r)aemEdk
suspended freely in the earth’s magnetic field manb:Ulma:ejTicRtg;cugTaMgsgxagrbs;va. ebIeKBüÜrem
aligns itself with the magnetic field. The end of
the magnet that points north is called the north EdkkñúgEdnma:ejTicEpndIvanwgrt;tMrg;tamTisEdnma:ejTic EpndI.
pole of the magnet.
xagcugemEdkEdlcg¥úleTATiseCIg ehAfab:lU eCIgrbs;emEdk.
Magnetic potential
See magnetomotive force.
b:Utg;Esülma:ejTic
emIl magnetomotive force
Magnetic quantum number
See atom.
cMnYnkgTicma:ejTic
emIl atom
Magnetic susceptibility
See susceptibility.
kMrwtTTYlma:ejTic
emIl susceptibility
Magnetic tape
A plastic tape coated with a ferromagnetic iron
k,alEttma:ejTic
oxide powder used for recording data in tape
recorders and computers.
k,alpøasÞicEdleRsabedayemSAEdkGuksItu EhVrUm: a:ejTic.
eKeRbIvasMrab;ftTinñny½ kñúgma:ej nig kMuBüÚTr½ .
 135

Magnetism
A group of phenomena associated with
ma:ejTic
magnetic fields. Whenever an electric current
flows a magnetic field is produced. Also,
)atuPUtEdlekItelIgedayEdnma:ejTic. eBlEdlmancrnþ
because the orbital motion and the spin of GKÁIsnIpaø s;TIeFIVeGayekItmanEdnma:ejTic. edayclna G½rb‘tÍ nig
atomic electrons are equivalent to tiny current
loops, individual atoms create magnetic fields s<inrbs;eGLicRtugdUcKñanwgcrnþvg;tUc dUcenHGa
around them.
There are four main types of magnetic tUmnimYy²k¾begáIteGaymanEdnma:ejTicC¿uvijvaEdr.
behaviour:
(a) In diamagnetism the magnetisation is in the
lkçN³ma:ejTicsMxan;manbYnRbePTKI ³(a) kñúgdüama:ejTic
opposite direction to that of the applied Ednma:ejTicekItmanTisedApÞúyeTAnwgEdnma:ejTicEdlGnu vtþn_mkelIva
magnetic field, i.e. the susceptibility is
negative, and is also very weak, and the relative mann½yfakMrwtma:ejTicmantMélGviC¢man nig exSayCaTIbMput
permeability is slightly less than one.
Diamagnetism results from changes induced in ehIyC¿rabma:ejTiceFobmantMéltUcCag mYybnþic.
the orbital motion of electrons of a substance
caused by the applied magnetic field, the
düama:ejTic'anmkBIbMErbMrlY clnaG½rb‘Ítrbs;
direction of the change, (in accord with Lenz’s
law), opposing the applied flux.
eGLicRtugEdlrgGMeBIBIEdnma:ejTicxageRkA. TisedAbMEr bMrlY
(b) In paramagnetism the atoms of the ¬tamc,ab;Lin¦pÞúyeTAnwgTisedAPøúc.
substance have net orbital or spin magnetic
moments that can be aligned in the applied (b) kñúg)a:ra:ma:ejTic GatUmrbs;sarFatumanm:m U :g;G½rb‘Ítsrub
magnetic field. They therefore have a positive
(but small) susceptibility and a relative
b¤m:Umg: ;s<Inma:ejTicmanTisedARsbnwgEdnma:ejTiceRkA.
permeability slightly greater than one.
Paramagnetism occurs in all atoms with
dUcenHehIyeTIbkMrwtma:ejTicmantMélviCm¢ an¬EttUc¦ ehIy
unpaired electrons. C¿rabma:ejTiceFobmantMélFMCagmYybnþic. )a:ra:ma:ejTic
(c) In ferromagnetic substances magnetised
regions called domains exist each of which ekItmanenAkñgú GatUmEdlmaneGLicRtugess.
(c) kñg ú sarFatuEh‘rV m:U a:ejTic tMbn;manma:ejTicehAfadU emn
has its own magnetic moment. These are
normally randomly oriented, but when a
magnetic field is applied, the domains become
aligned, resulting in strong magnetisation of the
kñúgtMbn;enHmanm:Um:gm; a:ejTicpÞal;rbs;va. CaFmµta
substance. Below a critical temperature, called m:Umg: m; a:ejTicTaMgenHenARcbUkRcbl;KµansNþab;Fñab; Et
the Curie temperature, the domains remain
aligned, giving rise to permanent magnetism. eBlmanEdnma:ejTiceRkAGnuvtþmkelIva eFIVeGaydUEmn
Above the Curie temperature, thermal
vibrations of the crystal lattice knock the rt;tamCYrmansNþab;Fñab; eFIeV GaysarFatuenaHmankMlaMg ma:ejTicxøaMg.
domains back into randomness, and the
substance becomes paramagnetic.
eRkamsItuNPð aBkMrwt ehAfasItuNPð aBKuyrI
Rtg;sItuNPð aBenHdUEmnenAEtmansNþab;Fñab;dEdl eFIV
eGayvakøayCaemEdkGciéRnþ. xagelIsItN u ðPaBKuyrI
lMj½rkMedAénbNþajRKIsþal;eFIVeGaydUemnRtlb;eTACaKµan sNþab;Fñab;
ehIyk¾køayeTACasarFatu)a:ra:ma:ejTic.
Magneto
An alternating-current generator used as a high-
ma:ejtU
tension voltage source in petrol engines in
which there are no batteries.
Cnitacrnþqøas;EdleKeRbICaRbPBsMrab;bMElgtg;süúgeGay x<s;
vamanenAkñúgma:sIuneRbgEdlKµanGaKuy.
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
The study of the interactions between a
ma:ejtUGIuRdUDINamic
conducting fluid and a magnetic field. karsikSaBIGnþrkmµrvagGgÁÁFatucMlgrav nig Ednma:ejTic.
 136

Magnetometer
An instrument for measuring the magnitude
ma:ejtUEm:t
(and sometimes direction) of a magnetic field. ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;mD:U ul¬ehICYnkalvas;TaMgTisedA¦ rbs; Ednma:ejTic.
Magnetomotive force. m.m.f.
The analogue of electromotive force in a
kMlaMgma:ejTicclkr m.m.f
magnetic circuit. Mathematically, it is the line RsedogKñanwgkMlaMgGKÁIÁsnIclkrkñúgeso KVmI a:ejTicEdr. tamKNitviTüa
integral of Hcosds, where Hcos is the
component of the magnetic field strength in the vaCaGMagetRkalbnÞat;én Hcosds Edl Hcos
direction of a path element ds.
CakMbUs: g;rbs;GMagtg;seIu tEdnma:ejTictamTisedA rbs;Fatu ds .
Magneton
A unit for measuring magnetic moments of
ma:ejtug
nuclear, atomic or molecular magnets. xëatsMrab;vas;mm:U :gm; a:ejTicrbs;emEdknuyekøEG‘/ emEdkGa tUm b¤
emEdkm:eU lKul.
Magnetosphere
A comet-shaped region surrounding the earth in
EsV‘ma:ejtU
which the charged particles of the *solar wind
are controlled by the earth’s magnetic field
tMbn;manragÁdUcpááayduHknÞúyB½T§C¿uvijEpndI EdlkñúgenaH
rather than by the sun’s magnetic field. PaKl¥ti manbnÞúkrbs;xül;RBHGaTitü RtUv)anRKbdNþb;
edayEdnma:ejTicEpndI CaCagRKbdNþb;edayEdnma:ej TicRBHGaTitü.
Magnetostriction
The change in the length of a ferromagnetic
)atuPUtemEdk ¬bnSúeI mEdk¦
material when it is magnetised. It results from
changes in the boundaries of the magnetic
bMErbMrYlRbEvgrUbFatuEhVrUm: a:ejTic eBlvakøayeTACama: ejTic.
domains. vakøayeTACama:ejTicedaysabMErbMrlY Ednrbs;dU emnma:ejTic.
Magnetron
A microwave generator in which electrons,
ma:ejRtug
released from a heated cathode, move under the
influence of crossed electric and magnetic
CnitamIRkUrlkEdlmaneGLicRtugecjBIkatUdkMedA pøas;TI
fields. The electrons pass across a series of eRkam\TiBlEdnGKIsÁ nI nig Ednma:ejTickat;EkgKña. eG
quarter-wavelength resonators in which
microwave oscillations are generated by the LicRtugqøgkat;myY PaKbYnersUNg;C¿hanrlk Edlkñgú enaH
passing electrons.
manlMeyalmIRkUrlkekIteLIgedayeGLicRtugqøgkat;.
Magnification
A measure of the extent to which an optical
karrIk
system enlarges the image of an object. The
linear magnification is the ratio of the image
karBRgIkrUbPaBrbs;vtßúedayRbB½n§GubTic. karrIkRbEvg
height to the object height. KWCapleFobénkMBs;rUbPaBeTAnwgkMBs;vtß.ú
Magnitude
A word used in physics to denote size. A
m:UDul
measure of the relative brightness of a star. The
apparent magnitude depends on the star’s
BaküEdleKeRbIkúñgrUbviTüaedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIvmi aRt. rgVas;BnøW eFobrbs;paá y.
*luminosity, its distance from the earth and the m:UDulTMngGaRs½yelIGaMgtg;sIuetBnøW rbs;páay / cMgayrbs;vaBIEpndI nig
absorption of starlight between the star and the
earth. A difference of five magnitudes sMrUbBnøWrvagpáay nwgEpndI. plsgénm:DulesIµR)aMGaRs½yeTAnwgpleFob
corresponds to a brightness ratio of 100:1. Two
stars that differ by one magnitude therefore BnøW 100:1. páayBIrEdlxusKñamYym:DU ul manpleFobBnøW (100) = 0.2

have a brightness ratio of (100)0.2 = 2.512. 2.512. m:D U uldac;xatrbs;páayesIµnwgBnøWTMng ebIvazitenAcMgay 100
The absolute magnitude of a star is the apparent
brightness the star would have if it was situated )a:sicu .
at a standard distance of 100 *parsecs.
 137

Mainframe computer
See computer
emnb‘tkMBüÚT½r
emIl computer
Main-sequence stars
See Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.
páayemnsikg;
emIl Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Majority carrier
See semiconductor
karpÞúkcMnYneRcIn
emIl semiconductor
Manometer
A device for measuring pressure differences,
ma:NUEm:t
usually by the height differences between two
liquid columns within a glass U-tube.
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;plsgsMBaF CaTUeTAvas;plsgkMBs;
rvagsrsrGgÁÁFaturavBIrenAkñgú bMBg;EkvragÁ U.
Mantissa
See logarithm
ma:nTIsa
emIl logarithm
Maser
(microwave amplification by stimulated
ma:Es‘
emission of radiation)
A device for amplifying or generating
]bkrN_sMrab;BRgIk b¤ begIÝtmIRkUrlkedayeRbILaEs‘.
microwaves by means of stimulated emission CaTUeTAeKeRbIenAkñúgviTüúyanGvkasedIm,IBRgIksIuBaaØ:l; exSayBIGakas.
(see laser), often used in radio astronomy to
amplify weak signals from space.
Mass
A measure of a body’s resistance to
ma:s
acceleration, a property possessed by every
massive body. According to Newton’s second
rgVas;énkarTb;rbs;GgÁÁFatueTAnwgsMTuH lkçN³enHmanRKb;
law, mass, acceleration and an applied force are GgÁFatuTaMgGs;. tamc,ab;TIBIrjÚtun ma:s sMTuHnwg kMlaMg eRkA
related by: F = ma.
Mass is also a measure of the gravitational manTMnak;TMngtam F  ma .
force between bodies. According to Newton’s
law of universal gravitation, the gravitational ma:sk¾kMnt;klM aMgTMnajrvagGgÁFatupgEdr. tamc,ab;TM
force between two bodies is given by: F =
GMm/d2, where G is the gravitational constant,
najsaklrbs;jtÚ un kMlaMgTMnajrvagGgÁFatuBIreGay edayrUbmnþ : F =
d is the distance between the two bodies and m GMm/d , EdlG CaefrTMnajsakl d Ca cMgayrvagGgÁFatuTaMgBIr
2

is the gravitational mass. Careful measurement

shows that inertial mass and gravitational mass ehIymma:s;TMnaj. sUmRby½tñ ma:sn; icl nig ma:sT; MnajKWCama:se; sIKµ añ
are equal, and the central theme of Einstein’s
general relativity theory is that the two masses ehIyGaMgsþaj kñgú emkaniceFobrbs;Kat;eBalfa ma:s;TaMgBIrenHsmmUl
are completely equivalent.
In general language mass and weight are often
Kña. CaTUeTAEtgEtmankarRclMrvagma:s nig TMgn;. ma:s
confused. Mass is determined by the amount of
matter in a body, but weight, which is the
kMnt;edaycMnYnrUbFatukúñgGgÁFatu b:Eu nþTMgn;vijKWCakMlaMg
gravitational force acting on a body, depends on TMnajEdlmanGMeBIelIGgÁFÁ atu GaRs½yelITItaMgEdlGgÁ FatusßitenA.
where the body is. At the surface of the earth,
the weight of a body is equal to its mass times Rtg;épÞEpndI TMgn;esInµ wgma:srbs;vaKuN nwgsMTuHTMnaj g rbs;va i.e. W =
mg.
its gravitational acceleration, g. i.e. W = mg.

Mass decrement
See mass defect.
tMhyma:s
emIl mass defect
 138

Mass Defect
The difference between the mass of an atomic
ma:sedhVwk
nucleus and the sum of the masses of its
constituent nucleons in the unbound state. The
plsgma:srvagma:srbs;éNVy:UGatUm nig plbUkma:snuy
defect exists because the potential energy of the ekøGugrbs;vakñúgPaBmincgsm<½n§. ma:s;edhVwkekItmaneday
bound nucleons is less than that of the unbound
nucleons, therefore, according to Einstein’ sarfamBlb:tU g;Esülrbs;sm<n½ §nyu ekøGugtUcCagfamBl
mass-energy equation, E = mc2, the total mass
of the bound nucleons is less than that of the rbs;nyu ekøGugEdlmincgsm<n½ § dUcenHtamsmIkarma:s-
unbound nucleons. famBlrbs;GaMgsþaj E  mc , ma:ssrubrbs;sm<½n§nyu ekø
2

GugtUcCagma:ssrubrbs;nuyekøGugmincgsm<½n.§
Mass-energy equation
See mass; relativity
smIkar ma:s-famBl
emIl mass; relativity
Mass number
See nucleon number.
cMnYnma:s
emIl nucleon number
Matrix
A set of numbers in a rectangular array, used in
ma:RTIs
certain mathematical operations. Unlike a
determinant, a matrix does not have a
sMnMucMnYnelxEdleKerobCalMdab;kgñú ctuekaNEkg eKeRbIva
quantitative value. kñúgRbmaNviFIKNitviTüa. vamindUcedETmINg;eT eRBaHma:
RTIsKµantMélbrimaN.
Maximum and minimum thermometer
A thermometer designed to record both the
ETm:UEmtGtibrmanigGbb,rma
maximum and minimum temperatures that have
occurred over a given time period.
ETm:EU m:tmanRkitTaMgtMélGtibrma nig Gbb,rma EdlekIt
manelIry³eBlmYyEdleKeGay.
Maxweell-Boltzmann distribution
A law describing the distribution of speeds
r)ayma:k;Evl-bulsµan
among the molecules of a gas. c,ab;Edlerobrab;BIr)ayénel,Ónm:eU lKul]sµ½n.
Maxwell’s equations
Four differential equations, here given in the
smIkarma:k;Evl
integral form, that describe mathematically all
the laws of electromagnetism involving electric
smIkarDIepr:gE; sülbYn enATIenHeGayCaTMrg;GaMgetRkal
and magnetic fields. The equations are: bBaa¢k;BIlkçN³KNitviTüarbs;c,ab;eGLicRtUma:ejTicTaMg Gs;
Q
 E.dA = encl (Gauss’s law)
o
EdlTak;TgeTAnwgEdnGKÁIsnI nig Ednma:ejTic. smIkarTaMgbYnenHKW ³
 E.dA =  (c,ab;háÚs)
Q
 B.dA = 0 (Gauss’s law for magnetism)
encl

o
d 
 B.dA = 0 (c,ab;háÚssMrab;ma:ejTic)

 B.dl =   I   dt  (Ampere/Maxwell
E
0 c 0

 d 
law)
 B.dl =   I   dt  (c,ab;GMEB nig ma:k;Evl)
E
0 c 0
d
 E.dl  - B (Faraday’s law)
d
 E.dl  - dt (c,ab;hVara:ed)
dt B
where Qencl is the charge enclosed by a
Gaussian surface, E is the electric field strength,
dA is the surface area of the Gaussian surface, Edl Q CabnÞkú kñúgépÞbiT¬épÞháÚs¦ ECaGaMgtg;sIuet EdnGKÁIsnI
encl

B is the magnetic induction, and the second dACaépÞrbs;épÞháÚs BCaGaMgDucsüúgma: ejTic

term in the third equation denotes Maxwell’s
displacement current, which defines the ehIyGgÁTIBIrkñúgsmIkarTIbIbBa¢ak;BIbMlas;TIcrnþ rbs;ma:k;Ev:l
magnetic induction arising from a changing
electric field. EdlkMnt;GaMgDucsüúgma:ejTicEdlekItBIbMEr bMrlY EdnGKÁsI nI.
 139

Mean
See average
mFüm
emIl average
Mean-free path
The average distance travelled between
KnøgesrImFüm
collisions by the molecules in a gas. According
to the *kinetic theory the mean free path of gas
cMgaymFümEdl)ancrrvagkarTgÁicedaym:eU lKulkñúg]sµn½
molecules between collisions of gas molecules tamRTisisþ IuenTic KnøgmFüménkarTgicÁ rbs;m:UelKul]sµ½n manGgát;p©it d
of diameter d is, 1/2nd2 where n is the
average number of molecules per unit volume KW 1/ 2nd Edl n CacMnYnmFümrbs;mU: elKulkñgú mYyxñatmaD]sµn½ .
2

nsmamaRteTAnwgsMBaFrbs; ]sµ½n
in the gas. As n is proportional to the pressure
of the gas, the mean free path is inversely
proportional to the pressure. ehIyKnøgesrImFümRcassmamaRteTAnwgsMBaF.
Mean free time
The average time between collisions of the
eBlesrImFüm
molecules in a gas. eBlmFümrvagkarTgÁci rbs;me:U lKulkñúg]sµ½n.
Mean life
See decay
CIvitmFüm
emIl decay
Mean solar day
See day
éf¶RBHGaTitümFüm
emIl day
Mechanical advantage
The ratio of the output force (load) of a
plemkanic
machine to the input force (effort). pleFobkMlaMgecj¬bnÞúk¦rbs;ma:snIu eTA nwgkMlaMgcUl ¬kMlaMgclkr¦.
Mechanical equivalent of heat (Symbol J)
The relation between mechanical energy and
kMedAsmmUlemkanic (nimµitsBaØa J)
thermal (heat) energy; really just a statement
that mechanical energy and thermal energy are
TMnak;TMngfamBlemkanic nig famBlkM edA. c,ab;eBalfa
simply different forms of energy. famBlemkanic nig famBlkMedACaTMrg;famBlBIrepSgKña.
Mechanics
The study of the interactions between matter
emkanic
and the forces acting on it. *Statics is the study
of the action of balanced forces, i.e. forces
karsikSaBIGnþrkmµrvagrUbFatu nig kMlaMgmanGMeBIelIva.
whose vector sum is zero, where no change of sþaTicsikSaBIGMeBIénkMlaMg EdleFIVeGayGgÁFatumanlMnwg mann½yfa
momentum occurs, while *dynamics is the
study of the action of unbalanced forces, where plbUkviucT½rkMlaMgmanGMeBIelIGgÁFatuesIsµ Unü
the vector sum of the forces is not zero, where
there is a change in the momentum of the body eBlenaHKµanbMErbMrYlbrimanclnaeT. DINamicsikSaBIkM
on which the forces act. Newton’s second law
gives the relation between the rate of change of
laMgEdleFIVeGayGgÁFatumanclna EdlplbUkkMlaMgman tMélxusBIsUnü
the momentum of a body acted on by eBlenaHmanbMErbMrYlbrimaNclnarbs; GgÁFatu. c,ab;TIBIrjÚtun
unbalanced forces whose resultant has a
magnitude Fres: p/t = Fres. eGayTMnak;TMngrvagbMErbMrlY bri
*Kinematics is the study of the motion of
bodies without reference to the forces affecting
maNclnarbs;GgÁÁFaturgGMeBIedaykMlaMgeRkA EdlCakM laMgpÁÜb
the motion. Fluid mechanics is the study of the
interaction between forces and fluids.
manm:DU ul F : p/t . sIuenTicsikSaBIclnarbs; GgÁFatu
res

edayminKitBIkMlaMgEdleFIVeGayGgÁFatumancl naeT.
emkanicsnÞnyI sikSaBIGnþrkmµrvagkMlaMg nig snÞnIy.
 140

Median
1. The middle value in a series of values. 2. A
emdüan
straight line in a triangle that joins the vertex to
the mid-point of the base.
!> tMèlkNþalrbs;tMèses‘rI. @> bnÛat;Rtg;kgëú RtIekaNmYy
EdlKUsecjBIkBM UleTAcMnuckNþalrbs;)atRtIekaN.
Medium frequency
A radio frequency in the range 0.3–3Mhz; i.e.
eRbkg;mFüm
having a wavelength in the range 100-1000
metres.
eRbkg;viTüúkñúgkMrtw 0.3–3Mhz mann½yfaCaeRbkg;manC¿ hanrlkrt;BI
100-1000m.
Mega- Symbol M
A prefix used in the metric system to denote
emhááa (nimtµi sBaaØ M)
one million times. e.g. 106 volts = 1 megavolt buBVbTEdleKeRbIkñúgRbB½n§maRt edIm,IbBaa¢k;mYylandg
(MV). ]TahrN_ 106 v:ul = 1 emháav:ul (MV).

Melting point
The temperature at which a solid turns into a
cMnucrMlay
liquid. sItuNPð aBRtg;cMnucEdlGgÁÁFaturwgkøayeTACaGgÁFaturav.
Meniscus
A concave or convex upper surface which
kMeNagépÞ
forms on a liquid in a tube as a result of
*surface tension.
épÞkMeNagelIgelI b¤ kMeNagcuHeRkam EdlmanenAelI
GgÁFaturavdak;kñúgepIg. kMeNagenHekItmanedaysartM nwgépÞ.
Mercury vapour lamp
A type of discharge tube in which a gas
cegááogcMhay)ar:t
discharge takes place in a mixture of mercury
vapour and argon . A small arc is struck
RbePTénbMBg;epÞrbnÞúk EdlkñúgenaH]sµ½nmanbnÞkú dak;
between a starter electrode and one of the main kñúgl,aycMhay)ar:t nig Gakug. eKdak;FñÚtcU mYycenøaH eGLicRtUtsþaT½r
electrodes causing local ionisation of some
argon atoms. The ionised atoms diffuse through nig eGLicRtUd eBlenaHeFIeV GayekItman
the tube enabling the primary discharge to be
set up. GIyu :ugkmµénGatUmGakugmYycMnYn. GIyu :ugGatUmsayqøg kat;bMBg;
naMeGayvaekItmanbenÞrbnÞúkdMbUg.
Meridian
See latitude and longitude
emrIdüan
emIl latitude and longitude
Meson
Any of a class of elementary particles that are a
emsug
subclass of the *hadrons. bMEnkPaKl¥itdMbUgmYyEdlGacbMEbkCaGaRdug.
Metal fatigue
A cumulative effect that causes a metal to fail
elah³exSay
after repeated applications of stress. plRtYtelIKañ EdleFIVeGayelah³exSay eRkayBIbENÑn elIKñaeRcIndg.
Metallurgy
The branch of engineering concerned with the
elahsüahkmµ
production of metals from their ores, the
purification of metals the manufacture of alloys,
EpñkénvisVkmµEdlTak;TgCamYypllitplelah³ecjBIEr: rbs;va.
and the use and performance of metals in brisuT§kmµelah³)anmkBIsMelah³ ehIyeKeRbI vakñúgkareFICV ama:sIun.
engineering practice.
 141

Metastable state
A condition of a body in which it in a state of
sNßanbþÚrlMnwg
unstable equilibrium. A minor displacement
from its present position will cause it to fall to a
lkçx½NÐrbs;GgÀÀFatuEdlzitkëgú sNÜanKµanlMnwgs‘b;.
lower energy state. bMlas;TId¾tUcBITItaMgedImeFIVeGayvaFøak;eTAkan;sNßanfam BlTab.
An excited state of an atom that has an
appreciable lifetime is also metastable. sNßanejacrbs;GatUmEdlmanfamBlFMlmµ
RKb;RKan;k¾CasNßanbþrÚ lMnwgEdr.
Meteor
A streak of light observed in the sky when a
)atuPUtGakas
particle of matter enters the earth’s atmosphere
and becomes incandescent as a result of
BnøWepøkbenÞalEdleK)aneXIjkñúgemX eBlEdlPaKl¥ti
atmospheric friction. rUbFatuclU eTAkñúgbriyakasEpndI ehIykøayeTACaman
BnøWBN’sedaysarkarkkitCamYybriyakasEpndI.
Method of mixtures
A method of comparing the specific heat
viFIlaycUlKña
capacities of liquids or a liquid and a solid by
mixing known masses of the substances at
viFIeRbobeFobka)a::sIuetkMedArbs;GgÁFaturav b¤ GgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwg
different known temperatures and measuring edaykarlayRcbl;cUlKña. edaysÁaÁ l;nUv
the final temperature of the mixture. If the
specific heat capacity of one substance is ma:srbs;smasFatuenAsItuNðPaBNamYyEdleKminsÁal;
known, the other one can be calculated.
ehIyvas;sItuNðPaBsMercrbs;l,ay. ebIeKsÁal;ka)a::sIuet
kMedArbs;smasFatumYy enaHeKGacKNnaka)a::sIuetkM
edArbs;smasFatumYyeTot)an.
Metre (Symbol m)
The SI unit of length, being the length of the
Em:t (nimitþsBaØa m)
path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/(2.99 792 458 x 108) second.
xñat SI rbs;RbEvg. mYyEm:RtKWCaRbEvgrbs;KnøgEdl)an
credayBnøWkgñú suBaØakaskñúgry³eBl1/(2.99 792 458  10 )s 8

Metric system (c.g.s. system)

A decimal system of units based on the metre,
RbB½n§maRt
the gram and the second. RbB½n§TsSPaKénxñatRKwHEdlGaRs½yelIEm:t/ Rkam nig vinaTI.
Metric ton (tonne)
A unit of mass equal to 1 000 kg or 2204.61lb.
etanmaRt
1 tonne = 0.9842 ton. xñatma:sesIµngw 1000 kg b¤ 2204.61lb.
Metrology
The scientific study of measurement, especially
rgVas;viTüa
the definition and standardisation of the units of
measurement used in science.
viTüasaRsþEdlsikSaBIrgVas; BiesssikSaBIniymn½y nig
sþgd; arbs;xñatEdleKeRbIkñúgviTüasaRsþ.
MHD MHD
See magnetohydrodynamics
emIl magnetohydrodynamics
mho
A reciprocal ohm, the former name of the unit
m:U (mho)
of conductance now known as the siemans. cMras;rbs;GUm vaCaeQµaHrbs;xñatkugDuctg; Et\LÚveK ehAfasIma:nvij.
Michelson-Morley experiment
An experiment that attempted to measure the
BiesaFmIEqlsun-m:UlI
velocity of the earth through the ether. There
was no evidence for any relative velocity. After
karBiesaFn_vas;el,ÓnEpndIeFobeGET. KµanPsþtú agNa
Einstein released his theory of special relativity, EdlbBa¢ak;BIvuci T½rel,ÓneFobeT. eRkaymkGaMgsþaj)an
the ether concept was abandoned.
TajecjRTisIþeFob eTIblkçN³eGETRtUv)aneKElgeRbI teTAeTot.
 142

Micro- (Symbol  mIRkU ¬nimitþsBaaØ¦

A prefix used in the metric system to denote
one millionth. For example, 10-6 metre = 1 buBVbTEdleKeRbIkúñgRbB½n§maRt edIm,ItageGaymYyPaK lan. ]TahrN_
m (m).
10 m  1 m.
-6

Microbalance
A sensitive balance capable of weighing masses
CBa¢IgmIRkU
of the order 10-6 -10-9 kg. CBa¢Igrs;l¥EdlGaceGayeKføwgma:srhUtdl; 10 -10 kg.
-6 -9

Microelectronics
The techniques of designing and making
mIRkUeGLicRtUnic
electronic circuits of very small size. As a result
of these techniques a single silicon chip
viFIeFIbV øge; soKIeV GLicRtUnicEdlmanvimaRttUc². edaysar
measuring less than 1 cm on each side can viFITaMgenHehIyeTIbeKGacbegIátsIulIkugqIbmanrgVas;RCug tUcCag 1cm
contain over one million transistors and may
constitute the central processing unit of a ehIyGacpÞkú Rtg;sIusÞ½rCagmYylan ehIyGac ykeTAeRbIkgñú CPU
microcomputer.
rbs;kBM üÚT½rtUc².
Micrometer
A gauge for measuring small diameters,
mIRkUEm:t
thickness etc., accurately. It consists of a g-
shaped device in which the gap between the
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;Ggát;p©ittUc²/ kMras;tUc ² ///l. vaCa]b
measuring faces is adjusted by means of an krN_mYymanragCaGkSr g EdlkñúgenaHcenøaHrvagmuxrgVas;
accurately adjusted screw, the end of which
forms the movable measuring face. dak;QmRtg;nwgeFµjs<W enAxagcugeKGaccl½tmuxrgVas;)an
Micron
The former name for the SI unit now called the
mIRkug
micrometer, i.e. 10-6 m. eQµaHcas;rbs;xñat SI Etmkdl;\LÚv enHeKehAfamIRkU Em:tvij
mann½yfa 10 m.
-6

Microphone
A transducer in which sound waves are
mIRkUpUn
converted into corresponding variations in an
electrical signal (usually voltage) for
]bkrN_müa:gEdlkñúgenaHrlksMelgRtUv)anbMElgeTACabM
amplification, transmission to a distant receiver, ErbMrYlRtUvKñakñúgsIuBaØal;GKIsÁ nI¬CaFmµtatg;süúg¦ edIm,IBRgIk
or recording.
In the most common type, the sound waves bBa¢nÚ eTAGñkTTYlenAq¶ay b¤ sMrab;ftsMelg. kñúgkrNITU eTA
strike a diaphragm to which is attached a
conductor, which is placed in a magnetic field. rlksMelgeTAb:HdüaR)am EdlP¢ab;CamYynwgGgÁÁFatu
As the diaphragm vibrates in response to the
sound waves a voltage is induced in the
cMlgdak;kúñgEdnma:ejTic. kalNadüaR)ammanlMj½rnaM
conductor which is then amplified. eGayekItmantg;süúgrlksMelgkñúgGgÁFatucMlg bnÞab;
mkBRgIksMelg.
Microprocessor
See computer
mIRkURbUess½r
emIl computer
 143

Microscope
An optical device for forming a large image of
mIRkUTsSn_
a very small object. The simple microscope,
also called a magnifier, consists of a convex
]bkrN_GubTicsMrab;begItá rUbPaBeGayFM Edl)anmkBIvtßú tUc.
magnifying lens, or system of lenses, which mIRkUTsSn_gayeKehAfaEkvBRgIk Edlkñgú enaHman Lg;TIBRgIkmYy b¤
enables the eye to focus on a very close object,
which therefore appears to be enlarged. The RbB½n§Lg;TI EdlGaceGayEPñkepþat emIlvtßúya:gCít
compound microscope uses two lenses or lens
systems, the second of which, called the CaehtueFIVeGayvtßdú UcCarIkFM. mIRkUTsSn_ smas
eyepiece, magnifies the real image formed by
the first, the objective. The object is placed just
eKeRbILg;TIBIrb¤RbB½n§Lg;TI EdlkñúgenaHLg;TITBI Ir ehAfaGUKyu El
outside the focal point of the objective thus vapþlr; UbPaBBit)anmkBILg;TITImYyBIvtß.ú
forming a large image inside the tube
supporting the two lenses. eKRKan;Etdak;vtßúxageRkAcMnuckMnuMvtßú eBlenaHvabegIát)anrUb
PaBFMenAxagkñgú bMBg;TMrLg;TITaMgBIr.
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the
rlkmIRkU
range 10.3 to 0.03 m. rlkeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlmanC¿hanrlkkñúgkMrwt 10.3 eTA 0.03 m.
Milky Way System
See galaxy.
RbB½n§mIlKIev
emIl galaxy
Milli- (Symbol m)
A prefix used in the metric system to denote
mIlI- (nimitþsBaØa m)
one thousandth. For example, 0.001 volt = 1
millivolt.
buBVbTeRbIkñúgRbB½n§maRtedIm,ItageGay 1/1000.]TahrN_ 0.001 v:lu =
1mIlIvu:l
Millibar
See bar.
mIlI)a
emIl bar
Minority carrier
See semiconductor.
bBa¢ÚnPaKtic
emIl semiconductor
Minute
1. One sixtieth of an hour. 2. One sixtieth of a
naTI/ mInut
degree (angle). !> 1/60 ema:g. @> 1/60 dWeRk¬mMu¦.
Mirage
An optical phenomenon that occurs as a result
mricika
of the bending of light rays passing through
layers of air having very large temperature
)atuPUtGubTicEdlekIteLIgedaysarkaMBnøqW øgkat;RsTab;
gradients. xül;EdlmansIutuNPð aBx<s.;
Mirror
A surface that reflects most of the light falling
kBa©k;
on it. A plane mirror is a flat reflecting surface
that produces an upright virtual image of a real
épÞEdlGacbMpøatBnøWkalNaBnøWcaMgb:HmkelIva. kBa©k;bøg;KW
object. Spherical mirrors, both concave and CaèpÛrabcaMgpøat EdlGacbegIÝtrUbPaBminBitènvtÜBú it. cMeBaHkBa¨k;EsV‘
convex, are formed from the surfaces of
spheres. A concave mirror forms images in TaMgkBa¨kE; sV‘e'a::g TaMgEsV‘pt suT§EtpSM elIgBIèpÛmanragCaEsV.‘
much the same way as a convex lens; a convex
mirror behaves much like a concave lens. kBa©kp; tbegItá rUbPaBdUcKñanwgLg; TIptEdr
ehIykBa©ke; )a::gbegIátrUbPaBdUcLg;TIe)a::gEdr.
 144

M.K.S. units
A metric system based on the metre, kilogram
xñat M.K.S
and second, now replaced by the modern S.I.
system.
RbB½n§maRtEdlEp¥kelIEm:t/ KILÚRkam/ nigvinaTI Etmkdl;
\LÚveKC¿nYsedayRbB½n§ S.Ivij.
mmHg
A unit of pressure equal to that exerted under
mIlIEm:Rt)ar:t mmHg
gravity by a height of one millimetre of
mercury, that is, 133.322 pascals.
xñatsMBaFesInµ wgsMBaFEdlbeBa©jeRkamTMnajkñúgry³kM
Bs;mYymIlEI m:Rt)ar:t mann½yfaesIµnwg 133.322)a:s: aá l;.
Mobility (of an ion)
The terminal speed of an ion in an electric field
PaBcl½t¬énGIuyg:u ¦
divided by the field strength. el,ÓnlMnwgrbs;GIuyg:u kñúgEdnGKÁIsnIEckeGayGaMgtg;sIuet Edn.
Moderator
A substance that slows down free neutrons in a
m:Uedra:T½r
nuclear reactor, making them more likely to
cause fissions of uranium-235 and less likely to
smasFatuEdlbnÜyel,ÒnNWRtugesrIkëúgerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘
be absorbed by atoms of uranium-238. vaeFIVeGayvamanlkçN³dUcKëaya:gxøagM nwgPIsüúgrbs;G‘uyra: nIjmÙ: –235
Moderators are light elements such as
deuterium or graphite, to which fast neutrons ehIymanlkçN³dUcKëaticbMputcMeBaHsMrbU GatUm G‘uyra:nIj:Ùm–238.
can impart some of their kinetic energy during
collision. m:Uedra:T½rKWCaFatuPøWdUcedETrüÚm b¤ RkaPIt Edr
vaGaceGayNWRtugelOnbeBa©jfamBlsIeu nTicxøH rbs;vakñúgeBlTgÁic.
Modulation
The process of superimposing the
m:UDulkmµ
characteristics of a periodic signal onto a
*carrier wave so that the information contained
dMenIrénkardak;RtYtsIuBaaØ:lx; YbeTAelIrlkbBa¢nÚ edIm,IeGay
in the signal can be transmitted by the carrier Bt’manEdlmankëúgsIuBaØal;GacbBa¢nÙ edayrlk. këúgkar bBa¢nÙ rlkviTüú
wave. In radio transmission the simplest form
of modulation is amplitude modulation (AM), TMrg;gay bMputénm:DU ulkmµKtW amry³m:UDul kmµGMBIøTtu (AM)
in which the amplitude of the carrier is
increased or decreased as the signal amplitude EdlkñúgenaHGMBIøTutrlkekInb¤fy kal NasIuBaØa:l;ekInb¤fy.
increases or decreases. In frequency modulation
(FM), the frequency of the carrier is modulated,
m:UDulkmµeRbkg; (FM) EdlkñúgenaH eRbkg;rlkbBa¢nÚ Gacpøas;bþÚr)an
but the amplitude remains constant. EtGMBøITtu rbs;rlkrkSatM élefr.
Modulus
See absolute value.
m:UDul
emIl absolute value
Modulus of elasticity
See elastic modulus.
emKuNyWt
emIl elastic modulus
Molar
Denoting that a physical property is being
m:UEl
expressed per amount of substance, i.e. per
mole. For example, the molar heat capacity of a
m:UElCalkçN³rUbEdleKeRbIedIm,IsMEdgkñúgmYycMnYnsarFatu
compound is the heat capacity of that mann½yfakñúgmYym:Ul. ]TahrN_ ka)a:suIetm:UElkMedAén smasFatu
compound per mole, expressed in J kg-1mole-1.
KWCaka)a:seIu tkMedAénsmasFatumYym:lU man xñatsMEdgCa J kg mole .
-1 -1

Molar heat capacity

See heat capacity.
ka)a:sIuetkMedAm:UEl
emIl heat capacity
 145

Mole (Symbol mol)

The S.I. unit of *amount of substance. It is
equal to the amount of substance that contains
as many elementary units as there are atoms in
12 grams (0.012-kg) of carbon-12. This
number, known as Avogadro’s number, NA, is
equal to 6.022 x 1023. The elementary unit may
m:Ul (nimitþsBaØ mol)
xñat S.I éncMnnY sarFatu. vaesIµnwgcMnYnsarFatuEdlman
FatuÉktaeRcIndUcmanenAkñúgGatUm12g (0.012kg) énkabUn 12.
cMnYnenHehAfacMnYnGav:UkaRdÚ N esIµnwg 6.022  10 .
A
23

be atoms or molecules.
xñatFatuGacKitCaGatUm b¤ m:eU lKul.
Molecular weight
See relative molecular mass.
TMgn;m:UelKul
emIl relative molecular mass
Molecule
One of the fundamental units forming a
m:UelKul
chemical compound. Molecules consist of
groups of atoms held together by a chemical
xñatmYykñúgcMenamxñatRKwHEdlbegItá kñúgsmasFatuKImI. kñúg
(electrical) bond. m:UlelKulmanRkumGatUmcgsm<½nK§ mI I(GKÁIsnI)nwgKña.
Moment of a force
A measure of the turning effect produced by a
m:Um:g;kMlaMg
force about an axis. The magnitude of the
moment is the product of the force and the
rgVas;énplrgiVlEdlekItelIgedaykMlaMgeFobG½kS. m:DU ul
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line rbs;m:Umg: ;esIµnwgplKuNénkMlaMgnigcMgayEkgBIG½kSeTAcM
of action of the force. Alternatively it is the
product of the distance from the axis to the nucGnuvtþkMlaMg¬cMnuccab;¦ b¤Gacniyayfa m:mU :g;KCW apl
point of application of the force and the
magnitude of the component of the force KuNéncMgayBIG½kSeTAcMncu GnuvtþklM aMgnigm:UDulkMb:Usg;kM
perpendicular to the line from the axis to the
point of application.
laMgEkgeTAnwgbnÞat;BIG½kSeTAcMnuccab;.
Moment of inertia (Symbol I)
The moment of inertia, or rotational inertia, of a
m:Um:g;niclPaB (nimitþsBaaØ I)
rotating massive body is the analogue of the
inertia of a body moving in translation only,
m:Umg: ;nci l b¤ niclrgiVlrbs;GgÁFatuvil KWdUcKñaeTAnwg
(without rotation). The moment of inertia about niclrbs;GgÁÁFatupøas;TIrMkil ¬edayKµanrgiVl¦Edr. m:Umg: ;nci leFobG½kS
an axis is defined as the sum of all the products
of the magnitude of each element of mass ( m) KWCaplbUkénplKuNm:UDulrbs;Fatu nimyY ²manma:s (m)
by the square of its distance ® from the axis. , KuNnwgkaercMgayrbs;vaBIG½kS
i.e.I  mr2.
i.e.I = mr .
2

Momentum
The momentum (p) of a body of mass m
brimaNclna
moving with velocity v is a vector quantity
defined as the product of mass and velocity:
brimaNclna p rbs;GgÁFatumYymanma:s m pøas;TIeday el,Ón v
p = mv. The total momentum of an isolated KWCabrimaNvicu T½rkMnt;edayplKuNénma:s nig el,Ón : p  mv .
system (for example two bodies in collision) is
conserved; i.e. the vector sum of all the brimaNclnasrubénRbB½n§Rtemac ¬]TahrN_ GgÁFatuBIrTgáci Kña¦
momenta after the collision is equal to the
vector sum of the momenta before the collision. KWCaTMhMrkSa mann½yfa
plbUkviucT½rbrimanclnaTaMgGs;eRkayeBlTgáicesIµnigpl
bUkbrimaNclnamuneBlTgÁic.
Monochromatic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation, particularly visible
BnøWm:UNURkUma:Tic
radiation, of only one frequency or wavelength. BnøWeGLicRtUma:ejTic CaBiessBnøWEdlEPñkGacemIleXIj
CaBnøEW dlmaneRbkg;EtmYy b¤ C¿hanrlkEtmYy.
 146

Monochromator
A device that produces monochromatic
m:UNURkUma:T½r
radiation from a polychromatic (many
wavelengths) source.
]bkrN_EdlbegIátBnømW :UNURkUma:TicBIRbPBb:lU RI kUma:Tic
¬C¿hanrlkeRcIn¦.
Moon
The earth’s only natural satellite, which orbits
RBHc½RnÞ
the earth at a mean distance of 384 400 km. It
has a diameter of 3476 km and a mass of ? Kg.
páayrNbFmµCatiEtmYyKt;rbs;EpndI EdlvilC¿vji EpndI enAry³cMgay
384 400 km BIEpndI. vamanGgát;p©it 3476 km nig manma:s ?kg.
Moseley’s law
The frequencies of the lines in the X-ray spectra
c,ab;m:UsøI
of the elements are related to the atomic
numbers (Z) of the elements. Mosely’s law
eRbkg:énsréskñúgs,úickaMrsIµ XénFatuTaMgLay manTMnak;
states that: f  Z2. TMngeTAnwgcMnnY GatUm (Z) rbs;Fatu. c,ab;ms:U øeI Balfa : f  Z
2

Motion
A change in the position of a body with respect
clna
to time. Only relative motion can be measured;
absolute motion is meaningless.
bMErbMrYlTItaMgrbs;GgÁFatueFobeBl. manclnaeFobEt
mYyKt;EdlGacvas;)an clnadac;xatKWCaclnaKµann½y.
Motor
Any device for converting chemical energy or
m:UT½r
electrical energy into mechanical energy. See
also internal combustion engine, electric motor.
]bkrN_sMrab;bMElgfamBlKImI b¤ famBlGKÁisnIeGay
eTACafamBlemkanic. emIl internal combustion engine, electric
motor
Moving-coil instrument
A measuring instrument in which current or
]bkrN_bUb‘Ínpøas;TI
voltage is determined by the torque on a small
coil supported in a magnetic field. When a
]brkN_mü:agEdlkñúgenaHcrnþ b¤ tg;süúgRtUv)ankMnt;
current is passed through the coil the magnetic edaykMlaMgbgVilelIbUbn‘Í tUcmYy Edldak;RTrkëúgEdn ma:ejTic.
torque is balanced by a return spring torque. If
the magnetic field is made to be radial, the eBlmancrnþqøgkat;bUb‘nÍ eFIVeGaymankMlaMg bgiVlmYy.
current is proportional to the angle turned by
the coil. ebIEdnma:ejTicCaEdnra:düal; eBlenaHcrnþ
smamaRteTAnwgmMuEdlviledaybUb‘nÍ .
Multimeter
An electrical measuring instrument designed to
mulFIEm:t
measure voltage, current and resistance over a
number of ranges.
]brN_vas;GKÁIsnI CaBiessvas;tg;süúg/ crnþ/ nig vas;ersIusþg;.
Multiplier
A fixed resistance placed in series with a
mulFIepø
galvanometer used to enable it to measure a
range of voltage.
ersIusþg;EdlmantMè;lefrtCaes‘rICamYy hÝava:NUEm:Rt
edIm,IGacykeTAvas;tg;süúg.
Multivibrator
An electronic oscillator consisting of two
mulFIvIR)aT½r
transistors interconnected in an electrical
network. The purpose of the device is to
lMeyaleGLicRtUnicEdlmanRtg;ssIu rÞ½ BIr dak;tP¢ab;kúgñ bNþajGKÁIsnI.
generate a continuous square wave with which eKeFIVdUcenHedIm,IbegItá rlkkaertKña eday
to store information in binary form in a logic
circuit. manpÛúkBt’manCaTMrg;TIVPaKkëúgesoKIVLÙsiuc.
Mutual inductance
See inductance.
GUtUGaMgDuctg;
emIl inductance
 147

Myopia
Short-sightedness. It results from the lens of the
mJÚb
eye bringing parallel rays of light to a focus in
front of the retina. The condition is corrected
karemIleXIjCit edaysarEkvEPñknaMykkaMBnøRW sbeTA
by using diverging spectacle lenses to move the nwgkMnEMu dlzitenAxagmuxer:TIn. edIm,IEkeGayEPñkGacemIl
image back to the retina.
eXIjq¶ayelIgvij eKeRbILg;TIBRgIkedIm,Ipaø s;TIrbU PaB
eGayRtlb;cUleTAkñúger:TInvij.
N
Nadir
The point opposite the *zenith of the *celestial
NaDIr
sphere. cMnucEdlenAQmKëanwgcMnucehSnIFrbs;EsVe‘ sLiesÛìl.
NAND Circuit
See Logic circuit.
esoKIV NAND
emIl Logic circuit
Nano- Symbol n
A prefix used in the metric system to denote 10 -
NaNU (nimitþsBaaØ n)
9
. For example, 10-9 second = 1 nanosecond
(ns).
buBVbTEdleKeRbIkúñgRbB½n§maRtedIm,ItageGay 10 . ]TahrN_ 10
-9 -9
s=1
ns
Napierian logarithm
See Logarithm.
LÚkarItenEB
emIl Logarithm.
Natural abundance
See Abundance.
FmµCatisMbUr
emIl Abundance.
Natural frequency
1. The frequency of the free oscillation of a
eRbkg;FmµCati b¤ eRbkg;pÞal;
system. 2. The frequency at which resonance
occurs in an electrical circuit.
!> eRbkg;rbs;RbB½n§leM yalesrI. @> eRbkg;EdleFIVeGay
ekItmanersUNg;kúñgesoKIVGKÁsI nI.
Natural logarithm
See Logarithm.
LÚkarItFmµCati
emIl Logarithm.
Nautical mile
A measure of distance used at sea. In the UK it
NUTicém:l_
is defined as 6080 feet but the international
definition is 1852 metres. 1 international
rgVas;cMgayEdleKeRbIenAsmuRT. kñgú Gg;eKøseKkMnt;fava esIµnwg 6080hVtI
nautical mile is therefore equivalent to 1.15078 EtkñúgkarkMnt;rbs;GnþrCatiesIµnwg1852 m. tamGnþrCati !NUTIém:l_ 
land (statute) miles.
1.15078 ém:l. _
Near point
The nearest point at which the human eye can
cMnucCit
focus an object. As the eye-lens becomes harder
with age, the extent to which accommodation
cMnucenACitbMputEdlEPñkmnusSGaceXIjvtßúya:gc,as;.
can bring a near object in focus decreases. kalNaEkvEPñkmanGayukalkan;Etcas; eFIeV GaykMrtw
Therefore with advancing age the near point
recedes – a condition known as EkvEPñkEdlFøab;emIleXIjc,as;k¾fycuH. ehtudUcenH Ca
* presbyopia.
mYynwgkMenInGayueFIVeGaykMrtw emIleXIjfycuH b¤ehAfa EPñkRBImbJÚ .
 148

Nebula
Originally a fixed, extended, and somewhat
páayenbu:uyLa
fuzzy white haze observed in the sky with a
telescope. Many of these objects can now be
enAnwgfálB; IFmµCatiEdlGENþtkñúglMhemX eyIgGac
resolved into clouds of individual stars and emIlvaeXIjedayeRbIEkvywt. mkdl;\LÚvPaKeRcInénvtßú
have been identified as *galaxies. The gaseous
nebulae, however, cannot be resolved into TaMgenHkøayeTACaBBkpáay nig manTMrg;dUcCaháalak;sIu.
individual stars and consist, for the most part,
of interstellar dust and gas. eTaHCaya:genHk¾eday enb:yu La]sµm½ inGacbMEbkeTA
Capáaydac;²BIKña)aneT ehIyvalayKñaCamYyFUlI.
Negative charge
See charge.
bnÞúkGviC¢man
emIl charge
Negative feedback
See feedback.
RbB½n§bkGviC¢man
emIl feedback
Nematic crystal
See liquid crystal.
Rkamenma:Tic
emIl liquid crystal
Neon lamp
A small lamp consisting of a pair of electrodes,
cegáogeNGug
treated to emit electrons freely, sealed in a glass
bulb containing neon gas at low pressure. When
cegáogtUcmYymaneGLicRtUtBIr GaceGayeGLicRtugpøas; TIedayesrI
a minimum voltage of between 60 and 90 volts biTCitedayGMBUlEkvEdlman]sµ½neNGug mansItuNPð aBTabenAxagkñúg.
is applied across the electrodes, causing the
emission of a reddish light. The device eBlEdlmantg;süúg Gbb,rmacenøaH^0nig(0v:lu qøgkat;eGLicRtUd
consumes a very low power and is widely used
as an indicator light showing that a circuit is eBlenaH eFIVeGaymanBnøWRkhm.
live.
Neumann’s law
The magnitude of an electromagnetically
c,ab;NWEmn
induced e.m.f. (E) is given by E = - d / dt, m:UDulkMlaMgGKÁsI nIclkreGayedayrUbmnþ E  – d/dt,
where  is the magnetic flux. This is a
quantitative statement of *Faraday’s law of EdlCaPøúcma:ejTic. enHKICac,ab;para:edsþIBIGaMgDucsüúg
electromagnetic induction and is sometimes
known as the Faraday-Neumann law. eGLicRtUma:ejTicehIyCYnkalehAfac,ab;para:edNWEmn.
Neutrino
A *lepton (see also elementary particles) that
NWRTINU
exists in three forms, one in association with the
electron, one with the muon, and one the tau
Libtun¬emIl elementary particles)manbIiTMrg;. TMrg;mYy
particle. Each form has its own antiparticle. The enACamYyeGLicRtug TMrg;mYyenACamYym:uyu:g ehIyTMrg;
neutrino, which was postulated in 1931 to
account for the ‘missing’ energy in *beta decay, mYyeTotCaPaKl¥ti tU. TMrg;nimYy²manbdiPaKl¥ti rbs;va pÞal;.
was identified tentatively in 1953 and, more
definitely, in 1956. Neutrinos have no charge, kñúgqñaM!(#!NWRTINURtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCakar)at;bg; famBlkñgú bnSayEbta
are thought to have zero rest mass, and travel at
the speed of light.
ehIysBaØaNrbs;vaRtUv)aneK ykmkBinitükñúgqña!M (%#
ehIyRtUv)aneKkMnt;ya:gc,as; kñúgqña!M (%^. NWRTINUKµanbnÞúkeT
ma:senAnwgfál;cat;Tuk faesIµsnU ü ehIypøas;TIesIeµ l,ÓnBnøW.
 149

Neutron
A neutral hadron (see elementary particles) that
NWRtug
is stable in the atomic nucleus but decays into a
proton, an electron, and an antineutrino with a
GaRdugNWt (emIl elementary particles)EdlenAnwgfál;kñúg éNVy:UGatUm
mean life of 12 minutes outside the nucleus. Its b:uEnþbMEbkeTACaRbUtug/ eGLicRtug nig bdi NWRTINU
rest mass is slightly greater than that of the
proton, being 1.67492 x 10-27 kg. Neutrons vamanCIvti mFüm!@naTIxageRkAéNVy:U.
occur in all atomic nuclei except normal
hydrogen. The neutron was first discovered in ma:senAnwgfál;rbs;vaFMCagma:sRbutugbnþci KW1.67492  10 kg .
-27

1932 by James Chadwick (1891-1974). NWRtugmanenARKb;éNVy:UGatUmTaMgGs; elIkElgEt GIuRdUEsnFmµta.

NWRtugRtUv)aneKrkeXIjCaelIkdMbUgenA qña!M (#@ edayelak James
Chadwick (1891-1974).
Neutron excess
See Isotopic number.
NWRtugelIs
emIl Isotopic number
Neutron number (Symbol N)
The number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus of
cMnYnNWRtug (nimitþsBaaØ N)
a particular nuclide. It is equal to the difference
between the *nucleon number and the *atomic
cMnYnNWRtugkñúgéNVy:UGatUmrbs;nuyKøtI . vaesIµnwgplsg
number. rvagcMnYnnuyekøGug nig cMnYnGatUm.
Neutron star
A star that has reached the end of its
páayNWRtug
evolutionary life (see stellar evolution) and run
out of nuclear fuel. It then suffers gravitational
páayEdl)aneTAdl;xagcugénCIvitbrivtþn_rbs;va (emIl stellar evolution
collapse and becomes so compressed that ¦ ehIymanbeBa©j\nÛn³nuyekøEG‘.
within the star itself electrons are forced into
atomic nuclei, where they combine with protons bnÞab;mkvaTTYlrgTMnajRsUbcUlehIykøayeTACabENÑn cUlKña
to form neutrons.
EdlenAxagkñúgpáayxøÜnva eGLicRtugTaMgLay
beBa©jkMlaMgcUleTAkñúgéNVyG:U atUm ehIypþK¿ú ñaCamYyRbU
tugbegIát)anCaTMrg;NWRtug.
Neutron temperature
A concept used to express the energies of
sItuNðPaBNWRtug
neutrons that are in thermal equilibrium with
their surroundings, assuming that they behave
bBaØtEþi dleKeRbIedIm,IsEM dgfamBlNWRtug Edlsißtkñúg
like a monatomic gas. The neutron temperature lMnwgkMedACamYymCÄdæanC¿vu ijva edaysnµt;favadUcKñanwg
T, on the Kelvin scale, is given by T = 2E / 3k,
where E is average neutron energy and k the ]sµn½ EdlmanGatUmEtmYy. sItuNPð aBNWRtug T elImaRt
*Boltzmann constant.
dæanEklvineGayeday T = 2E / 3k Edl E CafamBlNW RtugmFüm
ehIykCaefrbulsµan.
Newton (Symbol N)
The *SI unit of force, being the force required
jÚtun (nimitþsBaaØ N)
to give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration
of 1 ms-2. It is named after Sir Isaac Newton
jÚtunCaxñat SIénkMlaMg vaCakMlaMgEdlpþle; Gayma:smYy
(1642-1727). KILÚRkamnUvsMTuH 1 ms . eQaµHenHRtUv)andak;eRkayelak Isaac
-2

Newton (1642-1727).
 150

Newtonian fluid
A fluid in which the velocity gradient is directly
snÞnIyjÚtun
proportional to the shear stress. If two flat
plates of area A are separated by a layer of fluid
snÞnyI Edlmanel,ÓnsmamaRteTAnwgkMlaMgsgát;. ebI
of thickness d and move relative to each other bnÞHrabesIBµ IrmanRklaépÞ A x½NÐedaysnÞnIyEdlmankM ras; d
at a velocity v, then the rate of shear is v/d and
the shear stress is F / A, where F is the force ehIypøas;TIeFobKñaeTAvijeTAmkedayel,Ón v eBlenaHGRta v/d
applied to each of the plates. For a Newtonian
fluid F/A= v/d where  is the constant of
smamaRtnwgbENÑn F/A EdlFCakM laMgsgát;elIépÞnimYy².
proportionality and is called the Newtonian
*viscosity.
cMeBaHsnÞnIyjÚtun F/A= v/d Edl CaefrsmamaRt
b¤ehAfavIkUsIuetjÚtun.
Newtonian mechanics
The system of *mechanics that relies on
emkanicjÚtun
*Newton’s laws of motion. Newtonian
mechanics is applicable to bodies moving at
RbB½n§emkanicEdlEp¥kelIc,ab;clnajÚtun. emkanicjÚtun
speeds that are small compared to the speed of GnuvtþcMeBaHGgÁFatupaø s;TIedayel,ÓntUcebIeFobCamYyel,Ón
light. Bodies moving at speeds comparable to
the speed of light require an approach based on BnøW. cMeBaHGgÁFatuEdlpøas;TIedayel,ÓnGaceRbobeFob CamYyel,ÓnBnøW
*relativistic mechanics, in which the mass of a
body changes with its speed. eKRtUveRbIemkaniceFobvij Edlkñúgem
kaniceFobma:sGgÁFatubþÚreTAtamel,Ónrbs;va.
Newtonian telescope
See telescope.
EkvywtjÚtun
emIl telescope
Newton’s formula
For a lens, the distances p and q between two
rUbmnþjÚtun
conjugate points and their respective foci is
given by pq = f2, where f is the focal length of
cMeBaHLg;TImyY cMgay pnigq rvagcMnucqøas;BIrnigkMnMuerog Kñarbs;va
the lens. eGayeday pq  f , Edl f CaRbEvgkMNMuLg;TI.
2

Newton’s law of gravitation

There is a force of attraction between any two
c,ab;TMnajjÚtun
massive particles in the universe. For any two
point masses m1 and m2, separated by a distance
mankMlaMgTMnajmYyrvagma:sBIrkñúgskl. cMeBaHcMnuc ma:sBIr
d, the force of attraction F is given by F = m nigm ,XøatBIKñaedaycMgay d eBlenaHeK)an kMlaMgTMnaj F
1 2
m1m2G / d2, where G is the *gravitational
constant. Real bodies having spherical eGayeday F = m m G / d , Edl G CaefrTMnajskl.
1 2
2

symmetry act as point masses positioned at

their centres of mass. GgÀFatuEdlmanlkçN³sIeu mRTIEsV‘ kMlaMgmanGMeBIRtg;p¨itma:sr; bs;va.
 151

Newton’s laws of Motion

The three laws of motion on which *Newtonian
c,ab;jÚtunsIþBIclna
mechanics is based. (1) A body continues in a
state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
c,ab;bIénclnaEdlEp¥kelIemkanicjÚtun: ¬! ¦GgÁFatubnþ enAnwgfál; b¤
unless it is acted upon by external unbalanced pøas;TIedayclnaRtg;esIµ RbsinebIvaminrg GMeBIénkMlaMgeRkANamYyeT.
forces. (2) The rate of change of momentum of
a moving body is proportional to and in the ¬@ ¦bMErbMrYlbrimaNclna rbs;GgÁFatupøas;TIsmamaRteTAnwg
same direction as the force acting on it, i.e. F =
d(mv) / dt, where F is the applied force, v is the kMlaMgEdlmanGMeBIelIva ehIymanTisedAdUckMlaMg F  d (dtmv) Edl F
velocity of the body, and m its mass. If the mass
remains constant, F = mdv / dt or F = ma, CakMlaMg EdlmanGMeBIelIGgÁFatu v CaviucT½rel,Ónrbs;GgÁFatu ehIym
where a is the acceleration. (3) If one body
exerts a force on another body, there is an equal Cama:s. ebIma:srkSatMélefreBlenaH F  m dv dt
b¤ F  ma,Edl a
and opposite force, called a reaction, exerted on
the first body by the second. CasMTuH. ¬#¦ebIGgÁÁFatuTImyY beBa©jkM laMgelIGgÁFatuTIBIr
eBlenaHGgÁFatuTIBIrbeBa©jkMlaMg
manm:DU ulesIµKñanwgTisedApþÚyKñamkelIGgÁFatuTImYyvij.
Newton’s rings
1. (In optics) *Interference fringes formed by
kgjÚtun
placing a slightly convex lens on a flat glass
plate. If monochromatic light is reflected by the
!> ¬kñúgGubTic ¦ kgGaMgETepr:g;EdlekItelIgedaykar
two close surfaces into the observer’s eye at a dak;Lg;TIe)a:g: elIbnÞHEkvrabesIµ. ebIBnøWmN
:U URkUma:TicRtUv
suitable angle, the point of contact of the lens is
seen as a dark spot surrounded by a series of )ancaMgpøatedayépÞBIrdak;CitKñaenAkñúgEPñkGñksegáteday mMulµm
bright and dark rings. The radius of the nth dark
ring is given by rn  nR, where  is the
eBlenaHcMnucb:HénLg;TIhak;dUcCacMnucexµA² B½T§CMu vijedayBnøW nig
wavelength and R is the radius of curvature of
the lens. The phenomenon is used in the quality
rgVg;exµA. kaMrbs;rgVge; xµATI neGay
testing of lens surfaces. r =nR, Edl CaC¿hanrlk ehIy R CakaMkMeNag rbs;Lg;TI.
n

)atuPUtenHRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgkarkMnt;épÞLg;TI.
Nichrome
Trade name for a group of nickel-chromium
nIRkUm
alloys used for wire in heating elements as they
possess good resistance to oxidation and have a
eQµaHsMrab;sMKal;RkumsMelah³nIEkl-RkUm eKeRbIvasM
high resistivity. rab;eFIEV xScMlgeGaymanersIusþg;lG¥ ackarBarGuksItu kmµ
ehIymanersIusÞIveI tx<s;.
Nicol prism
A device for producing *plane-polarized light.
RBIsnIkUl
]bkrN_sMrab;begáItbøgb; :UlkmµBnøW.
NMR
See nuclear magnetic resonance.
GwnGwmEG‘NMR
emIl nuclear magnetic resonance
Nodal points
Two points on the axis of a system of lenses; if
cMnucNUd
the incident ray passes through one, the
emergent ray will pass through the other.
cMnucBIrenAelIG½kSRbB½n§Lg;TI ebIkaMBnøWcaMgb:Hqøgkat;Lg; TImYy
eBlenaHvanwgecjqøgkat;Lg;TImYyeTotPøam.
 152

Node
1. (In physics) A point of minimum disturbance
NUt
in a *stationary-wave system. 2. (In astronomy)
Either of two points at which the orbit of a
!> ¬kñúgrUbviTüa ¦ cMnucEdlmankarrMxanticbMptu kñúgRbB½n§ rlkCBa¢.M @>
celestial body intersects a reference plane, ¬këúgtaraviTüa¦ cMnucNamYykëúgcMenamcMncu BIrkëúgG½rb‘tÍ ènGgÀFatukëúglMh
usually the plane of the *ecliptic or the celestial
equator (see celestial sphere). kat;Kña)anCabøg;tMruy CaTU eTAbøg;énRKas b¤
bøge; GkVaT½rénGgÁFatukñúglMh.
Noise
1. Any undesired sound. It is measured on a
sUr b¤ sUrrMxan
*decibel scale ranging from the threshold of
hearing (0 dB) to the threshold of pain (130
!> sMelgGU‘Gr¬sMelgrMxan¦. vamanrgVas;CakMrwtedsIu
dB). Between these limits a whisper registers Ebl Edlrt;BIEdnsNþab;lW (0 dB) eTAdl;EdnsNþab; QW(130 dB).
about 20 dB, heavy urban traffic about 90 dB,
and a heavy hammer on steel plate about 110 cenøaHlImtI TaMgenH sUrxSwbmantMélRbEhl 20db
dB. 2. Any unwanted disturbance within a
useful frequency band in a communication sUrcracrkñúgTIRkugFM²RbEhl 90db sUrjjÜrF¶n;d¿ elIbnÞHEdkRbEhl 110
channel. db. @> sUrEdleyIgmincg;)an enAkñg ú bg;eRbkg;kúñgb:su Kþ× mnaKmn_.
Nomogram
A graph consisting of three lines, each with its
NUm:URkam
own scale, each line representing the values of a
variable over a specified range. A ruler laid
RkahVicEdlmanbnÞat;bI bnÞat;nimYy²manKMnUsRkwterog²
between two points on two of the lines enables xøÜnGaRs½yeTAtamtMélGefrelIGgát;Rkit. bnÞat;Edl
the value of the third variable to be read off the
third line. sn§wgrvagcMnucBIrelIbnÞat;BIr GaceFIVeGayeKsÁal;tMél
GefrTIbIelIbnÞat;TIbI.
Non-Euclidean geometry
A type of geometry that does not comply with
FrNImaRtminGWKøit
the basic postulates of *Euclidean geometry,
particularly a form of geometry that does not
RbePTFrNImaRtEdlminGaRs½yelIsyV½ s½tGWKIøt. TMrg;
accept Euclid’s postulate that only one straight FrNIEdlminTTYlsV½yGWKøIt EdlniyayfabnÞat;Rtg;mYy
line can be drawn through a point in space
parallel to a given straight line. Several types of GacKUskat;)ancMncu mYykñúglMh RsbeTAnwgbnÞat;enaH.
no-Euclidean geometry exist.
manRbePTFrNImaRtCaeRcInEdlCaFrNImaRtminGWKøtI .
Non-Newtonian fluid
See Newtonian fluid.
snÞnIymin-jÚtun
emIl Newtonian fluid
Nonpolar compound
A compound that has covalent molecules with
smasFatuKµanb:Ul
no permanent dipole moment. Examples of
nonpolar compounds are methane and benzene.
smasFatuEdlmanm:UelKulkUva:Lg;Kµan m:Um:g;DIb:UlGcéRnþ.
]TahrN_smasFatuKaµ nb:lU mandUcCa emtannigbg;EsnCaedIm.
Normal
1. (In mathematics) A line drawn at right angles
!> Ekg ¬kñúgKNitviTüa ¦ bnÞat;EdlKUsEkgeTAnwgépÞ.
to a surface. 2. (In chemistry) Having a
concentration of one gram equivalent per dm3.
@> Nrm:alIet (kñúgKImIvTi üa)GgÁFatumYyRkamdak;RtYtelI Kña)anmaDmYy
dm .
3

NOT circuit
See logic circuit.
esoKIV NOT
emIl logic circuit
 153

Note
1. A musical sound of specified pitch. 2. A
eNaT
representation of such a sound in a musical
score. Such a representation has specified
!> sMelgtRnWEdlmankMBs;sUrCak;lak;. @> kartagsUrsM elgkñúgxÞg;ePøg
duration as well as a specified pitch. Edlmanry³eBlCak;lak;dUckMBs;srU Edr.
Nova
A star that, over a period of only a few days,
NUva:
becomes 103-104 times brighter than it was. páaymanxYbEtbIbI Ynéf¶ ehIymanBnøW10 -10 dgPøCW agmun.
3 4

N.T.P
See S.T.P.
Gwneteb:N.T.P
emIl S.T.P.
n-type conductivity
See semiconductor; transistor.
kMrwtcMlgQñab;n
emIl semiconductor; transistor
Nuclear energy
Energy obtained as a result of *nuclear fission
famBlnuyekøEG‘
or *nuclear fusion. The nuclear fission of one
uranium atom yields about 3.2 x 10-11 joule,
famBlEdl'anmkBIPIsüúg b¤ PuysüúgnuyekøEG‘. PIsüúg
whereas the combustion of one carbon atom nuyekøEG‘ènmYyGatUmG‘uyra:nIjm:Ù eGay3.2  10 s‘Ul
-11

yields about 6.4 x 10-19 joule. Mass for mass,

uranium yields about 2 500 000 times more cMEnkÉcMehHmYyGatUmkabUneGay 6.4  10 s‘Ul. ebI G‘uyra:nIjm:Ù nig
-19

energy by fission than carbon does by

combustion. The nuclear fusion of deuterium to kabUnmanma:sdUcKña famBlEdl)anmkBI
form helium releases about 400 times as much
energy as the fission of uranium (on a mass
PIsüúgG‘uyra:nIjÚmeGaypl@%00000dgeRcInCagcMehH kabUn.
basis). PuysüúgnuyekøEG‘ènedETrüÙmbegÝIt'aneGlüÙmRb Ehl#00dg
eRcInCagfamBlPIsüúgedayG‘yu ra:nIjmÙ .
Nuclear fission
A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus
PIsüúgnuyekøEG‘
(such as uranium) splits into two parts (fission
products), which subsequently emit either two
RbtikmµnuyekøEG‘ EdlkëúgenaHèNVyG:U atUmF¶n;¬dUcCaG‘yu
or three neutrons, releasing a quantity of energy ra:nIjmÚ ¦bMEbkeTACaBIrEpñk¬plitplPIsüúg¦ EdleRkay mkbMEbkeTACa
equivalent to the difference between the rest
mass of the neutrons and the fission products BIrb¤bINRW tugteTAeTot edaymanbeBa©j
and that of the original nucleus.
brimaNfamBlsmmUleTAnwgplsgrvagma:snwgrbs;NW Rtug nig
plitplPIsüúgehIynwgéNVye:U dIm.
Nuclear force
A strong attractive force between *nucleons in
kMlaMgnuyekøEG‘
the atomic nucleus that holds the nucleus
together. See fundamental interactions.
kMlaMgTMnajxøaMgrvagnuyekøGugkñúgéNVy:UGatUmEdlcg sm<n½ GatUmrYmKña.
emIl fundamental interactions
Nuclear fuel
A substance that will sustain a fission chain
\nÞn³nuyekøEG‘
reaction so that it can be used as a source of
*nuclear energy. The *fissile isotopes are
sarFatuEdleFIVeGaymanRbtikmµPIsüúgbnþbnÞab;Kña edIm,I
uranium-235, uranium-233, plutonium-241, and eGayvaGacykeTAeRbICaRbPBfamBlnuyekøEG‘. GIusUtUb
plutonium-239.
sarFatuPIsüúgmandUcCa G‘yu ra:nIj:Ùm-235, G‘yu ra:nIjm:Ù
-233, Pøy
ú tUnIj:Úm -241, nig PøúytUnIjÚm: -239.
 154

Nuclear fusion
A type of nuclear reaction in which atomic
PuysüúgnuyekøEG‘
nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a
heavier nucleus with the release of large
RbePTRbtikmµnuyekøEG‘müa:g EdlkëúgenaHèNVy:UGatUm
amounts of energy. In nuclear fusion the two bnþci bMEbkeTACaTMrg;éNy:UF¶n; edaybeBa©jfamBlya:g FM.
reacting nuclei have to be brought into
collision. As both nuclei are positively charged këúgPuysüúgnuyekøEG‘ RbtikmµèNVy:UBIrRtUv'anTgÁic Kña.
there is a strong repulsive force between them
that can only be overcome if the reacting nuclei kalNaéNVyT:U aMgBIrmanbnÞúkviC¢mandUcKña eBl
have very high kinetic energies. These high
kinetic energies imply temperatures of 108K.
enaHmankMlaMgxøagM RcanKñaecjrvagéNVy:UTaMgBIr ehIykM laMgenHGacQñH
ebIRbtikmµéNVym:U anfamBlsIuenTic x<s;.
famBlsIeu nTicTaMgenHpþle; GaysItuNPð aB 10 K.
8

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

The absorption of electromagnetic radiation at a
ersUNg;ma:ejTicnuyekøEG‘
precise frequency by a nucleus in an external
magnetic field.
sMrUbrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicRtg;eRbkg;Cak;lak;NamYy
edayéNVyk:U úgñ Ednma:ejTiceRkA.
Nuclear moment
A property of atomic nuclei in which lack of
m:Um:g;nuyekøEG‘
spherical symmetry of the nuclear charge gives
rise to electric moments and the intrinsic spin
lkçN³èNVy:UGatUm EdlkëúgenaHbnÛúknuyekøEG‘Kµanlkç N³sIeu mRTIEsV‘
and rotational motion of component nucleons eFIVeGaym:mU :gG; KÁIsnI nig s<InrgVil nig
give rise to magnetic moments.
clnargVilénsmasFatunuyekøGugekIneLIg ehIyk¾eFIV
eGayekItmanm:mU :g;ma:ejTic.
Nuclear physics
The physics of atomic nuclei and their
rUbviTüanuyekøEG‘
interactions with particular reference to the
generation of nuclear energy.
rUbviTüaEdlsikSaBIéNVy:UGatUm nig Gnþrkmµrbs;va eday
epþatkarykcitþTukdak;eTAelIkarbegIÝtfamBlnuyekøEG‘.
Nuclear power
Electric or motive power produced by nuclear
GnuPaBnuyekøEG‘
fission or fusion. GnuPaBGKÁIsnI b¤ GnuPaBclkrEdlekIteLIgedayPIsüúg b¤
PuysüúgnuyekøEG‘.
Nuclear reaction
Any reaction in which there is a change to an
RbtikmµnuyekøEG‘
atomic nucleus. This may be a natural
spontaneous disintegration or an artificial
RbtikmµNamYyEdlmanbMErbMrYléNVyG:U atUm. RbtikmµenH
bombardment of a nucleus with an energetic ekIteLIgedayÉkÉg b¤ ekIteLIgedaykarTnøak;RKab;pÞúHén éNVy:U
particle as in a nuclear reactor.
EdlmanRbBlPaKl¥ti dUcCaenAkëúgerGak;T½rnuyekø EG‘CaedIm.
Nuclear reactor
A device in which a nuclear fission chain
erGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘
reaction is sustained and controlled in order to
produce nuclear energy, radioisotopes or new
]bkrN_EdlmanRbtikmµPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘bnþrhUt ehIyRtUv
nuclides. 'aneKRKb;RKgedIm,IbegIÝtCafamBlnuyekøEG‘ famBlviTüú GIusUtUb b¤
nuyKøtI fI.µ
Nuclear waste
See radioactive waste.
kaksMnl;nuyekøEG‘
emIl radioactive waste
 155

Nuclear weapons
Weapons in which an explosion is caused by
GavuFnuyekøEG‘
nuclear fission, nuclear fusion or a combination
of both.
GavuFEdlpÛúHedaysarPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘ PuysüúgnuyekøEG‘ b¤edayTaMgBIr.
Nucleon
A proton or a neutron.
nuyekøGug
RbUtug b¤ NWRtug.
Nucleonics
The technical aspects of nuclear physics,
nuyekøGUnic
including the design of nuclear reactors and
nuclear devices. It is also concerned with the
TidæPaBviFIènrUbviTüanuyekøEG‘ rYmTAMgkarerobcMbøg;erGak;T½r nuyekøEG‘ nig
technology of radioactive waste disposal and ]bkrN_nuyekøEG‘.vamanTak;TgCamYybec¨k
with the production of radioisotopes.
viTüaénkare)aHecalkaksMnl;viTüúskmµ nig CamYyplit kmµviTüúGIustU Ub.
Nucleon number
(mass number). Symbol A
cMnYnnuyekøGug (nimitþsBaØa A)
The number of nucleons in an atomic nucleus
of a particular nuclide.
cMnYnnuyekøGugkñgú éNVyG:U atUmrbs;nyu KøtI PaKl¥it.
Nucleus (of atom)
The central core of an atom that contains most
éNVy:U¬énGatUm¦
of its mass. It consists of a group of nucleons
(neutrons and protons), so is positively charged.
sñÚlkNþalGatUmEdlmanma:seRcInbMputenARtg;enaH. va
The nucleons are bound together by the strong manRkumnuyekøGug(NWRtugnigRbUtug) dUcenHvamanbnÞúkviC¢ man.
nuclear force, which, at very close approach,
overwhelms the repulsive coulomb force nuyekøGugcgsm<n½ §rmY KëaedaykMlaMgnuyekøEG‘ xøaMg
between the protons.
eBlEdlenACítbMputkMlaMgRcanKULrMú vagRbUtugxøaMgelIslub.
Nuclide
A type of atom as characterised by its atomic
nuyKøIt
number and its neutron number. RbePTGatUm edaysMKal;BIcMnYnma:s nig cMnYnNWRtugva.
Null method
A method of making a measurement in which
viFInul
the quantity to be measured is brought to zero
by adjusting the parameters of the measuring
viFIvas;EdlkñúgenaHbrimaNRtUv)andak;Rtg;snU ü edaydak;
instrument. tMrUv)a:ra:Em:t]bkrN_rgVas;.
Nutation
Perturbation of the precession of the earth’s
nuytasüúg
poles resulting from the varying distances and
directions of the earth and the moon.
PaBRcbl;énrgVli b:UlEpndI edaysarbMErbMrlY cMgay nig
TisedArbs;EpndI nig RBHc½n.Þ
O
Objective
The lens or lens system closest to the object
vtßú
being examined through an optical instrument
such as a microscope or a telescope.
Lg;TI b¤ RbB½n§Lg;TIEdlzitenAya:gCitvtßú vaeFIVeGayman
rUbqøgkat;]bkrN_GubTic dUcCamIRkUTsSn_ b¤ EkvqøúH.
Occlusion
The absorption of a gas by a solid in which
biTP¢ab;
atoms of the gas fit in between the atoms
making up the crystal structure of the solid.
sMrUb]s½µnedayGgÁFaturgw Edlkñgú enaHbNþaGatUm]sµ½n
Palladium, for example, can occlude hydrogen. zitenAcenøaHGatUmGgÁFaturwgbegIát)anCa TMrg;RkamGgÁFatu rwg.
]TahrN_dUcCa )a::LadüÚmGacP¢ab;CamYyGIuRdÚEsn.
 156

Occultation
The disappearance of a star or planet behind the
GUKultasüúg
moon or another planet. A solar eclipse is a
form of occultation.
kar)aMg)at;páay b¤ PBxageRkayRBHc½nÞ b¤ xageRkayPB
NamYyepSgeTot. sURKasKWCaTMrg;énGUKultasüúg.
Octane number
A number that provides a measure of the ability
cMnYnGuktan
of a fuel to resist *knocking when it is burnt in
an internal combustion engine.
cMnYnEdlbBa¢ak;BIkMrtw eqHrbs;eRbg\nÞn³ EdleqHenA kñúgma:sIun.
Octave
The interval between two musical notes that
Guktav
have a frequency ratio of 2:1. cenøaHrvageNaTePøgBIr EdlmaneRbkg;viTüú 2:1.
Octet
A stable group of eight electrons in the outer
Guket
shell of an atom, as in an atom of an inert gas. RkumlMnwgéneGLicRtugR)aMbIenAkñúgRsTab;eRkAénGatUm
dUcCaenAkñúgGatUmén]sµ½nnicl¬]sµ½nkMr¦.
Ocular
See eyepiece
GUKuyEl
emIl eyepiece
Oersted (Symbol Oe)
The unit of magnetic field strength in the c.g.s.
GWesþt (nimitþsBaØa Oe)
system. It is equivalent to 103/4 -1
. xñatGaMgtg;sueI tEdnma:ejTickñúgRbB½n§ c.g.s. vaesIµnwg 10 /4 Am .
3 -1

Ohm (Symbol ) GUm (nimitþsBaØa )

The derived SI unit of electrical resistance,
being the resistance between two points on a
conductor when a constant potential difference
xñat)anmkBIxñat SI vasMKal;eGayersIusþg;GKIÁsnI. GUm
applied between the points produces a current KICaersIusþgr; vagcMnucBIrenAelIGgÁFatucMlg eBlmanpl
of one ampere in the conductor.
sgb:Utg;EsülefrGnuvtþcenøaHcMnucTaMgBIr begItá )ancrnþ
mYyGMEBrkñúgGgÁFatucMlg.
Ohmmeter
Any instrument for measuring the value of a
GUmEm:t
resistance in ohms. A simple ohmmeter consists
of a battery connected in series with an
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;tMéler:suIsgþ ;KitCaGUm. GUmEm:tsmBaØ rYmman
ammeter, and the unknown resistor is connected CnitamYytCaes‘rICamYyGMEBrEm:Rt nig ersIusþg; EdleKminsÀal;.
across the terminals of the instrument. The
value of the resistance can be determined in tMélersIusþg; GackMnt;CaGnuKmn_éntg; süúg nig crnþ edayeRbIc,ab;GUm.
terms of the voltage and current using Ohm’s
law.
Ohm’s law
The ratio of the potential difference between the
c,ab;GUm
ends of a conductor and the current flowing
through the conductor is constant. This constant
pleFobénplsgb:Utg;EsülrvagcugTaMgsgxagrbs;GgÁ
is the resistance of the conductor, i.e. R =V/I. FatucMlgeTAnwgcrnþqøgkat;GgÁFatucMlgmantMélefr.
tMélefrenHehAfaersIusþgr; bs;GgÁFatucMlg i.e R =V/I .
 157

Olber’s paradox
If the universe is infinite and unchanging the
brmtirbs;GUlEb‘r
sky at night should be bright, as in whatever
direction one looked there would be a star, but
ebIcRkvaLminkMnt;ehIyminpøas;bþÚr eBlenaHemXenAeBl yb;nwgPøW
the sky at night is dark. This paradox is ehIyebIeKemIlBIcgM ayeTAvahak;dUcCapáaymYy b:uEnþépÞemXeBlyb;
resolved by the fact that, according to the big
bang theory the universe is not infinite or KWggwt. tamBitmtienHGnuelamtam
unchanging. Also, as a result of the expansion
of the universe, light from the most distant RTwsIþEdlniyayfacRkvaLCacRkvaLkMnt; b¤ minpøas;bþrÚ .
galaxies has such an extreme red shift that it is
not visible.
tamplKMlatrbs;cRkvaLTaMgmUl BnøWEdlecjBIcMgay
d¾q¶ayrbs;hÝalak;sTIu aMgLaymanlkçN³ Cas,icú BnøBW N’
RkhmEdlminGacemIleXIj.
Opacity
The extent to which a medium is opaque to
kMrwtXµwk
electromagnetic radiation, especially to light. TMhMEdlmCÄdæanXµwkcMeBaHkaMrsIµIeGLicRtUma:ejTic Biess cMeBaHBnWø.
Opera glasses
Low-powered binoculars using the Galileo
EkvGUeb:ra:
optical system. EkvywtEdlmanGnuPaBTab eRbIkgñú RbB½n§GubTicháalIel.
Operator
A mathematical symbol indicating that a
karI
specific operation should be carried out. For nimitþsBaaØKNitviTüabBaa¢kB; IkarIBiessEdlGacGnuvtþ)an. ]TahrN_dUcCa
example the operator in x means that the
square root of x should be taken.
karI kñúg x mann½yfaeKGnuvtþrws kaerén x.
Opposition
The moment at which a planet with an orbit
GUb:UsIusüúg
outside that of the earth is in a line with the
earth and the sun.
xN³EdlPBmYymanG½rb‘ÍtxageRkAEpndI zitenAelIbnaÛt; CamYyEpndI
nig RBHGaTitü.
Optical activity
The ability of certain substances to rotate the
kMrwtskmµGubTic
plane of plane-polarized light as it passes
through a crystal, liquid, or solution.
sarFatuEu dlGacrgVli bøgb; :UlkmµBnøW)an kalNavaqøgkat; RKIsþal;/
GgÁFaturav b¤ sUluysüúg.
Optical axis (principal axis)
The line passing through the optical centre and
G½kSGubTic¬G½kSem¦
the centre of curvature of a lens or spherical
mirror.
bnÛat;qøgkat;p¨itGubTicnigp¨itkMeNagrbs;Lg;TIb¤kBa¢k;EsV.‘
Optical centre
The point at the geometric centre of a lens
p©itGubTic
through which a ray of light entering the lens
passes through without deviation.
cMnucRtg;p©itFrNImaRtrbs;Lg;TI EdlRtg;cMnucenaHeBl
manBnøqW øgkat;Lg;TI vaqøgkat;\tgak.
Optical fibre
A glass fibre through which light can be
srésGubTic
transmitted with very little attenuation. Light
propagates through the fibre by means of
srésEkvEdlkñúgenaHBnøWGacqøgkat;manGaMgtg;sueI tfycuHya:gticbMput.
very many total internal reflections. dMNalBnøWqøgkat;sréstamry³cMNaMgpøat xagkñúgya:geRcIndg.
Optical flat
A flat glass disc having very accurately figured
bnÞHGubTic
surfaces so that the deviation from perfect
flatness does not exceed about 50 nanometres.
fasbnÞHEkvEdlmansNæanépÞYya:grabesIµ eFIeV GaylM gakminelIsBI
Optical flats are used to determine the flatness %0NaNUEm:t. bnÞHGubTicRtUv)aneKeRbI edIm,IkMnt;PaBrabesIéµ népÞbøg;
of plane surfaces by means of the interference
patterns formed between two parallel surfaces. edayeRbITMrg;GaMgETepr:g; EdlbegIátrvagépÞRsbBIr.
 158

Optical glass
Glass used in the manufacture of lenses, prisms
EkvGubTic
and other optical parts. Optical crown glass
may contain potassium or barium in place of
EkvEdleKeRbIkgñú eragcRk edIm,IplitCaLg;TI CaRBIs nig
the sodium of ordinary crown glass and has a Ca]bkrN_GubTicepSgeTot. EkveRkanGubTicGacmanb:Uta süÚm b¤
refractive index in the range of 1.51 to 1.54.
Flint glass contains lead oxide and has a )arüÚmC¿nu YseGaysUdüÚmEdlmankñúgEkveRkanFmµta ehIymansnÞsSn_ 1.51
refractive index between 1.58 and 1.72.
eTA 1.54. kñgú EkvhøúInmanGuksIdu sM nr nig mansnÞsSn_cenøaH1.58 nig
1.72.
Optical rotation
Rotation of plane-polarised light. (See optical
rgiVlGubTic
activity). rgiVlénbøg;b:UlkmµBnø.W emIl optical activity
Optics
The study of light and the phenomena
GubTic
associated with its generation, transmission and
detection. Geometrical optics assumes that light
karsikSaBIBnøW nig )atuPUtEdlekItelIgedaysarBnøW . kñúg
travels in straight lines and is concerned with Gubu TicFrNImaRt eKsnµt;faBnøWcrtambnÞat;Rtg; ehIyeK
the laws controlling the reflection and
refraction of rays of light and also with the begIát)anc,ab;cN M aMgpøatnigcMNaMgEbrénBnøW RBmTaMgRTwsþI
theory behind optical instruments. Physical
optics deals with the wave nature of light, for GMBI]bkrN_GubTic. rUbviTüaGubTicTak;TgnwgFmµCatirlk BnøW
example, diffraction, interference and
polarisation.
dUcCaDIR)ak;süúg GaMgETepr:g; nig b:lU kmµ.
Orbit
1. (In astronomy). The path through space of
G½rb‘Ít ¬Knøgcr¦
one celestial body about another. For a small
body moving around a much larger one the path
!> ¬kñúgtarasaRsþ¦ KnøgEdlcrkñúglMhrbs;GgÁFatuGvkas
is a conic section. Most such orbits are mYyeFobnwgGgÁFatumYyeTot. cMeBaHGgÁFatutUcmYypøas;TI
elliptical. 2. (In physics). The path of an
electron as it travels around the nucleus of an CMuvji GgÁFatuFMmYy eBlenaHKnøgrbs;vamanragCamuxkat; ekan.
atom.
G½rb‘ÍtCaeRcInmanragCaeGlIb. @>¬këúgrUbviTüa¦Knøg
rbs;eGLicRtugkalNavacrC¿uvijéNVyG:U atUm.
Orbital
A region in which an electron may be found in
G½rb‘Ítal;
an atom or a molecule. According to quantum
mechanics we can only specify the probability
tMbn;mYyEdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtugGaceXIjenAkñúgGatUm b¤ m:eU lKul.
of finding the electron in a given element of tamemkanickgTic eyIgGacsÀal;RbU'ab‘lÍ Iet Rtg;cMnucNamYy
space; that is we cannot specify a definite orbit.
The probability of finding an electron in a edIm,IrkeGLicRtugenAkñúgFatuNamYy EdleKeGaykñúglMh mann½yfa
particular region can be obtained by solving
Schrödinger’s equation to give the wave eyIgminGackMnt;G½rb‘Ít eGay'anCak;lak;'aneT.
function , and the probability of location per RbU'ab‘lÍ eI tedIm,IkMnt;rkeGLic RtugkëúgtMbn;NamYy
unit volume is then proportional to |2|.
Gacrk)anedayeRbIsmIkarRsáÚDIghÁ½r edIm,I)anGnuKmn_rlk nig
RbU'ab‘lÍ eI tRtg;TItaMgNamYy këgú mYyxëatmaD KWrk | |.
2

Orbital quantum number

See atom.
cMnYnkgTicG½rb‘Ítal;
emIl atom
OR circuit
See logic circuits.
esoKIV OR

emIl logic circuits

 159

Order
The number of times a variable is
lMdab;
differentiated. dy/dx represents a first-order
derivative, d2y/dx2 a second order derivative
cMnYndgénedrIevGefr. dy/dxtageGayedrIevlMdab;TImyY d2y/dx2
etc. tageGayedrIevlMdab;TIBIr.
Order of magnitude
A value expressed to the nearest power of ten.
lMdab;énTMhM
tMélEdlelIgCitdl;sV½yKuNTI!0.
Ordinary ray
See double refraction.
kaMrsIµFmµta
emIl double refraction
Ordinate
See Cartesian coordinates.
G½redaen
emIl Cartesian coordinates
Origin
See Cartesian coordinates.
Kl;¬Kl;tMruy¦
emIl Cartesian coordinates
Oscillator
An electronic device that produces an
GUsIuLaT½r
alternating voltage output of known frequency
and amplitude. A harmonic oscillator consists
]bkrN_eGLicRtUnci EdlbegIát)antg;süúgqøas;ecjBIeRb kg; nig
of a resonant, or tuned circuit maintained in GMBøITtu EdleKsÁal;. lMeyalGam:UnicmanersUNg; b¤
oscillation by a power source that, with the aid
of positive feedback, overcomes the resistive esoKIVFUnEdleFIVeGaymanlMeyalBIRbPBxageRkA.
losses in the circuit. If the tuned circuit contains
a capacitor in parallel with an inductor the ebIesoKIVFUnmankugdg;saT½rmYytCaExñgCamYyGaMgDucT½r
resonant angular frequency is given by eBlenaHeRbkg;mMuersUNg;eGayedaysmIkar
0 = 1/ LC , where L is the inductance of the
inductor and C is the capacitance of the  = 1/ LC , Edl L CaGaMgDuctg;énGaMgDucT½r ehIy C
0

capacitor.
Caka)a:suIeténkugdg;saT½r.
Oscilloscope
See cathode ray oscilloscope.
GUsIuLÚsáÚb
emIl cathode ray oscilloscope
Osmosis
The passage of a solvent through a
GUsµÚ
semipermeable membrane separating two
solutions of different concentrations. A
dMeNIrénsaFnIyqøgkat;PñassWmIpmW Ib½l EdlbMEbkl,ay
semipermeable membrane is one through which CaBIrEpñkepSgKña. PñassWmIpWmIb½lKWCaPañsmYyEdlqøgkat;
molecules of a solvent can pass but the
molecules of most solutes can’t. m:UelKulénsaFnI Etm:eU lPaKeRcInminGacqøgkat;)aneT.
Otto engine
See internal combustion engine.
ma:sIunGUtU
emIl internal combustion engine
Overdamped
See damping.
tMhyRCuul
emIl damping
Overtones
See harmonic.
sUrxøaMgRCul
emIl harmonic
P
 160

Packing Density
1. The number of devices (such as logic
dg;sIuetEpkXIg
circuits) or integrated circuits per unit area of a
*silicon chip. 2. The quantity of information
!> cMnYn]bkrN_¬dUcCaesoKVILÚsuIc¦ b¤ esoKIVrmY kñgú mYyxñat
stored in a specific space of a storage system èpÛènsIulIkgu qIb. @> brimaNBt’manEdlpÛúkkëúgRbB½n§fas këúgkMu BüÙT½r
associated with a computer, e.g *bits per mm.
of magnetic tape. dUcCa b‘tÍ këgú mYymIlEI m:tènEttma:ejTic.
Pair production
The creation of an electron and a positron from
plitplKU
intense gamma radiation. Since the masses of karbegIáteGLicRtug nig b:sU RIu tugBIkaMrsIµháama:. edaysar
the electron and positron are about 9  10-31 kg
the frequency of the radiation (according to E = ma:srbs;eGLicRtug nig b:sU RIu tugRbEhl 910 kg enaH
-31

hf) must be at least 2.5  1020 Hz.

eRbkg;viTüúskmµ(tamsmIkar E  hf ) RtUvesIµ 2510 Hz
20

Parabola
A conic section with eccentricity e = 1. It is the
)a:ra:bUl
locus of a point that moves so that its distance
from the focus is equal to its perpendicular
EpñkekanEdlmanGiucsg;RTIsueI t e  1. cMgayBIkMnMuesIµ
distance from the directrix. A chord through the nwgcMgayEkgBIbnÞat;R)ab;Tis. ExSbnÞat;kat;tamkMnMuEkg
focus perpendicular to the axis is called the
latus rectum. For a parabola with its vertex at eTAnwgG½kSehAfa)a:ra:Em:t. cMeBaH)a:ra:bUlEdlmankMBUl Rtg;Kl;tMruy
the origin the equation is y2 = 4ax, where a is
the distance from the vertex to the focus. The eK)ansmIkar y  4ax, Edl a CacMgayBI kMBUleTAkMnu.M
2

directrix is the line x = - a, and the latus rectum

is 4a. (See parabolic reflector).
bnÞat;R)ab;TisCabnÞat;mansmIkar x  - a ehIy)a:ra:Em:tesIµ4a (emIl
parabolic reflector).
Parabolic reflector
A reflector having a section that is a parabola.
)a:ra:bUlqøúH
A concave parabolic reflector reflects an
incident parallel beam of radiation through its
)a:ra:bUlqøHú KWCaEpñkEdlmanragCa)a:ra:bUlEdr.kalNaman
focus and, conversely, will produce a parallel kaMBnøWqøgkat;Epñkptrbs;)a:ra:bUlqøúH eFIeV GayBnøWcaMgpøat
beam if the source of radiation is placed at its
focus. Parabolic mirrors are used in reflecting kat;tamkMnurM bs;va ehIyRcasmkvijebIkaMBnøkW at;tamkMnuM
optical telescopes and in some light sources that
require a parallel beam of light. In radio enaHvanwgcaMgpøatRsbG½kSrbs;va. kBa©k); a:ra:bUlRtUv)an
telescopes a dish aerial may also consist of a
parabolic reflector.
eKykeTAeRbIkúñgEkvqøúHGubTic nig eRbICaRbPBBnøWedIm,I
TTYl)ankaMBnñWRsbKña. enAkñúgcanGg;EtnviTüúk¾mancM
NaMgpøat)a:ra:bUlEdr.
Paraboloid
A solid formed by rotating a parabola about its
)a:ra:bUlLÚGIud
axis of symmetry. GgÁFaturwgEdlekItelIgedaykarbgVil)a:ra:bUlC¿vu ijG½kSsIu emRTIrbs;va.
Parallax
An apparent displacement of a distant object,
)a:ra:Lak;
with respect to a more distant background,
when observed from two different positions.
karvas;cMgayTItaMgénvtßúNamYy tamry³ykvtßEú dlenA q¶ayCaeKal
ehIyGñkvas;RtUvsitß enATItaMgBIrepSgKña.
 161

Parallel circuit
A circuit in which the circuit elements are
esoKIVtCaExñg
connected so that the current divides between
them. In general, the voltage across all the
esoKIVtCaExñgKWCaesoKIEV dlkñúgenaHFatuTaMgGs;rbs;vaRtUv)an tP¢ab;Kña
parallel elements is the same, but the currents élya:gNaeGaycrnþclU EckeTAtamExñg nimYy². CaTUeTAkñúgesoKIVenH
through them are different. For resistors in
parallel the total resistance, R, is given by 1/R tg;süúgqøgkat;ExñgnimYy² esIµKañ b:Eu nþcrnþqøgkat;epSgKña.
= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + where R1, R2, ..etc. are the
individual resistances. For capacitors in cMeBaHersIusþgt; CaExñg ersIusþg;srub R eGayedaysmIkar 1/R = 1/R 1 +
parallel the total capacitance C is given by C = 1/R + …Edl R , R , ... CaersIusþg;nm
2 1 2 i Yy². cMeBaHkugdg;saT½rt
C1 + C2 +...
CaExñgvij ka)a:sueI tsrub C eGayedaysmIkar C = C + C +... 1 2

Parallelogram of forces
See parallelogram of vectors.
RbelLÚRkaménkMlaMg
emIl parallelogram of vectors
Parallelogram of vectors
A method of determining the resultant, that is,
RbelLÚRkaménviucT½r
the vector sum of two vectors quantities. The
two vector quantities are represented by two
enHCaviFIrkvicu T½rpÁbÜ énplbUkBIrviucT½r. brimanBIrviucT½rRtUv
adjacent sides of a parallelogram and the )aneKtagedayRCugQmBIrrbs;RbelLÚRkam
resultant is then the diagonal of the
parallelogram through their intersection. ehIyvicu T½rpÁbÜ KWCaGgát;RTUgrbs;RbelLÚRkam.
Paramagnetism
See magnetism.
)a:ra:ma:ejTic
emIl magnetism
Parametric equation
An equation of a curve expressed in the form of
smIkar)a:ra:Em:t
parameters that locate points on a curve. The
parametric equations of a straight line are x = a
KWCasmIkarExSekagmanTMrg;Ca)a:ra:Em:t EdlCacMnuczit enAelIExSekag.
+ bt and y = c + dt, where t (which could be smIkar)a:ra:Em:ténbnÞat;Rtg;KW x = a + bt nig y = c + dt, Edl t
time) is the parameter linking the variables x
and y. For a circle they are x = acos, y = bsin (GacCaeBl)Ca)a:ra:Em:tTak;Tgnwg Gefrx nig y.
The linking parameter is the angle . smIkar)a:ra:Em:trbs;rgVgK; W x = acos, y = bsin. )a:ra:Em:tGaRs½yKWmMu
.
Paraxial ray
A ray that is incident on a reflecting or
kaMBnøW)a:ra:süal
refracting surface close to and parallel to the
axis. In thin-lens theory the small-angle
kaMBnøWEdlcaMgb:HelIépÞbMpaø t b¤ épÞbMEbrCit ehIyRsbeTA nwgG½kS.
approximation is valid for paraxial rays. kñúgRTwsIþLg;TIesþIgkñúgkrNImMutUck¾GacGnuvtþn_ )anEdrcM
eBaHkaMBnøW)a:ra:süal.
Parent
See daughter.
RKYsar
emIl daughter
Parity
The property of a wave function that determines
)a:rIet
the behaviour of the function when all its
spatial coordinates are reversed in direction.
lkçN³GnuKmn_rlkEdlkMnt;lkçN³GnuKmN_ eBlkUGr
edaentamEpñkrbs;vaRcasTisedAKña.
 162

Parsec
A unit of length used to express astronomical
)a:sic
distance. The distance at which the mean radius
of the earth’s orbit around the sun subtends an
xñatRbEvgEdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;cgM aytarasaRsþ. )a:sci Ca
angle of one second of arc. One parsec is equal cMgayBIkaMEpndIeTAKnøgeKacrrbs;vaC¿uvji RBHGaTitüekos
to 3.0857  1016 m, or 3.2616 light years.
)anFñÚkñúgry³eBlmYyvinaTI. !)a:sci esIµ 3.0857  10 m, b¤
16

3.2616qñaB M nøW.
Partial
A simple component of a musical tone. When a
)a:Etül
musical instrument produces a note, it will
produce a complex tone in which the
smasFatuFmµtaénsUePøg. eBl]bkrN_ePøgbegIáteNaT vak¾begIátsUEdr
fundamental frequency is mixed with partials. EdlkñúgenaHeRbkg;RKwHlayKñaCamYy)a: Etül. )a:EtülxusBIGamUnci
A partial is not the same as a harmonic, whose
frequency is a multiple of the fundamental, as EdlmaneRbkg;rmY CamYy eRbkg;RKwH.
some partials are inexact multiples of the
fundamental.
Partial differential
The infinitesimal change in a function
DIepr:g;EsültamEpñk
consisting of two or more variables when one
of the variables changes and the others remain
bMErbMrYltUcbMptu énGnuKmn_EdlmanGefrBIr b¤ eRcIn. eBl
z GefrmYyERbRbYl GefrmYyeTotrkSaefrdEdl. ebI

constant. If z = f(x, y), then x is the partial z
z  f(x, y), enaH KWCaDIepr:gE; sülén z eFob x ehIy cMEnk
differential of z with x, while y remains x
yvijminpøas;bþÚr. smIkarDIepr:g;EsültamEpñk dUc CasmIkarLapøas
unchanged. A partial differential equation, such
as Laplace's equation, is an equation containing
partial derivatives of a function. The total
differential of a function, given in terms of
KWCasmIkarEdlmanedrIevtamEpñk. DIepr:g;EsülsrubénGnuKmn_
partial differentials, is defined as KWCab;GnuKmn_CamYyDIepr:g; ;EsültamEpñk ebIzCaDIepr:g;Esülsrub
z z
 x
x 
y
y enaHeK)an
z = .
z z
z = x  y .
x y
Partial eclipse
See eclipse.
r)aMgtamEpñk
emIl eclipse
Partial pressure
See Dalton's Law.
sMBaFtamEpñk
emIl Dalton's law
Particle
1. (in physics) One of the fundamental
pg; b¤ PaKl¥it
components of matter. See elementary particles.
2. (in mechanics) A hypothetical body that has
!> (kñúgrUbviTüa) smasFatud¾tUcbMputmYyénrUbFatu. emIl elementary
mass but no physical extension. As it is particles. @> (kñúgKImIviTüa) GgÁFatuEdlman ma:s EtminGacbMEbkva)an.
regarded as having no volume, a particle is
incapable of rotation and therefore can only edayeKcat;Tku favaKµanmaD vaminGaceFIVclnargVil)aneT
move in translation.
ehtudUcenHvaGaceFIVclnarM kwlEtb:eu NÑaH.
Particle physics
The study of *elementary particles.
rUbviTüaPaKli¥t
rUbviTüaEdlsikSaBIPaKli¥tdMbUg.
Pascal
The *SI unit of pressure equal to one newton
)a:sáal;
per square meter. xñatSIénsMBaFesInµ wgmYyjÚtunkñúgmYyEm:Rtkaer.
 163

Pascal’s law
In a confined fluid, externally applied pressure
c,ab;)a;sáal;
is transmitted uniformly in all directions. The
pressure at any point within the fluid at a depth
GgÁFaturavEdldak;kúñgepIg vabeBa©jsMBaFesIRµ Kb;TisedA TaMgGs;.
h below the surface of the fluid is equal to pA + sMBaFRtg;cnM ucNamYyenAkñúgGgÁFaturavRtg;Ce¿u rA h
gh,, where pA is the atmospheric pressure at
the surface of the fluid and  is the density of xageRkamépÞrbs;GgÁFaturavesIµnwg p + gh, Edl p KW
A A

the fluid.
CasMBaFGatm:EU sV‘Rtg;èpÛGgÀFaturav ehIyCadg;suIetGgÁ Faturav.
Paschen series
See hydrogen spectrum.
es‘rI)a:qin
emIl hydrogen spectrum
Passive device
A circuit component such as a resistor,
]bkrN_nicl
capacitor or inductor which is incapable of
amplification.
smasFatuesoKIVEdlmandUcCa ersIusþg;/ kugdg;saT½r b¤
GaMgDucT½rEdlmaneRbIkñúgGMBøI.
Pauli exclusion principle
The principle that no two identical particles in a
eKalkarN_elIkElgrbs;b:UlI
system, such as electrons in an atom, can have
an identical set of quantum numbers. This
eKalkaN_EdlKµanPaKl¥itBIrdUcKñakñúgRbB½n§EtmYy dUcCa
principle sets the rules by which electrons are eGLicRtugkñúgGatUm EtGacmancMnYnkgTicdUcKña. tam eKalkarN_enH
sorted into shells around the nucleus.
eGLicRtugRtUvenAkñgú RsTab;C¿uvji éNVy.:U
p.d. (potential difference)
See electric potential.
plsgb:Utg;Esül
emIl electric potential
Peltier effect
The change in temperature produced at a
plEb:lET
junction between two dissimilar metals or
semiconductors when an electric current passes
bMErbMrYlsItuNPð aBekItmanRtg;fñaMg(muxtMnr)rvagelah³BIr xusKña
through the junction. The direction of the b¤rvagsWmIkugDucT½reBlmancrnþGKÁIsnIqøgkat;mux tMnr.
current determines whether the temperature
rises or falls. The effect can be used in small- TisedAcrnþGKÁsnIGaRs½yeTAtamsItuNPð aBekIn b¤ cuH.
scale refrigerators.
plenHRtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIkñúgTUTwkkktUc².
Pendulum
Any rigid body that swings about a fixed point.
e)a:l
The ideal simple pendulum consists of a bob of
small mass oscillating back and forth through a
GgÁFatuEdlGaceyalcuHelIgeFobcMncu nwgmYy. lkçN³
small angle at the end of a string of negligible e)alsmBaØmankUnTMgn;mYymanma:s;tic eyalRtlb;eTA
mass. The pendulum has a period T given by T
l
mktamry³ExSEdleKminKitma:s. e)a:lmanxYb T ehIy
= 2
g
, where l is the length of the eGayedaysmIkar T  2 gl , Edl l CaRbEvgExSrbs; e)a:l
pendulum and g is the gravitational acceleration
of free-fall. The period is independent of the
mass of the bob, and nearly independent of the
ehIygCasMTuHTMnajTnøak;esrI. xYbrbs;e)a:lmin
amplitude of the swing for small angular GaRs½ynwgma:srbs;kUnTMgn;eT ehIyesIÞEtminGaRs½ynwg
displacement.
GMBøITtu rbs;lMeyal kñúgxN³EdlmMulMeyaltUc.
 164

Pentode
A *thermionic valve with a suppressor grid
b:g;tUd
between the anode and the screen grid of a
tetrode. Its purpose is to suppress the loss of
va:l;ETmIy:UnicEdlmansnÞHva:l;enAcenøaHGaNUd nig sM
electrons from the anode as a result of Naj;eGRkg;énetRtUd. RbeyaCn_rbs;vaKWedIm,ITb;kar)at;
secondary emission. The suppressor grid is
maintained at a negative potential relative to the bg;eGLicRtugBIGaNUdedaysarkarbeBa©jelIkTIBIr. snÞH
anode and to the screen grid.
va:l;rkSab:tU g;EsülGvíCm¢ aneFobnwgGaNUd nigeFobnwgeG Rkg;sMNaj;.
Penumbra
See shadow.
møb;RBal
emIl shadow
Perfect gas
See ideal gas.
]sµ½nbrisuT§
emIl ideal gas
Perigee
See apogee.
EBrIhÁI
emIl apogee
Perihelion
The point in the orbit of a planet which is
EBrIehelon
nearest to the sun. The earth is at perihelion on
about 3rd. January. Compare aphelion.
cMnucenAkñúgKnøgtaravifÍEdlenACitRBHGaTitübMptu . EpndI
enACitRBHGaTitübMptu enAéf¶TI#mkra. eRbobeFob aphelion.
Period
See periodic motion.
xYb
emIl periodic motion
Periodic law
The principle that the physical and chemical
c,ab;clnaxYb
properties of elements are a periodic function of
their proton number. One of the major
eKalkarN_EdllkçN³rUb nig KImIrbs;FatuTaMgLayCa
successes of the periodic law was its ability to GnuKmnwgcMnYnRbUtugrbs;va. c,ab;xYbGaceGayeKdwgBI
predict chemical and physical properties of
undiscovered elements and unknown lkçN³KImIngi rUbénFatuEdleKminTan;rkeXIj nig smas
compounds that were later confirmed
experimentally. FatuEdleKminTan;saÁ l; EdleRkaymkRtUv)anbBaa¢kt; am
ry³karBiesaFn_.
Periodic motion
Any motion of a system that is continuously
clnaxYb
and identically repeated. The time T that it
takes to complete one cycle of an oscillation or
clnaénRbB½n§NamYyEdlbnþrhUt ehIysareLIgvij dEdl². ry³eBl
wave motion is called the period, which is the TedIm,IbMeBjmYyC¿uclnalMeyal b¤clnarlkehAfaxYb
reciprocal of the frequency. See pendulum;
simple harmonic motion. EdlCacMras;éneRbkg;. emIl pendulum; simple harmonic motion.
Peripheral device
Any device such as an input or output device,
]bkrN_xageRkA
connected to the central processing unit of a
computer. Memory storage is also usually
]bkrN_dUcCa]bkrN_edatcUl b¤ ]bkrN_edatecj
regarded as a peripheral. EdleKP¢ab;eTAnwgCPUrbs;kuBM üÚT½r. ]bkrN_Edlmim:UrI
pÞúkÉksark¾cat;Tku Ca]bkrN_eRkAEdr.
 165

Periscope
An optical device that enables an observer to
briTsSn_
see over or around opaque objects. It consists of
a long tube with mirrors at each end set at 45o
]bkrN_GubTicEdlGacemIlkat;GgÁFatuXkµw )an.
to the direction to be viewed. ]bkrN_enHmanbMBg;EvgmYyEdlmankBa©ke; nAcugTaMg sgxag pÁC¿ú amMu 45 0

eTAnwgTisedAemIl.
Permalloys
A group of alloys of high magnetic
EBma:Ly
permeability consisting mostly of iron and
nickel. They are used in thin foils in electronic
RkumsMelah³EdlmanC¿rabma:ejTicx<s; PaKeRcInmanEdk nig nIEkl.
transformers, for magnetic shielding, and in eKeRcIneRbIvakñgú Rtg;s½rV ma:T½reGLicRtUnicsM rab;CaExlma:ejTic nig
computer memories.
kñúgmimr:U IkuBM üÚT½r.
Permanent gas
A gas that cannot be liquefied by pressure alone
]sµ½nGciéRnþ
at normal temperatures; (i.e. a gas that has a
critical temperature below temperature). (Note:
]sµn½ EdlminGackøayeTACaGgÁFaturavedaysMBaFenAsItuNðPaBFmµta
the critical temperature is the temperature mann½yfaCa]sµ½nEdlmansItuNðPaBdl;kM rwtxageRkamsItuNðPaBFmµta.
above which the gas cannot be liquefied
however great the pressure). sUmkt;sMKal;fasItuNPð aB
dl;krM wtCasItuNPð aBxagelIsItuNPð aBEdl]sµn½ minGac
køayCaGgÁFaturav.
Permanent magnet
See magnet.
emEdkGciéRnþ
emIl magnet
Permeability (Symbol ) C¿urabma:ejTic (nimitþsBaaØ )
The ratio of the magnetic flux density, B, in a
substance to the external field strength, H; i.e.  pleFobéndg;sIuetPøcú ma:ejTic B eTAnwgGaMgtg;seIu tEdn xageRkAH
= B/H. The permeability of free space, 0, is
also called the magnetic constant, and has the mann½yfa   B/H. C¿ru abma:ejTicénlMhes rItageday 0
value 4  10-7 H m-1. The relative b¤ehAfaefrma:ejTic ehIymantMél 4  10 H m .
-7 -1
permeability of a substance,  r, is given by 
/0. C¿rabma:ejTiceFobénsarFatutageday    / 0.
r

Permittivity (Symbol ) EBmITIvIet (nimitþsBaaØ )

The ratio of the electric displacement in a
medium to the intensity of the electric field KWCapleFobénbMlas;TIGKÁIsnIkñúgmCÄdæaneTAnwgGaMgtg;sueI tEdnGKÁIsnIEd
producing it; i.e.  = D/E. If two charges q1 and
q2 are separated by a distance r in a vacuum, the
lbegItá va mann½yfa D/E. ebIbnÞúk BIrq nig q XøatKñacMgay r
1 2

force F between the charges is given by F = kñúgsuBaØakas enaHkMlaMg F rvagbnÞkú eGayedaysmIkar F = q q /4 r
1 2 0
2

q1q2/40r2. In this statement of Coulomb's law

using SI units, 0 is called the permittivity of
enHehA fac,ab;KLU .Mú  ehAfaEBmITIveI ténlMhesrI.
0

free-space.
 166

Permutations and combinations

A permutation is an arrangement of a number
tMerob nig bnSM
of objects in a particular order. If we have n
unlike objects the number of permutations of r
tMerobKWCakarerobcMnnY FatutamlMdab;c,as;las;. ebIeyIg
Pr 
n! manFatunmindUcKña cMnnY tMerobénFatu reGayedaysmIkar
n
(n - r)! . For
objects chosen is given by
n P 
r
n!
(n  r )!
. ]TahrN_ ab nig ba KWCatMerobBIrepSg Kñarvag a nig
example, ab and ba are two different
permutations of a and b.
A combination is an arrangement of a number b. bnSMKCW akarerobcMnYnFatuedayminKitBIlM dab;c,as;las; ab nig ba
of objects in no particular order; ab and ba are
the same combination. If we have n unlike
KWCabnSMdUcKña. ebIeyIgman n FatumindUcKña cMnYnbnSM
rFatu)anmkBIrsmIkar C 
objects the number of combination of r objects n!
r!(n  r )!
n r
n!
n Cr 
chosen is given by
r!(n - r)! .
Perturbation
A departure by a celestial body from the orbit it
Rcbl;
would follow if it moved only under the
influence of a single central force. According to
karecjdMeNIredayGgÁFatuGvkasBIKnøgvífI vacrdEdl²
Kepler's law, for example, a single planet ebIvapøas;TIeRkam\Ti§BlkMlaMgpí©tmYyb:eu NÑaH. tamc,ab; ekEBø
orbiting the sun would move in an elliptic orbit.
In fact planets are perturbed from elliptical ]TahrN_dUcCaPBmYyvílC¿uvíjRBHGaTitü vavílkñúg
orbits by the gravitational forces exerted on
them by other planets. KnøgeKacrragCaeGlIb. tamBitPBTaMgLayvílRbbUkRc bl;BIKnøgeGlIb
edaysarkMlaMgTMnajEdlbeBa©jeTAelI vaedayPBdéTeTot.
Pewter
An alloy of lead and tin. It usually contains
BUET
63% tin. BUETCasMelah³EdlpSMelIgedaysMN nig sMN)a:haMg.
CaTUeTAmansMN)a:haMg^#PaKry.
pH
See pH scale
eb:has;
emIl pH scale
Phase
1. A homogeneous part of a heterogeneous
pas/ sNßan
system that is separated from other parts by a
distinguishable boundary. A mixture of ice and
!> EpñkGUmEU: snénRbB½n§eGETr:UEsn EdlEjkecjBIKña
water is a two-phase system. A mixture of salt edayEbgEckRBMEdn. l,ayTwkkk nig TwkKWCaRbB½n§Edl manpasBIr.
and water is a one-phase system.
2. A description of the stage that a periodic l,ayGMbil nig TwkKWCaRbB½n§Edlmanpas mYy.
motion has reached, usually by comparison
with another such motion of the same @>dMNak;kalEdlQandl;clnaxYb CaTUeTAeK
frequency. Two varying quantities are said to
be in phase if their maximum and minimum
sÁal;vaedaykareRbobeFobCamYyclnaEdlmaneRbkg; dUcKña.
values occur at the same time; otherwise there eKfabrimaNBIrmanpasdUcKña ebItMélGtibrima nig
is said to be a phase difference. Phase
difference is measured in terms of an angular Gb,brimarbs;vaekItelIgenAeBlEtmYy pÞúymkvijeKfa
difference, either in degrees or radians.
vamanpasxusKña. plsgpasKWCaGnuKmn_énplsgmMu eTaHCaKitCadWeRk
b¤ KitCara:düg;k¾eday.
 167

Phase angle
The difference in phase between two
mMupas
sinusoidally varying quantities. If the
displacement x1 of one quantity is given by x1
plsgpasrvagclnasIunyu sUGIudBIrepSgKña. ebIbMlas;TI
= Asint, where  is the angular frequency x énbrimanmYyeGay x  Asint, EdlCaeRbkg;mMu ehIy ACaGMBøITt
1 1 u
and A is the amplitude, and the displacement x2
of another quantity is given by x2 = Asin( t +
nig bMlas;TI x énbrimaNmYyeTotman smIkar x  Asin(t + ),
2 2

), then , measured in radians, is the phase eBlenHKWCamMupasén x eFob x ehIyKitCara:düg;. ebIviC¢man
2 1

angle of x2 relative to x1. If  is positive, then enaHeK)anx yWtCag x ebI GviCm¢ anenaHeK)an x elOnCag x .
2 1 2 1
x2 lags x1; if  is negative, then x2 leads x1.
Phase contrast microscope
A type of microscope that is used for examining
mIRkUTsSn_paskugRtas;
such specimens as biological cells and tissues.
It makes visible the changes of phase that occur
RbePTmIRkUTsSn_EdleKeRbIsrM ab;BinitüsMNak dUcCaRs Tab; nig
when nonuniformly transparent cells are CalikakñúgEpñkCIv³viTüa. vaGaceGayeKemIl
illuminated.
eXIjBIdMNak;kalpøas;bþrÚ EdlekItmancMeBaHsMNak.
Phase diagram
A graph showing the relationship between
düaRkampas
solid, liquid and gaseous phases over a range of
conditions, for example, temperature and
RkabEdlbgðajBITMnak;TMngrvagGgÁFaturgw / GgÁFaturav nig
pressure. ]sµn½ taml½kçx½NÐNamYy tYya:gsItuNðPaB nig sMBaF.
Phase modulation
See modulation.
karbþÚrpas
emIl modulation
Phases of the moon
The shapes of the illuminated surface of the
sNßanRBHc½RnÞ
moon as seen from the earth. The shape
changes according to the relative positions of
rUbragPWøelIépÞRBHc½RnþEdleyIgemIleXIjBIEpndI.
the earth, sun and moon. New moon occurs rUbragpøas;bþÚrGaRs½yeTAnwgTItaMgeFobénEpndI/RBHGaTitü nig RBHc½nÞ.
when the near side of the moon is not
illuminated by the sun at all. As the moon RBHc½nfÞ ÍµekItmanenAeBlEdlcMNitRBHc½nÞ min)anTTYlBnøWBIRBHGaTitü.
moves eastward in its orbit we see a crescent
moon.
Phase space
See statistical mechanics.
lMhpas
emIl statistical mechanics
Phase velocity (Symbol vp)
The speed of propagation of a pure sine wave.
el,Ónpas (nimitþsBaaØ v ) p

vp  f, where f is the frequency and is the el,Óndalrbs;rlk v  f, Edlf CaeRbkg; ehIy CaC¿ hanrlk.
p
wavelength. The value of vp depends on the
nature of the medium through which it travels.
tMélv GaRs½yelIFmµCatiénmCÄdæanEdl vaqøgkat;.
p

For electromagnetic waves travelling through

space, the phase speed c is given by c =
ε μ
1/ 0 0 , where 0 and 0 are the electric and
cMeBaHrlkeGLicRtUma:ejTicdalkñúglMh el,Ónpasrbs;vatageday c
eGay c = 1/ ε μ , Edl  nig CaefrGKIÁsnI nig
0 0
0 0

magnetic constant respectively. efrma:ejTicerogKña.

Phasor
A rotating radius vector of a reference circle
pas½r
that represents a sinusoidally varying physical
quantity. Its length represents the amplitude of
pas½rCaviucT½rkaMrgViléntMruyrgVg;EdltagedaybrimaNclnasIunuysUGIdu epS
the quantity and it is imagined to rotate with gKña. RbEvgrbs;vatageGayGMBøITut ehIyviledayel,ÓnmMuesIµnwgeRbkg;mMu
angular velocity equal to the angular frequency
of the quantity, so that the instantaneous value dUcenHtMélxN³ én brimaNtagedaycMenalrbs;vaelIGgát;p©itrbs;tMruy
of the quantity is represented by its projection
on a diameter of the reference circle. rgVg.;
 168

Phonon
A quantum of sound-wave energy having a
pUNug
magnitude hf, where h is the Planck constant
and f is the frequency of the sound wave. It is
kgTicénfamBlrlksMelgEdlmanmUD: ulesIµ hf Edl h Caefrpøg; ehIy f
useful in the scattering of particles by thermal CaeRbkg;énrlksMelg. eKykvaeRbI
waves (short wavelength sound waves) in
matter. kñúgl,ayPaKli¥tedayrlkkMedA¬rlksMelgmanC¿han
rlkxIø¦kñúgrUbFatu.
Phosphor bronze
An alloy of copper containing 4% to 10 % of
sMriT§pUsV½r
tin and .05% to 1% of phosphorous as a
deoxydising agent. It is used for marine
sMelah³Edlmans<an; 4% eTA 10%énsMN)a:haMg nig 0.05% eTA
purposes and where it is exposed to heavy wear, 1%énpUsV½r. emIl bronze
as in gear wheels. See also: bronze.
Phosphorescence
See luminescence.
pUsV½rersg;
emIl luminescence
Photocathode
See photoelectric cell.
pUtUkatUd
emIl photoelectric cell
Photocell
A cathode that emits electrons when light falls
pUtUEsl
upon it, as a result of the photoelectric effect.
See photoelectric cell.
katUdEdlbeBa©jeGLicRtugeBlmanBnWbø :elIva EdlCa
ehtueFIVeGaymanplpUtUGKÁsI nI. emIl photoelectric cell
Photochemical reaction
A chemical reaction caused by light or
RbtikmµpUtUKImI
ultraviolet radiation. The incident photons are
absorbed by reactant molecules to give excited
RbtikmµKImIEdlekIteLIgedayBnøW b¤ kaMrsIsµ VayGulRta.
molecules or free radicals, which undergo pUtugxÞatecjRtUvRsUbedaym:eU lKulerGak;tg; edIm,I)anm:U
further reaction.
elKulesrIb¤ra:DIkal;esrI EdleRkaymkra:DIkal;esrIenH
eFIVRbtikmµteTAeTot.
Photochemistry
The branch of chemistry concerned with
pUtUKImI
photochemical reactions. saxarbs;muxviCa¢ KImI EdlTak;TgeTAnwgRbtikmµpUtUKImI.
Photochromism
A change of colour occurring in certain
bMErBN’/ pUtURkUm
substances when exposed to light.
Photochromic materials are used in sunglasses
bMErbMrYlBN’ekItmankëúgsarFatueBlEdlvab:HBnøW. rUb
that darken in bright sunlight. FatuptU URkUmRtUv)aneKeRbIkñúgEvntakarBarkMedAéf¶.
Photodiode
A semiconductor diode used to detect the
pUtudüÚt
presence of light or to measure its intensity. It
consists of a p-n junction device in a container
düÚtsWmkI ugDucT½rEdleKeRbIsMrab;cab;ykBnøW b¤ edIm,I
that focuses light close to the junction. vas;GaMgtg;suIetrbs;va. pUtUdüÚtmanRsTab; p-nEdlGac
eFIVeGayBnøWcUldl;)an.
Photoelasticity
An effect in which certain materials exhibit
pUtUeGLasÞic
double refraction when subjected to stress. It is
used in a technique for detecting strains in
plEdlTTYl)anBIrbU FatuEdlmanlMgakBIrdg eBlsgát; va.
transparent materials. vaRtUv)aneKeRbIvakñúgbec©kvíCa¢ sMrab;segátemIlkar eRcaHkñúgrUbFatuføa.
 169

Photoelectric cell
Any of several devices that produce an electric
fµBilpUtUGKÁIsnI
signal in response to exposure to
electromagnetic radiation.
]bkrN_GKÁIsnIEdlbegItá sIuBaØal;GKÁIsnIEdlTTYl)anBIkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:e
jTic.
Photoelectric effect
The liberation of electrons (see photoelectron)
plpUtUGKÁIsnI
from a metal surface exposed to
electromagnetic radiation. The number of
karxÞatecjeGLicRtugBIépÞelah³kalNavab:HnwgkaMrsIeµ G
electrons emitted depends on the intensity of LicRtUvma:ejTic. cMnYneGLicRtugEdlxÞatecjGaRs½yelI
the radiation. The kinetic energy of the
electrons emitted depends on the frequency of GaMgtg;sIueténkaMrsIµ. famBlsIuenTicéneGLicRtugEdl
the radiation. The effect is a quantum process in
which the radiation is regarded as a stream of xÞatecjGaRs½yelIeRbkg;énkaMrsIµ. plenHCadMenIrkgTic
photons, each having an energy hf, where h is
the Planck constant and f is the frequency of the
EdlkaMrsIRµ tUv)aneKcat;Tku dUcCakabeBa©jpUtug edayni
radiation. A photon can only eject an electron mYy²manfamBl hf Edl hCaefrpøg; ehIy f CaeRbkg; Bnø.W
from the surface of the metal if the photon
energy exceeds the work function, f, of the pUtugmYyGacbeBa©j)aneGLicRtugEtmYyb:eu NÑaH BIépÞelah³
metal, i.e. if hf0 = , where f0 is the minimum,
or threshold, frequency below which no
ehIybeBa©jkmµnþ hf = Edl f CaeRbkg;
0 0

electrons can be emitted. The maximum kinetic Gb,brimaEdleGLicRtugminGacxÞatecjBIépÞelah³)an.

energy , Em, of the ejected electron is given by
the Einstein equation: Em = hf -  famBlsIeu nTicGtibrma E EdlbeBa©jedayeGLicRtug
m

eGayedaysmIkarGaMgsþajKW E = hf - .
m

Photoelectron
An electron emitted from a substance by
pUtUeGLicRtug
irradiation of electromagnetic energy. eGLicRtugEdlxÞatecjBIsarFatuedaysarkaMrsIfµ amBl
eGLicRtUma:ejTic.
Photoemission
The process in which electrons are emitted from
pUtUeGmIsüúg
a substance by irradiation. pUtUeGmIsüúgKWCadMenIrEdleGLicRtugxÞatecjBIsarFatueday sarkaMrsI.µ
Photographic density
A measure of the opacity of a photographic
dg;sIuetpUtURkab
emulsion (negative or transparency). rgVas;kMrtw Xµkw énl,ayrUbft¬GvíCm¢ an b¤ føa¦.
Photography
The process of forming a permanent image on
rUbft
specially treated film or paper. A camera is
used to expose film to a focussed image of the
dMeNIrkarbegItá rUbrUbPaBGciéRnþelIbnÞHesIþg b¤ elIRkdas.
object to be photographed. ma:sunI ftRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IykrUbPaBvtßúptíþ elIhVIl.
Photoionisation
The ionisation of an atom or molecule as a
pUtUGiuy:ugkmµ
result of irradiation by electromagnetic
radiation. For a photoionisation to occur the
GIyu :ugkmµrbs;GatUm b¤ m:eU lKulekItmkBIkaMrsIweµ GLicRtUma: ejTic.
incident photon of radiation must have an cMeBaHpUtUGIuy:ugkmµ eBlmankaMrsIµpUtugcaMgb:H eFIV
energy in excess of the ionisation potential, I, of
the atom. The ejected photoelectron will have eGayvaTTYlbEnßmfamBlb:tU g;EsülGIyu :ugkmµIénGatUm
an energy E given by E = hf - I, where h is the
Planck constant, f is the frequency of the karxÞatecjpUtUeGLicRtugmanfamBl E = hf - I Edl h Caefrpøg;
incident radiation, and I is the ionisation fCaeRbkg;kaMrsIc µ aMgb:H ehIy I Cab:Utg;Esül GIyu :ugkmµ.
potential of the irradiated species.
 170

Photolithography
A technique used in the manufacture of
pUtUlItURkab
semiconductor components, integrated circuits
etc.
pUtUlItURkabCaviFIEdleKeRbIkgñú eragcRksWmkI ugDúcT½r dUcCa IC
CaedIm.l.
Photometer
An instrument used to measure luminous
pUtUEm:t
intensity. ]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;GaMgtg;sIuetBnøW.
Photometry
The study of visual radiation, especially the
pUtUemRTI
calculations and measurements of luminous
intensity.
viC¢aEdlsikSakaMrsIµKeM hIj CaBiesssikSaBikarvas;GaMg tg;sIuetBnøW.
Photomicrography
The use of photography to obtain a permanent
pUtUmIRkuRkaPI
record of the image of an object viewed through
a microscope.
eRbIpUtURkabedIm,ITTYl)ankarftcMlgCaGciéRnþénrUbPaB
vtßúemIltammIRkUTsSn_.
Photomultiplier
A sensitive type of photoelectric cell in which
pUtUma:l;FIEBø
electrons emitted from a photocathode are
accelerated through a high potential difference
RbePTfµBilpUtUGKÁIsnI EdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtugxÞatecjBI pUtkU atUd
to a second electrode where many electrons are sÞúHkat;plsgb:Utg;Esülx<sc; UleTAeGLicRtUd TIBIr
liberated by each original photoelectron, as a
result of secondary emission. The whole edayeGLicRtugCaeRcInRtUvJ)anrMedaHedaypUtUeGLic RtugedImnimYy².
process is repeated many times. In this way the
original emission of photoelectrons can be dMeNIrkarTaMgmUlRbRBiteTAdEdl²Ca eRcIndg. kñúgrdMeNIrkarenH
increased by a factor of up to 108 times, to
provide a useful measuring current.
pUtUeGLicRtugedImEdlxÞat ecjGacekInrhUtdl; 10 dg8

edIm,Ipþl;CaRbeyaCn_dl; karvas;crnþ.
Photon
A particle with zero rest mass consisting of a
pUtug
quantum of electromagnetic energy. The photon
may also be regarded as a unit of energy equal
pg;manma:senAnwgfál;esIµsUnü mankgTicfamBleGLic RtUma:ejTic.
to hf, where h is the Planck constant and f is the pUtugk¾Gaccat;TukCaÉktafamBlesIµ hf Edl hCaefrpøg;ehIy f
frequency of the radiation. Photons travel at the
speed of light. CaeRbkg;énkaMrsI.µ pUtugcresIµ el,ÓnBnWø.
Photopic vision
The type of vision that occurs when the cones
KMehIjpUtUBic
in the retina of the eye are the principal
receptors. Compare scotopic vision.
RbePTKMehIjEdlekItmaneBlekaNkñúgerTInrbs;EPñkCa GñkTTYldMbUg.
eRbobeFob scotopic vision
Photoreceptor
A sensory cell or group of cells that reacts to
pUtUsibT½r
the presence of light. It usually contains a
pigment that undergoes a chemical change
¿fµBilsins½r b¤ bgÁúMfµBilEdleFIVRbtikmµeBlb:HBnøW. CaFmµ
when light is absorbed, thus stimulating the tamanCatiBN’EdlTTYlrgbMlas;bþrÙ KImIkalNavaRsUbBnWø cUl
optic nerve.
dUecñHeFIVeGaysrésRbsaTGubTickMerIk.
Photosensitive substance
1. Any substance that when exposed to
sarFatupUtUsinsIuTiv
electromagnetic radiation produces a
photoconductive, photelectric, or photovoltaic
!> sarFatuNaEdlb:HkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicbegIát)anCa plpUtUkugDucTIv/
effect. 2. Any substance, such as the emulsion plpUtUGKÁIsnI/ plpUtUv:ulta. @> sar
of a photographic film, in which the
electromagnetic radiation produces a chemical FatudUcCal,ayR)ak;EdlmanenAkñúghVIlft eBlb:HkaM
change.
rsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicbegIát)anCabMlas;bþrÚ KImI.
 171

Photosphere
The visible surface of the sun or other star and
pUtUEsV’
the source of its continuous spectrum. It is a
gaseous layer several hundreds of kilometers
karemIleXIjépÞRBHGaTitü b¤ páay nig RbPBs,icú Cab; rbs;va.
thick, with an average temperature of 5780 K. vaKWCaRsTab;]sµ½nmankMras;bIbYnryKILÚEm:Rt mansItuNPð aBmFüm
5780K.
Phototransistor
A junction transistor that is photosensitive.
pUtURtg;sIusÞ½r
When radiation falls on the emitter-base
junction, new free charge carriers are created in
fañgM Rtg;suIs½rÞ EdlRbtikmµCamYyBnWø. eBlmankaMrsIcµ aMg
the base region, and the collector current is mkb:HelIfñaMgeGmIET enaHnwgekItmanbnÞkú fIµkúñgtMbn;enaH
increased. Phototransistors are similar to
photodiodes except that the primary ehIycrnþk¾ekInelIg. pUtURtg;sIus½rÞ RsedogKñanwgpUtUdüÚt Edr
photoelectric current is amplified internally and
it is therefore more sensitive to light than the xusKñaRtg;EtfacrnþptU UGKÁsI nIdMbUgxagkñúgekInelIg
photodiode. dUcenHehIyeFIeV GayvagayRbtikmµCamYyBnøCW agpUtUdüÚt.
Photovoltaic effect
See photoelectric effect.
plpUtUv:ulta
emIl photoelectric effect
pH scale
A logarithmic scale for expressing the acidity or
kMrwtpH
alkilinity of a solution. To a first
approximation, the pH of a solution can be
kMrwtLÚkarItsMrab;vas;l,ayGasIut b¤ l,ayGal;kaLaMg.
defined as -log10c, where c is the concentration rgVas;pHGackMnt;manragCa -log c Edl cCabNþMúGIuyu:g
10
of hydrogen ions in mole per cubic decimeter.
A neutral solution at 25oC has a hydrogen-ion GIRu dUEsnKitCam:UlkñúgmYyedsIuEm:RtKUb. l,ayNWtenAsI tuNðPaB
concentration of 10-7mol dm-3, so the pH is 7. A
pH below 7 indicates an acid solution; one 25 CmanbNþMúGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn10 mol dm dUcenHkMrwtpH esIµ 7.
0 -7 -3

above indicates an alkaline solution. kalNakMrwtpHeRkam 7bBa¢ak;fa vaCal,ayGasItu ebI

pHelI7vaCal,ayGal;kaLaMg.
Physical chemistry
The branch of chemistry concerned with the
rUbKImI
effect of chemical structure on physical
properties. It includes chemical
EpñkmYyénmuxviCa¢ KImIEdlTak;TgCamYyplénTMrg;KmI IelI lkçN³rUb.
thermodynamics and electrochemistry. varYmmanETm:UDINamicKImI nig eGLicRtUKmI I.
 172

Physics
Chemical changes that occur, but with the
rUbviTüa
forces that exist between matter and energy.
Traditionally , the study was divided into
rUbviTüaKWCakarekItmanbMErbMrYlKImI Etmanrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgkM
separate fields: heat, light, sound, electricity laMgEdlmanrvagrUbFatu nig famBl. CaTUeTArUbviTüaman
and magnetism and mechanics. Since the turn
of the last century, however, Quantum EbgEckeTAtamEpñkeTotKW : rUbviTüasikSaBIkMedA/ rUbviTüa sikSaBIBnøI/
mechanics and relativistic physics have become
increasingly important; the growth of 'modern' rUbviTüasikSaBIseM lg/ rUbviTüasikSaBiGKÁIsnI nig ma:ejTic nig
physics has been accompanied by the studies of
atomic physics, nuclear physics and particle
rUbviTüaemkanic. kñgú stvtSeRkaymk
physics. The physics of astronomical bodies eTotmanrUbviTüasikSaBiemkanickgTic nig rUbviTüaeFob/
and their interactions is known as astrophysics,
the physics of the earth is known as geophysics, rUbviTüasikSaBIGatUm/ rUbviTüasikSaBInuyekøEG‘ nig rUbviTüasikSaBIpg;
and the study of the physical aspects of biology
is called biophysics. EdlTaMgenHsuT§swgEtCarUbviTüaman sar³sMxan;nasm½yTMenIbenH.
manrUbviTüamYyeTotsikSa BIGgÁFatukúgñ TIGvkas nig Gnþrkmµrbs;va
rUbviTüaenHeK ehAfarUbviTüataravíTüa. rUbviTüaEdlsikSaBIEpndIeKeGay
eQµaHfarUbviTüaPUmisaRsþ. rUbviTüaEdlsikSaBITidæPaBrUb
énCIviteGayeQµaHfarUbviTüaCIv³.
pi (Symbol  BI (nimitþsBaØa 
The ratio of the circumference of any circle to
its diameter. It is an irrational and trancendental pleFobénbrimaRtrgVg;eTAnwgGgát;p©itrbs;va. vaCacMnYn GsniTan
number with the value
3.141 592 . . . mantMél 3.141 592 . . ..
pico- (Symbol p)
A prefix used in the metric system to denote 10 -
BIkU (nimitþsBaØa p)
12
. For example, 10-12 farad = 1 picofarad (pF). buBVbTEdleKeRbIkúñgRbB½n§maDedIm,ItageGay 10 .-12

]TahrN_ 10 para:t = !BIkUpara:t (pF).

-12

Pie chart
A diagram in which percentages are shown as
RkabBI
sectors of a circle. düaRkamEdlbgðajPaKryCacMNitrgVg;.
Piezoelectric effect
The generation of a potential difference across
plBIhSÚGKÁIsnI
the opposite faces of certain nonconducting
crystals (piezoelectric crystals ) as a result of
karbegIátplsgb:Utg;Esülqøgkat;muxQménRKIsþal;GgÁ
the application of mechanical stress between FatumincMlg¬RKIsaþ l;BIhSÚGKIsÁ nI¦ eBlenaHeKTTYl)an
these faces. The potential difference between
the faces is proportional to the stress and the tMnwgemkanicrvagmuxTaMgBIr. plsgb:Utg;EsülcenøaHépÞ
direction of the potential difference reverses if
the stress changes from compression to tension. smamaRteTAnwgtMnwgehIymanTisedARcasKña ebItMnwgERb
This effect works in reverse: if a potential
difference is applied across the faces, the
RbYlBIbENÑNeTAtMnwg. kmµnþEdlTTYl)anBIplenHRcas mkvij
crystal changes shape. Rochelle salt and quartz ebIplsgb:tU g;Esülqøgkat;épÞenaHrUbsNæan rbs;RKIsþal;ERbRbYl.
are the most frequently used piezoelectric
materials. GMbilr:UEsl nigsIulIkugDIGuksIut
RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbICarUbFatuBIhSÚGKÁIsnI.
Pig iron
The impure form of iron produced by a blast
d¿uelahFatu
furnace. TMrg;EdkminsuT§)an)anmkBIkardutEdkenAkñúgL.
 173

Pi-meson
See pion
BIemsug
emIl pion
Pinch effect
A magnetic attraction between parallel
plBIn
conductors carrying currents flowing in the
same direction.
TMnajemEdkrvagGgÁFatucMlgBIrdak;RsbKñapÞúkcrnþpøas;TI
tamTisedAdUcKña.
Pion (pi-meson)
An elementary particle classified as a meson.
BIj:ug (BIemsug)
Pakl¥ti dMbUgEdlEbgEckCaemsug.
Pirani gauge
An instrument used to measure low pressures (1
háÚcBIra:nI
- 10-4 torr; 100-0.01 Pa). It consists of an
electrically heated filament, which is exposed to
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;sMBaTab (1-10 torr; 100-0.01Pa).
-4

the gas whose pressure is to be measured. The ]bkrN_enHmanjPILam:g;EdlmankMedAGKÁsni

rate of conduction of heat away from the
filament depends on the pressure of the gas, dak;EbmuxeTArk]sµn½ edIm,IkMnt;sMBaFva. kMrtw énGgÁFatu
which thus controls its equilibrium pressure.
The resistance of the filament depends on its cMlgkMedAfycuHBIPILam:g;GaRs½yelIsBM aF]sµ½n Edl
temperature, hence also on the gas pressure, and
the resistance of the filament in measured with
bBa¢ak;BIlMnwgsMBaFrbs;va. ersIusþg;PILam:g;GaRs½yelI sItuNðPaBrbs;va
a Wheatstone Bridge. dUcenHvak¾GaRs½yelIsMBaF]sµ½npgEdr
ehIyersIusþgP; ILam:g;vas;edayeRbIsa< nvItsþnú .
Pitch
1. (in physics). The property of a sound that PItc_ (kMBs;sU)
determines how high or low the note of the
sound is. It is related to frequency. A high note !> (kñúgrUbviTüa) lkçN³sMelgEdlkMnt;BIry³x<s; b¤ Tabén eNaTsMelg.
is a sound with high frequency; a low note is a
note with low frequency. 2. (mechanics) See
vamanTak;TgeTAnwgeRbkg;. eNaTx<s;KWCa sMelgEdlmaneRbkg;x<s;
screw. eNaTTabKWCasMelgEdlman eRbkg;Tab. @> (kñúgemkanic) emIl screw.
Pitot tube
A device for measuring the speed of fluid, or
bMBg;BItUt
for measuring the speed of an object moving
through the fluid. It consists of two tubes, one
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;el,ÓnGgÁFaturav b¤ sMrab;vas;el,Ónvtßú
with an opening facing the moving fluid, the Edlpøas;TItamry³GgÁFaturav. ]bkrN_enHmanbMBg;BIr
other with an opening at 90o to the flow. The
two tubes are connected to opposite sides of a bMBg;TImYyebIkmuxEbeTArkbMlas;TIGgÁFaturav ehIybMBg;
pressure-measuring device. The speed v is
given in terms of the pressure difference p by
mYyeTotdak;muxEkgcrnþhUrrbs;GgÁFaturav. bMBg;TaMgBIr
v2  2p/,, where  is the density of the dak;P¢ab;Qmnwg]bkrN_vas;sMBaF. el,Ón veGayCa
fluid.
GnuKmn_énplsgsMBaF p KW v  2p/, Edl Ca
2

dg;sueI tGgÁFaturav.
Planck constant (Symbol h)
The fundamental constant equal to the ratio of
efrpøg; (nimitþsBaØ h)
the energy of a quantum of radiation energy to
its frequency. It has the value 6.626 x 10 -34 Js.
efrRKwHesIµngw plEckénfamBlkaMrsIµkgTiceTAnwgeRbkg; rbs;va.
efrpøg;mantMél 6.626 x 10 Js.
-34
 174

Planck's radiation law

A law giving the distribution of energy radiated
c,ab;kaMrsIµrbs;elakpøg;
by a black body. It was the first example in
physics of the particle nature of light, and
c,ab;EdlniyayBIl,ayfamBlEdlbeBa©jedayGgÁFatu exµA
marked the beginning of quantum physics. vaCa]TahrN_dMbUgkñgú rUbviTüaFmµCatipg;BnøW nig CacMnuc
cab;epþmI sikSarUbviTüakgTic.
Plane
A flat surface defined by the condition that any
bøg;
two points on a plane are joined by a straight
line that lies entirely in the surface.
épÞrabesIµkMnt;edaylkçx½NÐEdlcMncu BIrenAelIbøg;eKGac
KUs)anbnÞat;Rtg;mYyenAelIépÞbøg;.
Plane-polarised light
See polarisation of light.
BnøWb:Ulkmµbøg;
emIl polarisation of light
Planet
A body that revolves around a central sun,
PB
especially the bodies Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and
Gg§FatuEdlvilC¿vu ijpí©tRBHGaTitü CaBiessdUcCaemX½rI RBHsuRk/
Pluto. PBEpndI/ PBRBHGgÀar/ PBCUBIF½r/ PBesAr_/ PBG‘yu ra:nus/ PBNibTUn/
nig PBpøúytU.
Planimeter
An instrument used to measure the area of a
)aønIEm:t
closed curve. ]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;épÞénExSekagbiT.
Plano-concave lens
See concave lens.
Lg;TIpt)aøNU
emIl concave lens
Plano-convex lens
See convex lens.
Lg;TIe)a:g)aøNU
emIl convex lens
Plasma
A highly ionised gas in which the number of
pøasµa
free electrons is approximately equal to the
number of positive ions.
]sµn½ EdlmanGIyu :ugx<s; EdlkñúgenaHcMnYneGLicRtugesrI
REhlesIµnwgcMnnY GIyu :ugviC¢man.
Plasticity
The property of solids that causes them to
pøasÞicsIuet
change permanently in size or shape as a result
of the application of a stress greater than a
lkçN³GgÁFaturwgEdlGacERbRbYlTMhM b¤ ragÁCaGciéRnþ
certain value, called the yield point. edaysarkareRbIkMlaMgsgát;xøaMgCagtMéledIm.
Plutonium (Symbol Pu)
A dense silvery radioactive metallic transuranic
pøúytUnIjÚm (nimitþsBaØa Pu)
element with mass number 94. The most
important isotope is Pu-239, which is used in
pøúytUnjI ÚmCaelah³viTüúskmµEdlmancMnYnma:s($. GIsu U
nuclear weapons and nuclear power stations. tUbEdlmansar³sMxan;bMptu KW Pu-239 EdlCasmasFatu
Pu-239 undergoes nuclear fission with slow
neutrons. eKykeTAeRbIkúñgGvuFbrmaNU nig sßanIy_famBlbrmaNU. Pu-239
rgPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘CamYyNWRtugyWt.
Point-contact transistor
See transistor.
Rtg;sIusþ½rcMnucb:H
emIl transistor
 175

Point defect
(See defect).
cMnucxUc
emIl defect
Point discharge
See corona.
cMnucepÞbnÞúk
emIl corona
Poise
A cgs unit of viscosity.
Bs
xñat cgs énvIkUsIuet.
Poiseuille’s equation
An equation relating the volume flow rate, V,
smIkarB½rEsül
of a fluid through a cylindrical tube to the
pressure difference, p, between the ends of the
smIkarEdlTak;TgnwgbMlas;TImaD V rbs;GgÁFaturavqøg kat;
tube. V = pr4/8l, where  is the viscosity of bMBg;suILaMgEdlmanplsgsMBaF p cenøaHcugsgxag bMBg;. V =
pr /8l, Edl CavIks U eIu tGgÁFaturav.
the fluid. 4

Poisson’s ratio
The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal
pleFobB½rsun
strain in a stretched rod. The lateral strain is pleFobrIkTTwgeTAnwgrIkbeNþaykñgú cgiáHsn§gw . tMngw xag KW d/d
d/d, and the longitudinal strain is L/L.
ehIytMnwgbeNþay L/L.
Polar coordinates
A system used in analytical geometry to locate
kUG½redaenb:UEl
a point P with reference to two or three axes.
The distance of P from the origin is r, and the
RbB½nÐEdleKeRbIkñúgFrNIviPaK edIm,ItagcMncu PeFobeTA nwgG½kSBIr b¤
angle between the x-axis and the radius vector G½kSbI. cMgayPBIKl;tMruytagedayr ehIy mMurvagG½kS xnig viucT½rkaM OP
OP is , thus in two-dimensional coordinates
the coordinates of P are (r, ). If the Cartesian
tagedaymMu . dUcenHebI kñgú kUG½redaenEdlmanTMhMBIr
coordinates are enaHeK)ankUG½redaenrbs;P KW (r, .
(x, y), then x = rcos and y = rsin.
ebIkúgñ kUG½redaenkaetsüagvijkUG½redaen P KW (x, y) enaHeK)an x  rcos
nig y  rsin.
Polariscope
A device to study optically active substances. It
b:UElrIsáÚb
consists of a light source, a collimator, and
crossed polaroid sheets.
]bkrN_sMrab;sikSasarFatuGubTicskmµ. ]bkrN_enHman RbPBBnøWmYy/
kUlmI a:T½rmYy/ nig bnÞHb:UElr:UGIuddak;ExVgKña.
Polarisation
1. The process of the confining the vibrations of
b:Ulkmµ
the vector constituting a transverse vibration to
one plane. See polarisation of light. In
!>dMenIrXaMglMj½rénvicu T½rlMj½rTTwgeTAnwgbøgm; Yy. emIl polarisation of
unpolarised light, the electric vector oscillates light. enAkñúgBnøWKaµ nb:Ul viucT½rGKÁs
I nI
in all directions perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. 2. The partial separation of eyalRKb;TisEkgeTAnwgTisedAdMNal. @> karEjkCa
electric charges in an insulator subjected to an
electric field. EpñkénbnÞkú GKÁIsnIkñúgGgÁFatuGIusULg; edIm,IbegItá Edn GKÁIsnI.
Polarising angle
See Brewster's law.
mMub:Ulkmµ
emIl Brewster's law
 176

Polar molecule
A molecule that has a dipole moment; i.e. one
m:UelKulb:UEl
in which there is some separation of charge in
the chemical bonds so that one end of the
m:UelKulEdlmanm:Um:gD; Ibl:U mann½yfaCam:eU lKulmYy
molecule has a positive charge and the other a dlkñgú enaHmanbMEbkbnÞúkkñúgsm<½nK§ mI I edIm,IeGaycugmçag
negative charge.
énm:eU lKulmanbnÞkú viC¢man ehIycugmçageTotmanbnÞúk GviC¢man.
Polaroid material
A material that plane-polarises unpolarised light
rUbFatub:UElr:UGIud
passing through it. It consists of a plastic sheet
(containing long molecules) that is strained in a
rUbFatuEdlminTTYlrgb:UlkmµeBlmanBnøWqøgkat;va. vamanbnÞHpøasÞic
manner that makes it birefringent by aligning its ¬manm:eU lKulEvg¦EdlTajeGayyWtEvg
molecules.
ehIyeFIVeGaym:eU lKulvart;CYEtmYy.
Pole
1. See magnetic poles; magnetic monopole. 2.
b:Ul
The optical centre of a curved mirror. !>emIl magnetic pole; magnetic monopole.
@>p©itGubTicénkBa©ke; kag.
Polonium (Symbol Po).
A rare radioactive metallic element; atomic
b:ULÚnIj:Úm (nimitþsBaØa Po)
number 84. Fatuelah³viTüúskmµkMrman vamancMnYnGatUm 84.
Polychromatic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation that consists of a
kaMrsIµb:UlIRkUma:Tic
mixture of different wavelengths. Compare
monochromatic radiation.
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlmanl,ayC¿hanrlkxus²Kña. eRbobeFob
monocromatic radiation.
Polygon
A plane figure with a number of sides. In a
BhuekaN
regular polygon all the sides and the internal
angles are equal. For a regular polygon with n
rUbsNæanbøg;EdlmanRCugeRcIn. kñgú BhuekaNniy½t RCugTaMgGs; nig
sides the interior angle is (180 - 360/n)? mMukñúgTaMgGs;rbs;vaesI²µ Kña. cMeBaHBhu ekaNniy½tEdlmannRCug
degrees, hence the sum of the n interior angles
is (180n - 360) degrees. enaHeK)anmMku ñúgrbs;vaKW (180-360/n)dWeRk ehIyplbUkmMukñúgKW (180n -
360)dWeRk.
Polygon of forces
A polygon in which the sides represent vector
BhuekaNénkMlaMg
forces. The side required to close the polygon
represents the resultant, or vector sum, of the
BhuekaNEdlRCugrbs;vatagedayviucT½rkMlaMg. RCugEdl
forces. enACab;BhuekaNtageGayviucT½rpÁÜb b¤plbUkviucT½rkMlaMg.
Polyhedron
A solid body bound by polygonal faces.
b:UlIeGRdug
GgÁFaturwgEdlB½T§C¿uvijedaymuxmanragCaBhuekaN.
Polynomial
A mathematical expression containing three or
BhuFa
more terms. It has the general form a0 + a1x + kenSamKNitviTüaEdlmanGnuKmn_bI b¤ eRcIn. CaTUeTAvaman TMrg; a + a x
0 1
a2x2 + a3x3 + . . . + a2x + a3x + . . .
2 3

Population inversion
See laser.
cMras;b:UBuLasüúg
emIl laser
Positive charge
See charge.
bnÞúkviC¢man
emIl charge
 177

Positive feedback
See feedback.
RbtikmµbkviC¢man
emIl feedback
Positron
The antiparticle of the electron.
b:UsIuRtug
bdiPaKl¥ti éneGLicRtug.
Potential barrier
A region that is at a maximum potential that
r)aMgb:Utg;Esül
prevents a particle on one side of it from
passing to the other side. According to classical
tMbn;Edlmanb:Utg;EsülGtibrma ehIyEdlrkSaPaKl¥it
physics a particle must possess energy in excess enAmçageRkayBIpøas;TImkBIRCugmçageTot. tamrUbviTüakøa sicu
of the height of the potential barrier to pass it.
However in quantum physics there is a finite PaKlit¥ RtUvbeBa©jfamBlb:tU g;Esül)arIeyxøaMg edIm,Iqøgkat;.
probability that a particle with less energy can
pass through it, a phenomenon known as EtenAkëúgrUbviTüakgTic manRbU'a:b‘ÍlIetkM
tunneling. nt;myY EdlGaceGayPaKl¥ti EdlmanfamBlticGacqøg kat;va)an
ehIy)atuPUtenHehAfa TunEnlIg.
Potential difference
See electric potential.
plsgb:Utg;Esül
emIl electric potential
Potential divider
See voltage divider.
bMENgEckb:Utg;Esül
emIl voltage divider
Potential energy
See energy.
famBlb:Utg;Esül
emIl energy
Potentiometer
1. See voltage divider. 2. An instrument for
b:Utg;süÚEm:t
measuring, comparing or dividing small
voltages. A useful applicating is the comparison
!>emIl voltage divider. @> ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;/ eRbob eFob b¤
of an unknown e.m.f. with that of a standard EbgEcktg;süúgtUc². vamanRbeyaCn_kñúgkar
cell.
eRbobeFobkMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkrEdleKminsÁal;CamYyva.
Pound
The unit of mass in the extinct f.p.s. system of
epan
units, defined as 0.453 592 37 kilogram. xñatma:sEdleKeRbIkñúgRbB½n§ f.p.s. !epan=0.453 59237 kg.
Poundal
The unit of force in the *f.p.s. system of units
epandal;
equal to the force required to impart to a mass
of one pound an acceleration of one foot per
xñatrbs;klM aMgkñúgRbB½n§ f.p.s esIkµ MlaMgcaM)ac;edIm,Ipþl;
second per second. eGayma:smYyepannUvsMTuHmYyhVÚtkñúgmYyvínaTIkaer.
Powder metallurgy
A process in which powdered metals or alloys
emSAelah³sSahkmµ
are pressed into a variety of shapes at high
temperatures.
emSAelah³ b¤ sMelah³EdleKbENÑnenAsItuNðPaBx<s.;
Power (Symbol P)
1. (in physics). The rate at which work is done
GnuPaB (nimitþsBaØa P) , sV½yKuN
or energy transferred. In SI units it is measured
in watts or joules per second. 2. (in
!> (kñúgrUbviTüa) kMrwtEdlkmµnþ)aneFIV b¤ famBl)anbM Elg. kñúgxñat SI
mathematics). The number of times a quantity GnuPaBKitCava:t; b¤ s‘Ulkëgú mYyvinaTI. @> (kñúgKNitviTüa)
is multiplied by itself; e.g. x5 = x.x.x.x.x is the
fifth power of x. cMnYndgénbrimaNEdlKuNedayxøÜnva. ]Ta hrN_ x  x.x.x.x.x
5

KWCasV½yKuN%énx.
 178

Power factor
See electric power.
ktþaGnuPaB
emIl electric power
Preamplifier
An amplifier in a radio, record player, etc.
RBIGMBøI
providing a first stage of amplification. Pre-
amplification at this stage improves the overall
GMBøIkñúgviTüú/ kñúgRbdab;ft >>> Edlpþl;karBRgIkmundMbUg.
signal-to-noise ratio of the amplifying system. karBRgIkdMbUgtg;dMNak;kalenH eFIVeGaysIuBaØal;sMelg RbesIelIg.
Precessional motion
A form of motion that occurs when a torque is
clnaeRbessüúg
applied to a rotating body in such a way that it
tends to change the direction of its axis of
TMrg;clnaEdlekItmaneBleKbeBa©jkMlaMgbgVileTAelI GgÁFaturgVil
rotation. The applied torque changes the kñúgkrNIenHeFIVeGayvapøsb; þÚrTisedAG½kSrgVil rbs;va nig
direction of the angular momentum vector
without changing its magnitude, thus the pøas;bþÚrTisedAviucT½rm:Um:g;brimaNclnaedaymin pøas;brþÚ m:UDul
direction of the spin axis must change while the
rate of spin remains constant. dUcenHTisedAG½kSrgVli RtUvpøas;bþÚreBlEdl bMErbMrlY rgVilrkSatMélefr.
Presbyopia
A loss of accommodation that normally
RBIbüÚb
develops in the human eye over the age of 45-
50 years. Vision of distant objects remains
kar)at;bg;KeM hIjFmµtakñúgEPñkmnusScenøaHGayu $%-%0qñaM.
unchanged, but accommodation of the eye to karemIleXIjcMgayvtßrú kSaenAdEdl
near objects is reduced as a result of loss of
elasticity in the lens of the eye. The defect is EtBMusUvc,as;edaysarkar)at;bg;PaByWtkñúgEkvEPñk.
corrected by reading glasses using weak
converging lenses. edIm,IeGay)anemIleXIj)anRbesIelIgvijeKeRbILg;TI
EdlmankMenagbnþic.
Pressure (Symbol P)
The force acting normally on unit area of a
sMBaF (nimitþsBaØa P)
surface, or the ratio of force to area. In SI units
it is measured in Nm-2, called pascals, P.
sMBaFCakMlaMgEdlbeBa©jelImYyxñatépÞ b¤ CapleFobén
kMlaMgeTAnwgépÞ. kñúgxñat SI sMBaFKitCajÚtunkñúgmYy Em:tkaer Nm -2

b¤)a:saá l;.
Pressure gauge
Any device used to measure pressure. Three
háÚcsMBaF
basic types are used: the liquid-column gauge
(e.g. the mercury barometer or manometer), the
]bkrN_EdleKeRbIedIm,Ivas;sMBaF. ]bkrN_enHeRbIs MPar³bIya:gKW
expanding-element gauge, (e.g the aneroid srsrháÚcsMrab;dak;GgÁFaturav (]TahrN_ dUcCa )ar:UEm:t)art b¤
barometer), and the electrical transducer.
ma:NEU m:t)ar:t), FaturkI (Gaenr:GU Iud )a:rUE: m:t) nig
]bkrN_bMElgsIuBaØal;GKÁIsnI.
Prevost’s theory of exchanges
A body emits and absorbs radiant energy at
RTIsIþbMElgrbs;RBIv:Us
equal rates when it is in equilibrium with its
surroundings, thus it remains at constant
GgÁFatuEdlRsUb b¤ beBa©jfamBlra:düg;enARtg;krM wtesIµKña
temperature. If the body is not at the same eBlvazitkñúglMngw CamYymCÄdæanEdlenAC¿uvijva dUcenHva
temperature as its surroundings there is a net
flow of energy between the body and its rkSasItuNðPaBefr. ebIGgÁFatumansItuNðPaBmindUcsItuNð
surroundings because of unequal emission and
absorption. PaBenACMuvijvaeT enaHnwgekItmanfamBlqøgkat;rvagGgÁ Fatu nig
mCÄdæanenAC¿uvijva edaysarPaBminesIµKñarvag sMrbU nigbnSay
 179

Primary cell
A voltaic cell in which the chemical reaction
fµBildMbUg
producing the e.m.f. is not reversible and the
cell cannot therefore be recharged. Also
f¶Bilv:lu taEdlmanRbtikmµKImIbegItá )anCa e.m.f Edlmin
primary cells such as the Daniell cell and the GacRcaseTAvij)an ehIyfµBilenaHminGacbBa©ÚlmþgeTot )aneT.
Leclanche cell have calculable open-circuit
e.m.f.s, and can be used as standard cells in the fµBildMbUgmandUcCafµBildanIEjl nig fµBilLWsg; manesoKVI e.m.febIk
*potentiometer.
ehIyGaceRbICafµBilsþgd; akñúgb:tU g; tüÚEm:t)an.
Primary colour
Any one of a set of three coloured lights that
BN’dMbUg b¤ BN’em
can be mixed together to produce white light or
any other colour of the spectrum. The set of
BN’mYykëúgcMenamBN’BnøWbIEdlGaclaycUlKëabegIÝt'an CaBnøWBN’s b¤
primary colours most frequently used is red, s,úci BN’d¾èTeTot. sMnuBM N’emPaKeRcIneK eRbI BN’Rkhm/ BN’èbtg nig
green and blue.
BN’exov.
Primary winding
The winding on the input side of a transformer.
rb‘¿ubzm
See secondary winding. rb‘ue¿ lIEpëkcUlènRtg;srV ma:T½r. emIl secondary winding
Principal axis
See optical axis.
G½kSem
emIl optical axis
Principal focus
A point through which rays close to and parallel
kMnMuem
to the axis of a lens or spherical mirror pass, or
appear to pass, after refraction or reflection. A
cMnucEdlkaMBnøWqøgkat;ehIyeBlecjRsbnwgG½kSLg;TI b¤ kBa¨kE; sV‘
lens has a principal focus on both sides, both b¤TMngCakat; bnÞab;BIcaMgEbb¤caMgpøat. Lg;TI
not necessarily at the same distance from the
lens. mankMnMuemmYyelIEpñkTaMgBIr. kMnuMTaMgBIrmincaM)ac;mancM
gaydUcKñaBILg;TIeT.
Principal plane
The plane that is perpendicular to the optical
bøg;em
axis of a lens and that passes through the optical
centre. A thick lens has two principal planes,
bøgE; dlEkgeTAnwgG½kSGubTicénLg;TI ehIyEdlkat;pí©t tamGubTic.
each passing through a principal point. Lg;TIRkas;manbøg;emBIr bøg;emnimYy²kat; cMnucemmYy.
Principal point
Either of two points on the principal axis of a
cMnucem
thick lens from which simply related distances
can be measured, as from the optical centre of a
cMnucTaMgBIrelIG½kSeménLg;TRI kas; EdlcMgayrbs;vaGac kMnt;
thin lens. dUcKñanwgpi©tGubTicrbs;Lg;TIesIþgEdr.
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement at any point in a
eKalkarN_tMrYt¬pÁÜb¦
region through which two waves of the same
type pass is the algebraic sum of the
bMlas;TIsrubRtg;cMncu NamYykñúgtMbn; Edlkñgú enaHrlk BIrdUcKñaqøgkat;
displacements that the two would separately KWCaplbUkBiCKNiténbMlas;TIEdlrlk TaMgBIrEjkBIKañRtg;cMnucenaH.
produce at that point. Both waves leave the
region of the superposition unaltered. rlkTaMgBIrecjputtMbn; pÁbÜ edayminpøas;bþrÚ .
Printed circuit
An electronic circuit consisting of a conducting
esoKIVRBInFIt
material deposted onto the surface of an
insulating sheet. These devices are common in
esoKVIeGLicRtUnicEdlmansarFatucMlgcak;P¢ab;elIépÞbnÞHGIusULg;.
all types of electronic equipment. ]bkrN_TaMgenHmanRKb;RbePTbriFaneGLic RtUnicTaMgGs;.
 180

Prism
(in optics) A block of glass having a triangular
RBIs
base. Prisms are used to deviate a ray of light,
but their major use is to disperse white light
¬kñúgGubTic¦ d¿Eu kvEdlman)atragRtIekaN. RBIsRtUv)an
into its constituent wavelengths. eKeRbIedIm,IbMEbkkaMrsIµ b:Eu nþeKeRbIvasMxan;KeW dIm,IbMEbkBnWø
sreTACaBnøWEdlmanC¿hanrlkxus²Kña.
Probability
The likelihood of an event happening. If there
RbU)ab‘ÍlIet
are n equally likely outcomes of some
experiment, and a ways in which event E can
PvnIyPaBénRBwtkiþ arN_EdlekIteLIg. ebImanlT§plnesIµ
occur, then the probability of event E is a/n. For KñaénkarBiesaFn_ ehIyaCameFüa)ayEdlRBwtkiþ arN_E GacekIteLIg
example, if a die is thrown there are 6 possible
outcomes and 3 ways in which an odd number enaHRbU'a:b‘ÍlIetènRBwtiþkarN_EKW a/n.
may occur. The probability of throwing an odd
number is 3/6 = 1/2. Ca]TahrN_ebIeKe)aHRKab;LukLak;mYy enaHGacekItman lT§pl^
EdlkëúgenaH"GacCacMnnY ess. RbU'ab‘lÍ Ietèn kare'aHTTYl'ancMnYnessKW
3/6 = ½.
Program
See computer.
kmµvíFI
emIl computer
Progressive wave
See wave.
rlkeTAmux
emIl wave
Projectile
Any body that is thrown or projected. If a
cMeNal
projectile is fired close to the surface of the
earth in the absence of air resistance, it follows
GgÁFatumYyEdleKecal b¤ )aj;. ebIeK)ajGgÁFatumYyCit épÞEpndI
a parabolic path. edayminKitkMlaMgTb;énxül;vamanKnøgCa)a:ra: bUl.
Projector
An optical device for throwing a large image of
RbUeckT½r
a two-dimensional object, such as a
photographic slide or transparency, onto a
]bkrN_GubTicsMrab;bBa¢nÚ rUbPaBFMénvtßúvímaRtBIr dUcCa karbBa©aMgrUbft b¤
screen. karbBa¢nÚ rUbPaBeTAelIeGRkg;.
Prompt neutrons
The neutrons emitted during a nuclear fission
NWRtugelOn
process within less than a microsecond of
fission. Compare delayed neutrons.
NWRtugEdlxÛatecjkëúgGMLúgeBldMeNIrkarPIsüúgnuyekø EG‘
enAkñúgeBlticCagmYymIRkUvínaTIénPIsüúg. eRbobeFob delayed
neutrons.
Proper motion
The apparent angular motion of a star on the
clnaRbUEB
celestial sphere. clnamMTu Mngrbs;pÝayelIEsVk‘ ëúgTIGvkas.
Proportional limit
See elasticity.
smamaRtkMnt;
emIl elasticity
Protostar
See stellar evolution.
RbUtUpáay
emIl stellar evolution
 181

Proton
An elementary particle that is stable, bears a
RbUtug
positive charge equal in magnitude to that of
the electron, and has a mass of 1.672 x 10 -27 kg,
PaKlit¥ dMbUgEdlenAnwg manbnÞúkvíCm¢ anesIµmD:U uleGLic Rtug ehIyman
which is 1836 times that of the electron. ma:s1.67210 kg EdlesIµ!*#^dgéneG LicRtug.
-27

Proton number
See atomic number.
cMnYnRbUtug
emIl atomic number
p-type conductivity
See semiconductor.
kMrwtcMlgQñab; p
emIl semiconductor
Pulley
A simple machine consisting of a wheel with a
r:k
grooved rim to take a belt or rope, with which a
load can be lifted. A pulley can be used to
ma:sunI gayEdlmankg;myY manrwmxagedIm,Idak;ExSBan b¤ ExSBYr
change the direction of a pull, or a combination edIm,IeGayeKGaccgP¢ab;bnþúk. r:kGaceRbIedIm,Ipøas; bþrÚ TisedAénkarTaj
of pulleys can be used to reduce the pull needed
to lift a heavy load. The ratio of to the weight of b¤ RbB½n§r:kGaceRbIedIm,IbnßykarTaj caM)ac;edIm,IelIkrbs;F¶n;.
the load to the pulling force is called the
mechanical advantage of the pulley system. plEckénTMgn;bnÞúkeTAnwgkM laMgTaj ehAfaplemkanicénRbB½n§r:k.
Pulsar
A celestial source of radiation emitted in brief
Pulsar
regular pulses. A pulsar is a rotating neutron
star that emits two beams of radiation one of
RbPBGgÁFatukúgñ TIGvkasEdlmankaMrsIbµ eBa©jxIøya:geTotTat;.
which sweeps across the earth in regular pulses. PulsarCakarrgVilpáayNWRtug EdlbeBa©jkaMrsIµ)ac; BnWBø Ir
kñúgenaH)ac;BnømW Yyekoskat;EpndIya:geTotTat;.
Pulsatance
See angular frequency.
Pulsatg;
emIl angular frequency
Pulse
A brief variation in a quantity, usually for a
CÍbcr
finite time, especially in a quantity that is
normally constant.
brimaNEdlmanbMErbMrYlxøW CaFmµtacMeBaHeBlkMnt; CaBi
esskñúgbrimaNEdlFmµtaefr.
Pulse modulation
See modulation.
CIbcrm:UDulLasüúg
emIl modulation
Pump
A device that imparts energy to a fluid in order
sñb;
to move it from one place to anther, or to
change its pressure.
]bkrN_Edlpþlf; amBledIm,IeGayGgÁFaturavpøas;TIBI
kEnøgmYyeTAkEnøgmYyeTot b¤ edIm,Ipøas;brþÚ sMBaFrbs;va.
Pyramid
A solid having a polygonal base, each side
BIra:mId
having a triangular shape. GgÁFaturwgman)atragBhuekaN EdlRCugnimYy²manrag RtIekaNdUcKña.
Pyrometry
The measurement of high temperatures from
BIr:UemRTI
the amount of radiation emitted. karvas;sItuNPð aBx<se; dayeRbIcMnnY énkarbeBa©kkaMrsI.µ
Q

QSO (Quasi-stellar object)

See Quasars.
QSO ¬vtßúehaHehIrkñúglMhrRsedogKñaeTAnwgpáay¦
emIl Quasars
 182

Quadratic equation
An equation of the second degree having the
smIkardWeRkTIBIr
form ax2  bx  c  0. Its roots are smIkardWeRkTIBIrEdlmanTMrg; ax  bx  c  0. rwsrbs;
2

 - b  b 2 - 4ac  / 2a . The nature of the

  vaKW  - b  b - 4ac  / 2a . FmµCatirbs;rsw GaRs½yelI
2

2
roots depends on the value of the radicand b -
4ac, called the discriminant, symbol . If the tMélrbs;ra:DIkg;b – 4ac¬ehAfaDIRKImINg;¦ mannimitþsBaØa
2

radicand is positive there are two real roots; if

zero, there are two equal real roots; if negative,
. ebIra:DIkg;víC¢man manrwsBitBIr ebIsnU ü manrwsBitBIr esIµKña
there are two complex roots that are complex
conjugates.
ebIGvíC¢man manrwskMpíøcBIrEdlCakMpíøcqøas;.
Quality of sound (timbre)
The quality of a musical note depends on the
KuNPaBsMelg
presence of harmonics. A pure note consists
only of the fundamental; however, a note from
KuNPaBéneNaTePøgGaRs½yelIvtþmanénGam:Unci . eNaT
a musical instrument will have several emmanEteNaTRKwHb:eu NÑaH eTaHCay:agenHk¾eday eNaTBI
harmonics present depending on the type of
instrument, thus, if a given note is played on a ]bkrN_ePøgGaRs½yelIRbePT]bkrN_ dUecñHebIeKeGay
piano and a violin, because the number and
relative intensity of the harmonics is different in eNaTePøgsMrab;elgb:üaNU nig vÍyL:U úg enaHsMelgTaMgBIr xusKñaRsLH
the two cases, the two sounds are quite
different.
edaysarxÞg;elxnigGaMgtg;sueI teFobénGam:U
nicxusKñakñúgkrNI]bkrN_TaMgBIr.
Quantum
The minimum amount by which certain
kgTic
properties, such as energy or momentum, of a
system can change. Such properties do not,
cMnYnGb,brmaEdllkçN³mYydUcCafamBlb¤brimaNclna
therefore, vary continuously, but in integral rbs;RbB½n§Gacpøas;bþrÚ . dUecñHlkçN³enHminERbRbÜlCab;eT
multiples of the relevant quanta. This concept
forms the basis of the quantum theory. The EtCaBhuKN u rYmcUlKñaénTMnak;TMngkgTic. TMrg;bBaØatienH
most important quantum is that of the energy of
electromagnetic radiation, in which energy can CamUldæanrbs;RTwsIþkgTic. sar³sMxan;bMputrbs;kgTicKWfa
only exist as photons whose energy is related to
the frequency f by E = hf, where h is the Planck
famBlkaMrsIeµ GLicRtÚma:ejTicKWCafamBlEdlmankñúgRbÚ tug
constant. ehIymanTMnak;TMngCamYyeRbkg;feday E  hf Edl hCaefrpøg;.
Quantum electrodynamics
The study of the properties of electromagnetic
eGLicRtÚDINamickgTic
radiation and the way in which it interacts with
charged matter in terms of quantum mechanics.
karsikSaGMBIlkçN³kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic nig GnþrkmµCa mYypg;manbnÞkú
CaGnuKmn_énemkanickgTic.
Quantum jump
A change in a system (e.g. an atom) from one
karelatkgTic
quantum state to another. bMErbMrYlkñúgRbB½n§¬]TahrN_dUcCaGatUm¦BIsNßankgTic
mYyeTAsNßankgTicmYyeTot.
Quantum mechanics
A system of mechanics that was developed
emkanickgTic
from quantum theory and is used to explain the
properties of atoms and molecules. Using the
RbB½n§emkanicEdlvívtþne_ cjmkBIRTwsIþkgTic ehIyRtÚv)an
energy quantum as a starting point it eKykeTAeRbIedÍm,IBnül;lkçN³GatUm nig m:UelKul. fam
incorporates Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
and the de Broglie wavelength to establish the BlkgTicykeTAeRbIrYmKñarvageKalkarN_kMrwtel¥ógeGsin Eb‘ nig
wave-particle duality (see complementarity) on
which *Schrödinger's equation is based. This C¿hanrlkRbÚKøI edÍm,IbegIátTVki PaBrlk-PaKli¥t (emIl
form of quantum mechanics is called wave complementarity)edayEp¥kelIsmIkarRkUDIghÁ½r.
mechanics.
TMrg;emkanickgTicenHehAfa emkanicrlk.
 183

Quantum number
See atom; spin.
cMnYnkgTic
emIl atom nig spin
Quantum state
The state of a quantised system as described by
sNßankgTic
its quantum numbers. For instance, the state of
a hydrogen atom is described by the four
sNßanénbrimaNmYyRtUv)aneKkMnt;edaycMnYnkgTicrbs;va
quantum numbers n, l, m, ms. In the ground ]TahrN_dUcCa sNßanGatUmGIuRdUEsnKWCasNßanmYy
state they have values 1, 0, 0, and ½
respectively. bBa¢ak;edaycMnYnkgTicbYnn, l, m, m . kñgú sNßanRKwHvaman tMél!/ 0/ 0
s

nig ½erogKña.
Quantum statistics
A statistical description of a system of particles
sþaTisÞickgTic
that obeys the rules of quantum mechanics
rather than classical mechanics. In quantum
karerobrab;tamsißtiénRbB½n§PaKli¥ttamc,ab;emkanickgTic
statistics, energy states are quantised. Bose- RbesIrCagtamemkanickøasiuc. kñúgsþaTisicÞ kgTic sNßan
Einstein statistics apply if any number of
particles can occupy a given quantum state. famBlKWCabrimaNkMnt;. sþaTisiÞcbUs-GaMgsþajGacGnu
Such particles are called bosons. Fermi-Dirac
statistics apply if only one particle may occupy vtþ)anebIcnM YnPaKl¥itGacRKb;RKgedaysNßankgTic. PaK
a single quantum state. Such particles are called
Fermions.
li¥tTaMgenHehAfaPaKl¥ti bUsn. sþaTisÛicEhVm‘ I-DIra:k;Gac
Gnuvtþ)anebImanEtPaKl¥itmYyRKb;RKgsNßankgTicmYy.
PaKl¥ti enHehAfaEhV‘mIj:úg.
Quantum theory
The theory devised by Max Planck in 1900 to
RTwsIþkgTic
account for the emission of black-body
radiation from hot bodies. According to this
RTwsIþEdlbegIáteLIgedayma:k;pøg;kgñú qñaM!(00 edIm,IBnül;
theory energy is emitted in quanta, each of karbeBa©jkaMrsIµGgÁFatuexµABIGgÁFatuekþATaMgLay. tamRTw sIþenH
which has energy equal to h, where h is the
Planck constant and  is the frequency of the famBlbeBa©jmanTMrg;CakgTic karbeBa©jnimYy² manfamBlesIµ h
radiation. This theory led to the modern theory
of the interaction between matter and radiation
EdlhCaefrpøg; ehIy  CaeRbkg; kaMrsIµ.
known as quantum mechanics. RTwsIþenHnaMeTAdl;rUbvíTüaTMenIbénGnþrkmµrvagrUb Fatu
nigbnSaykaMrsIµvíTüúskmµ EdleKsÁal;faCaemkanic kgTic.
Quark
See elementary particles.
xVk
emIl elementary particles
Quarter wave plate
A transparent plate of a birefringent material,
bnÞHrlkkaF½r
such as quartz, cut parallel to the optic axis. By
cutting the plate to different thicknesses a
bnÛHrUbFatubr‘Í IRhVúIgEhSn¬dUcCakVak¦kat;RsbeTAnwgG½kSGub Tic.
specific phase difference can be introduced in edaykat;bnÞHeGay)ankMras;xusKña manplsgpas
the transmitted ray. For a quarter wave plate the
phase difference is 90o (/2 radians). mYyEdlGacbBa¢nÚ kaMrsIµ)an. cMeBaHbnÞHrlkkaF½r plsg pasesIµ90 0

(/2 rad.)
Quartz
A mineral consisting of crystalline silica
kVak
(silicon dioxide, SiO2). The mineral has the
property of being *piezoelectric and hence can
silaxnicEdlmanRkamsIulIka(DIGuksItu sIlu Ikug SiO ). si
2

be used to make oscillators for clocks and laxnicenHmanlkçN³BIhSÚGKIÁsnI dUecñHeKGacykvaeTA

radios. It is also used in optical instruments.
eRbIeFIVaCalMeyalsMrab;naLikar nig víTüú. eKk¾ykvaeTAeRbI
kñúgbriFanGubTicpgEdr.
 184

Quartz clock
A clock based on a *piezoelectric crystal of
naLikarkVak
quartz. Each quartz crystal has a natural
frequency of vibration, which depends on its
naLikarEdlBwgEp¥kelIRKIsáal;BIhSÚGKIÁsnIrbs;kVak. RKI
size and shape. If such a crystal is introduced sþal;kVaknimYy²maneRbkg;ljM ½rFmµCatimYy EdlGaRs½y
into an oscillating electronic circuit that
resonates at a frequency very close to that of the elITMhMnigragrbs;va. ebIeKykRKIsaþ l;enHeTAeRbIkñúgesoKIV
natural frequency of the crystal, the whole
circuit (including the crystal) will oscillate at eGLicRtÚniclMeyalvíj enaHlMeyalmaneRbkg;xitCíteRb
the crystal’s natural frequency and the
frequency will remain constant over
kg;FmµCatiénRKIsþal;enaH esoKIVTaMgmUl¬rYmTaMgRKIsþal;
considerable periods (a good crystal will pg¦eyaledayeRbkg;FmµCatirbs;RKIsaþ l; ehIyeRbkg;
maintain oscillation for a year with an
accumulated error of less than 0.1 second). enHrkSaefrkñgú ry³eBld¾yUr¬RKIsaþ l;l¥rkSalMeyalmYyqñaM
manlMeGogticCag0>!vínaTI¦.
Quasars
A class of astronomical objects that appear on
kahSa
photographs as starlike but have large redshifts
quite unlike those of stars. These starlike bodies
RbePTGgÁFatuGvkasEdlelceLIgelIrUbftmanTMrg;dUcCa páay
also emit intense radio emissions. The huge EtmanrithSIúvFMxusBIpaá y. GgÁFatumanTMrg;dUcpáay
redshifts observed suggest that quasars are at
enormous distances, but redshifts are also TaMgenHk¾beBa©jvíTüúskmµEdr. eKsegáteXIjfakalNarit hSIúvFMbBa¢ak;fa
caused by the intense gravitational fields
associated with quasars, which makes the kahSaenAcMgayya:gq¶ay b:Eu nþrithSIúvk¾
determination of quasar distances unreliable. bNþalmkBIEdnTMnakd¾xøaMEdlmankñúgkahSaEdr EdleFIV
eGaykarkMnt;cMgaykahSaminGayKYreGayeCOCak;)an.
R

Rad
See radiation units
ra:d
emIl radiation units
Radar (radio detection and ranging)
A method of detecting the presence, position
ra:da
and direction of motion of distant objects (such
as ships and aircraft) by means of their ability
viFIR)ab;eGaydwgBIvtþman TItaMg nig TisedArbs;clnaénGgÁ
to reflect a beam of electromagnetic radiation of FatuBIcgM ay¬dUcCak)a:l; nig ynþehaH¦tamry³karbiunRb
centimetric wavelengths. It is also used for
navigation and guidance. It consists of a sBVrbs;eKedIm,I)aj;)ac;BnWkø aMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicmanC¿
transmitter producing microwave radiation,
usually pulsed, which is fed to a rotating hanrlksg;TIEm:t. eKk¾eRbIvasMrab;navacrN_nignaMpvøÚ pg Edr.
antenna from which it is transmitted as a beam
(wave). If the beam is interrupted by a solid
kñúgra:damanRtg;sTIµ ½rbegItá kaMrsIµrlkmIRkURbRBwteTACa niy½t
object, part of the energy of the radiation is edIm,IeGayGg;EtnvílbBa¢nÚ )ac;rlkBnWø. ebI)ac;BnWø kat;edayGgÁFaturwg
reflected back to the antenna. Signals received
by the antenna are passed to the receiver, where enaHEpñkfamBlkaMrsIcµ aMgpøatRtlb; mkGg;Etnvíj.
they are amplified and detected. The time (t)
taken for a pulse to reach the object and be sIuBaØal;EdlTTYl)anedayGg;EtnqøgcUl eTAeRKOgTTYl
reflected back to enables the distance (s) of the
target to be calculated from the equation:
rYcehIyeKBRgIkehIyBnitüemIl. ry³ eBl trbs;kaMBnWøeTAdl;vtßú
d = ct/2, where c is the speed of light. In some
systems the velocity of the object can be
ehIycaMgpøatmkvíj GaceGay eKKNnacMgaysrbs;eKaledA)an
measured using the Doppler effect. edayeRbIsmIkar d  ct2 EdlcCael,ÓnBnWø.
kñúgRbB½n§xøHel,ÓnvtßuGackMnt;)aneday eRbIpldUEbø.
 185

Radial velocity
The component of velocity along the line of
el,Ónra:dual
sight between the source and the observer. kMb:Usg;el,ÓntambeNþaybnÞat;énKMehIjrvagRbPBnwgGñk segát.
Radian
See circular measure
ra:düg;
emIl circular measure
Radiance (Symbol Ie)
The radiant intensity per unit transverse area, in
ra:düg;s_ (nimitþsBaØa I )
e

a given direction, of a source of radiation. It is

measured in W sr–1m–2.
GaMgtg;sIuetra:düg;kúñgmYyxñatépÞTTwg¬tamTisedAEdleK
eGay¦énRbPBkaMBnWø. vamanxñatKitCa W sr m .
–1 –2

Radiant energy
Energy transmitted as electromagnetic
famBlra:düg;
radiation. famBlEdlbBa¢nÚ CakaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic.
Radiant flux ( Symbol
The total power emitted, received, or passing in
Pøúcra:düg; (nimitþsBaØa  )e

the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is

measured in watts.
GnuPaBsrubEdlbeBa©j TTYl b¤ qøgkat;CaTMrg;kaMrsIeµ G LicRtUvma:ejTic.
vamanxñatKitCava:t;.
Radiant intensity. Symbol Ie.
The radiant flux per unit solid angle emitted by
GaMgtg;sIuetra:düg; (nimitsþ BaØa I )
e

a point source. It is measured in watts per

steradian.
Pøúcra:düg;kñúgmYyxñatmMusUldI EdlbeBa©jedaycMnucRbPB.
vamanxñatKitCava:t;kúñgmYyesþra:düg;.
Radiation
1. Energy travelling in the form of
kaMrsIµ
electromagnetic waves or photons. 2. A stream
of particles, especially alpha- or beta-particles
!> famBlcrCaTMrg;rlkeGLicRtUvma:ejTic b¤ pUtug. @> cM haypg;
from a radioactive source or neutrons from a CaBiesspg;Gal;haV b¤ pg;EbtaecjBIRbPBvíTüú skmµ b¤
nuclear reactor.
pg;NWRtugecjBIerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘.
Radiation belts.
See Van Allen belts
tMbn;kaMrsIµ
emIl Van Allen belts
Radiation damage
Harmful changes that occur in inanimate and
kaMrsIµGnþray
living organisms as a result of exposure to
energetic electrons, nucleons, fission fragments,
karERbRbYlhinehacEdlekItelIgkñúgsrIragÁKµanCIvtí nig manCIvít
or high-energy electromagnetic radiation. In edaysarkarb:HfamBleGLicRtug nuyekøGug bM ENkPIsüúg b¤
organisms, the damage can be in the form of
changes to cells that alter their genetic b:HkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicmanfamBlx<s;. kñúgsrIragÁ
structure, interfere with their division, or kill
them. In humans, these changes can lead to karexÞcxÞGM aceFIVeGayERbRbYlekasika eFIVeGay
radiation sickness, or cancer (especially
leukaemia).
TMrg;ehSenTicrbs;vapøas;bþrÚ rMxandl;karlUtlas;rbs;va b¤ sMlab;va.
kñúgkarrs;enArbs;mnusS karpøas;brþÚ enHGacnaM eGayekItC¿gW b¤ mharIk
¬CaBiesseraKeKasikas¦.
 186

Radiation pressure
The pressure exerted on a surface by
sMBaFkaMrsIµ
electromagnetic radiation. In classical
electromagnetic theory the pressure results from
sMBaFEdlbeBa©jeTAelIépÞedaykaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic.
the magnetic force exerted on oscillating kñúgRTwsIeþ GLicRtUma:ejTicburaN sMBaFekItmkBIklM aMgma:
electrons in the material. The electrons are
made to oscillate by the electric component of ejTicbeBa©jelIleM yaleGLicRtugkñúgrUbFatu. eGLicRtug
the electromagnetic radiation, then the magnetic
component of the electromagnetic radiation eFIVeGaymanlMeyaledaysmasFatuGKIÁsnIénkaMrsIµeGLic RtUma:ejTic
exerts a force on the oscillating electrons. In
quantum theory the radiation pressure results
bnÞab;mksmasFatuma:ejTicrbs;kaMrsIµeGLic
from the change in the momentum of the RtUma:ejTicbeBa©jkMlaMgelIleM yaleGLicRtug. kñúgRTwsIþ kgTic
photons during reflection or absorption of the
photons in the surface. The momentum p of a sMBaFkaMrsIµekItmkBIbMErbMrYlkñúgbrimaNclnarbs; pUtugkñúgeBlcaMgpøat
photon with wavelength  is given by p =
b¤ kñgú eBlsMrUbpUtugkñúgépÞ. brimaN clna prbs;ptU ugmanC¿hanrlk
h/= hf/c = E/c.
In the core of a star, the stability of the star is
maintained by the balance between
eGayeday p  h/ hfc  E/c. kñgú sñÚlpáay
gravitational forces pulling the material of the
star inwards and the radiation pressure pushing
lMnwgrbs;páayRTRTg;edayeday
the material outwards. lMnwgrvagkMlaMgTMnajEdlTajrUbFatupáaycUlkñgú ehIy
sMBaFkaMrsIµrujrUbFatuecjeRkA.
Radical
ra:DIkal;
A root of a number. The symbol is called
the radical sign. For example, 2 is the square rwséncMnnY . nimitsþ BaØa ehAfasBaØara:DIkal;. ]TahrN_
root of 4 (2 = 4 ) and 3 is the cube root of 27 @Carwskaerrbs;$ (2 = 4 ) ehIy # KWCarwsKUbén@& ( 3  3
27 ) .
( 3  27 ).
3

Radio
A means of transmitting information in which
viTüú
the transmission medium consists of
electromagnetic radiation. A carrier wave is
meFüa'aybBa¢ÙnBt’man Edlkëgú enaHmCÁdæanbBa¢nÚ mankaM
modulated by the signal to be transmitted. The rsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic. karbBa¢nÚ rlkRtUvpøas;bþÚredaykar bBa¢nÚ sIuBaØal;.
modulated carrier wave is fed to the
transmitting antenna from which it is rlkbBa¢nÚ RtUvpøas;bþÚrCab;rhUt edIm,IbBa¢nÚ eTAGg;Etn
propagated through space. The wave is received
by a receiving antenna, which forms part of a rYcGg;Etnk¾bBa¢nÚ tamFatuGakas. rlkRtUv)an TTYledayGg;EtnTTYl
resonant circuit tuned to the frequency of the
carrier wave. The receiver amplifies the carrier
EdlbegItá CaEpñkénesoKIVersUNg; EktRmUveRbkg;rlkbBa¢nÚ .
wave then demodulates (detects) it to retrieve eRKOgTTYlBRgIkrlkEdlbBa¢nÚ mk
the original signal.
bnÞab;mkbMEbksIBu aØal;Edl)anmkeTACasIBu aØal;edIm.
Radioactive series
A series of radioactive nuclides in which each
es‘rIviTüúskmµ
member of the series is formed by the decay of
the preceding nuclide. The series ends with a
es‘rInuyKIøtvéTüúskmµ EdlkëúgenaHFatunimYy²rbs;es‘rmI an
stable nuclide. Three radioactive series occur TMrg;edaysarkarrlYynuyKIøtmun. es‘rIbBa¨b;edaynuyKIøt manlMnwgsþab.
naturally, those headed by thorium-232
(thorium series), uranium-235 (actinium series), es‘rvI éTüúskmµbIekItmantamFmµCatiKW tUrüÙm -@"@¬es‘rItUrüÙm¦
and uranium-238 (uranium series). All three
series end with an isotope of lead. G‘yu ra:nIjm:Ù -@"$¬es‘rIGak;TInIjÙ:m¦ nig G‘yu ra:nIjm:Ù -@#*
¬es‘rIG‘uyra:nIjm:Ù ¦. es‘rTI aMgbIbBa¨b;eday GIsu UtUbsMnr.
 187

Radioactive waste (nuclear waste)

Any solid, liquid, or gaseous waste material that
sMNl;viTüúskmµ (sMnl;nyu ekøEG‘)
contains *radionuclides. These wastes are
produced in the mining and processing of
kaksMnl;rUbFatudUcCarwg rav b¤ ]s½nµ EdlmanvíTüúnuyKIøt.
radioactive ores, the normal running of nuclear kaksMnt;TaMgenHekItmankñúgEr: nig karvívtþn_Er:víTüúskmµ nig
power stations. The disposal of nuclear waste
presents great technical problems, and is ekItmkBIkarcat;EcjTUeTAènsÜanIy_famBlnuyekøEG‘. kar
leading to the cessation of the building of new
fission reactors in many countries. e'aHecalkaksMNl;nuyekøEG‘ bgêajeGayeXIjnUvbBaêa bec¨kvéC¢ad¾FM
ehIynaMeTAdl;karbBaÄb;karsagsg;erGak;T½r
PIsüúgkñúgbNþaRbeTsCaeRcIn.
Radioactivity
The spontaneous disintegration of certain
kMrwtviTüúskmµ
atomic nuclei accompanied by the emission of
alpha-particles (helium nuclei) beta particles
karbMEbkedayxønÜ ÉgénéNVy:UGatUmedaybeBa©jpg;Gal;
(electrons or positrons) or gamma radiation hVa¬éNVy:UeGlüÚm¦ pg;Ebta¬eGLIcRtugb¤b:sU IuRtug¦ b¤kaM
(short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation).
Natural radioactivity is the result of the rsIµháama:¬kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicC¿hanrlkxIø¦. kMrtw víTüú skmµkñúgFmµCati
spontaneous disintegration of naturally
occurring radioisotopes. Many radioisotopes ekItmkBIkarbMEbkedayxøÜnÉgénkarekIt manvíTüúGIusUtUbkñúgFmµCati.
can be arranged in three radioactive series. The
rate of disintegration is uninfluenced by
véTüúGIusUtUbCaeRcInGacEbgEck CabIes‘rvI éTüúskmµ.
chemical changes or any changes in the kMrwtbMEbkKµa\Ti§BlBIbMErbMrYlKImI b¤ bMEr bMrYlkñúgbrisaß n dUcCasItuNPð aB
environment, such as temperature and pressure.
However, artificial radioactivity can be induced nig sMBaFeT. eTaHCa ya:genHkIþ
in many nuclides by bombarding them with
neutrons or other sub-atomic particles. In this kMrwtvíTüúskmµsib,nimtiµ GacbNþalmannuyKItø Ca eRcIn
way, radionuclides with specific half-lives to be
used in medial diagnostics and treatments can
edaykarTnøak;vaedayNWRtugb¤pg;GatUmrgd¾éTeTot. kñgú víFIenH
be produced. See also: half-life and ionising
radiation.
víTüúnuyKItø EdlmanknøHCIvítCak;lak; RtUv)aneK
ykeTAeRbIkúgñ karBüa)aleraK. emIl half-life nig ionizing radiation.
Radio astronomy
The study of the radio-frequency radiation
viTüútaraviTüa
emitted by celestial bodies. karsikSaBIkarbeBa©jkaMrsIµvíTüúeRbkg;BIGgÁFatukñúgGvkas.
Radio biology
The branch of biology concerned with the
viTüúCIvviTüa
effects of radioactive substances on living
organisms and the use radioactive tracers to
EmkFagmYyrbs;CvI víTüa Tak;Tgnwgplb:HBal;énsarFatu
study metabolic processes. véTüúskmµmkelIsrIragmanCIvté nig kareRbIRtaEs‘véTüúskmµ
edIm,IsikSaBId¿eNIrkarrMlayGahar.
Radiocarbon dating. GayukalviTüúkabUn
See carbon dating.
emIl carbon dating
Radiochemistry
The branch of chemistry concerned with
viTüúKImIviTüa
radioactive compounds and with ionisation. EmkFagmYyrbs;KmI Ii Tak;TgnwgsmasFatuvTí üúskmµ nig
Tak;TgnwgGIuy:ugkmµ.
 188

Radio frequencies
The range of frequencies between about 3
eRbkg;viTüú
kilohertz and 300 gigahertz over which
electromagnetic radiation is used in radio
ry³kMrwteRbkg;cenøaHRbEhl"KILÙEG‘k nig "00 hIÀhÝaEG‘k
transmission. It is subdivided into eight equal EdlkñúgcenøaHenH kaMrsIeµ GLicRtUma:ejTicRtUv)aneKykeTA
bands, known as very low frequency, low
frequency, medium frequency, high frequency, eRbIkúñgkarbBa¢nÚ víTüú. eKbMEbkvaeTACaR)aMbIbg;esIµ²KñaKW eRb kg;TabbMput
very high frequency, and extremely high
frequency. eRbkg;Tab eRbkg;mFüm eRbkg;x<s; eRbkg; x<sb; Mput nig
eRbkg;mhaEsnx<s.;
Radio galaxies
A radio source outside our galaxy that has been
viTüúháaLak;sIu
identified with an optically visible galaxy. RbPBvíTüúenAxageRkAháaLak;seIu yIg EdldUcKñanwghÁaLak;
sIuGubTicemIleXIj.
Radiography
The process or technique of producing images
ra:düÚRkab
of an opaque object on photographic film or on
a fluorescent screen by means of radiation
dMeNIrkar b¤ rebobbegIátrUbGgÁFatuXwµkelIhVIúlft b¤elIeG
(either particles or electromagnetic waves of Rkg;PøúyGrersg; tamry³kaMrsIµ ¬pg; b¤ rlkeGLicRtUma:
short wavelength, such as X-rays and gamma-
rays) The photograph produced is called a ejTicEdlmanC¿hanrlkxIødUcCakaMrsIµGiucnigkaMrsIµháama:¦.
radiograph.
rUbftEdlbegIát)anehAfa ra:düÚRkab.
Radioisotopes
An isotope of an element that is radioactive.
viTüúGIusUtUb
GIusUtUbénFatuEdlCaFatuvíTüúskmµ.
Radioisotope imaging
The formation of images to provide information
rUbPaBviTüúGIusUtUb
about the function of various organs in the
body, using internally administered
karbegIÝtrUbPaBedIm,Ipþl;Bt’manGMBImuxgarrbs;srIragÀepSg²këúgragÀkay
*radioisotopes as a radiation source. The edayeRbIvíTüúGIusUtUbCaRbPBkaMrsIµedIm,IRtYt Binitüxagkñúg.
technique is widely used in medicine to locate
tumours or cancers and to examine the flow víFIenHRtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIya:gTUlMTlU ay
pattern of bodily fluids.
kñúgevC¢saRsþedIm,IrkkEnøgduHsac;Bk b¤rkmharIk nigedIm,I
kMnt;KMrUhUrrbs;GgÁFaturavkñúgragÁkay.
Radiolocation
The location of distant objects by means of
viTüúnaykmµ
radar. karkMnt;TItaMgcMgayvtßtú amry³ra:da.
Radiology
The study and use of X-rays, radioactive
viTüúBüa)al
materials, and other ionising radiations for
medical purposes, especially for diagnosis and
karsikSa nig kareRbIkaMrsIGµ ciu sarFatuvTí üúskmµ nig kaMrsIµ GIyu :ugd¾éTeTot
the treatment of cancer and allied diseases. sMrab;eKalbMNgevC¢saRsþ CaBiesssM rab;vní ci yä½ eraK nig Büa)almharIk
nig eraKepSg².
Radionuclide
A nuclide that is radioactive.
viTüúnuyKIøt
nuyKItø EdllCaFatuvíTüúskmµ.
 189

Radiosonde
A meteorological instrument that measures
viTüúsMelg
temperature, pressure, humidity, and winds in
the upper atmosphere. It consists of a package
]bkrN_]tþúniymEdleRbIsMrab;vas;stI uNPð aB sMBaF sM enIm nig xül;
of instruments and a radio transmitter attached kñúgbriyakasxagelI. kñgú enaHmansMnu]M bkr N_mYycMnYn nig
to a balloon. The data is relayed back to earth
by the transmitter. The position of the balloon víTüúRtg;sTµI ½rP¢ab;eTAnwg)aLúg. TItaMg)aLúg GacemIleXIjedayeRbIra:da
can be found by radar and from its changes in
position the wind velocities can be calculated. ehIyeBlvapøas;bþÚrTItaMg eK GacKNnael,Ónxül;)an.
Radio source
An astronomical object that has been observed
RbPBviTüú
by a radio telescope to emit radio-frequency
electromagnetic radiation. Radio sources within
GgÁFatutaravíTüaEdlGacemIleXIjedayeRbIEkvqøúHvíTüedIm,I
the Galaxy include Jupiter, the sun, *pulsars beBa©jkaMrsIeµ GLicRtUma:ejTiceRbkg;víTüú.RbPBvíTüúenAkñúg
and background radiation arising from
*synchrotron radiation. Sources outside the háaLak;sIurmY man CUPIF½r RBHGaTitü Pulsar nig kaMrsIµ
Galaxy include spiral galaxies, *radio galaxies
and *quasars. EbkeRkanekItecjBIkaMrsIµsaMgRkURtUn. RbPBxageRkAháa Lak;srIu Ymman
háaLak;sIues<ó háaLak;svIu íTüú nig kahSar.
Radio telescope
An instrument for detecting and measuring
EkvqøúHviTüú
radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation that
passes through the *radio window in the earth’s
]bkrN_sMrab;segát nig vas;eRbkg;víTüúkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma: ejTic
atmosphere and reaches the surface of the earth. Edlkat;tambg¥cÜ víTüúkñúgbriyakasEpndI ehIymk dl;épÞEpndI.
There is a great range of *radio sources within
the universe, and radio telescopes are designed RbPBvíTüúGaceGayeKemIl)anq¶aykñgú cRk vaL
to detect both continuous emissions and
specific spectral lines. The simplest radio ehIyEkvqøúHvíTüúRtUv)aneKrcnaelIgsMrab;emIlkar beBa©jCab;²Kña nig
telescope consists of a paraboloidal steerable-
dish together with ancillary amplifiers. The dish
emIlsréss,úicNamYy. EkvqøúHvíTüú
surface focuses the incoming signal to a smBaØpS¿edaycanrag)a:ra:bUlGacbg;ercuHeLIg)an nigGMBIø .
tuneable receiver. At this point the signals are
amplified, detected and analysed. épÞcanRbmUlp¿úþsuBI aØal;clU bBa¢nÚ eTAeGayeRKOgTTYledIm,I EktRmUv.
Rtg;cMnucenHsIBu aØal;RtUvykeTABRgIk Binitü nig eFIVvíPaK.
Radiotherapy
The use of ionising radiation in the treatment of
viTüútikicäa (Büa)aleraKedayeRbIkaMrsIµ)
cancer and some diseases of bone marrow and
blood. In radiotherapy the radiation being used
kareRbIkaMrsIµGyIu :ugkñúgkarBüa)aleraKmharIk nig eraKxYrq¥gw nig Qam.
has to have energy great enough to kill the cells kñúgvíTüútikci äa kaMrsIµEdleKykeTAeRbImanfam
on which it falls.
BlFMlµmRKb;RKan;edIm,IsMlab;ekasika.
 190

Radio transmission
The transmission of radio waves from a
karbBa¢ÚnviTüú
transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. The
radiation may take many paths. The sum of the
karbBa¢nÚ rlkvíTüúBIGg;EtnbBa¢nÚ eTAkan;Gg;EtnTTYl. kaM
line-of-sight ground wave, the reflected ground rsIµGacmaneRcInEpñk. rlkdIrYmman rlkdIExSrUb rlkdIqøúH nig rlképÞ.
wave and the surface wave is called the ground
wave. Sky waves are those waves travelling rlkGakas CarlkEdlcrBIRtg;sµTI ½reTA eRKOgTTYltamry³GIuy:UNUEsV‘
from the transmitter to the receiver via the
ionosphere, and these waves enable long- ehIyrlkTaMgenHGacbBa¢nÚ )anry³cMgayq¶ay. GIyu :ugkmµénGatUm nig
distance transmission possible. The ionisation
of atoms and molecules in the upper
m:UelKulkëúgEsV‘ briyakasxagelI RtUv'anrMxanya:gxøaMgedaykaMrsIµG‘ulRta
atmosphere is caused largely by solar sVayRBHGaTitü nig kaMrsIµGiuc CaehtueFIVeGayKmnaKmn_
ultraviolet and X-radiation and therefore
conditions for radio communications differ víTüúxusKñarvagéf¶ nig yb;. GIuy:ugkmµkgñú tMbn;ETabbMputén
between day and night. Ionisation in the lower
E-region of the ionosphere falls off at night in GIyu :UNEU sV‘Føak;cHu eBlyb;edaysarKµanBnWøRBHGaTitü ehIy GIuy:ug nig
the absence of sunlight, and ions and electrons
tend to recombine. However in the less dense
eGLicRtugxiteTArkKña. eTaHCaya:genHkIþ kñgú tM bn;F
(higher) F-region there are fewer collisions
between ions and electrons and therefore fewer
mankarTgicÁ KñaxøH²rvagGIyu :ug nig eGLicRtug Caehtu
recombinations at night. The F-region is eFIVeGayvacgsm<n½ §naeBlyb;. dUecñHtMbn;FCaGñkbMpaø tman
therefore a more effective reflector at night.
The UHF and VHF waves used in television RbsiT§PaBxøaMgenAeBlyb;. rlk UHF nig VHFRtUv)aneK
broadcasting penetrate the ionosphere with little
reflection; therefore TV broadcasts can only be
ykeTAeRbIkúgñ TUrTsSn_pSayRCabcUlGIyu :UNUEsV‘ edayman
made over long distances by means of artificial
satellites.
caMgpøatbniþcbnÞcÜ dUecñHkarpSaytamTUrTsSn_GacpSay
)anq¶ayEttamry³páayrNbsib,nimtiµ b:eu NÑaH.
Radio window
A region of the electromagnetic spectrum in the
bg¥ÜcviTüú
radio-frequency band within which radio waves
can be transmitted through the earth’s
tMbn;s,iúceGLicRtUma:ejTickñúgbg;eRbkg;viTüú EdlenAkñgú enaH
atmosphere without significant reflection. It rlkvíTüúGacbBa¢nÚ kat;tambriyakasEpndI edaymin
extends from about 10 MHz to 100 GHz and
enables radiation in this range from celestial )ac;mancMNaMpøatRKab;RKan;. bg¥ÜcvíTüúmankMrwt 10 MHz eTA100 GHz
radio sources to be detected by radio telescopes
on the earth’s surface. ehIyGaceGaykaMrsIkµ ñúgrlkkMrtw enHBIRbPB víTüúkñúgTIGvkasd¾éTeTot
Gaccab;)anedayEkvqøHú víTüúenA elIépÞEpndI.
Radium (Symbol Ra)
A radioactive metallic element. It occurs in
ra:düÚm (nimitþsBaØa Ra)
uranium ores. The most stable isotope is
radium-266 (half-life 1602 years), which
Fatuelah³viTüúskmµ. vaekItmankëúgEr:Gy‘u ra:nIjm:Ù . GIsu UtUb
decays to the radioactive gas radon. It is used as EdlmanlMnwgbMputKWGy‘u ra:nIjm:Ù -@^^ ¬knøHCÍvít!^0@qñaM¦
a radioactive source in research and
radiotherapy. EdlrlYyeTACa]sµ½nvíTüúskmµra:dug. eKeRbIvaCaRbPBvíTüú
skmµkgñú karRsavRCav nig kñúgvíTüútikicaä .
Radius of curvature
The radius of a sphere that forms a part of a
kaMkMenag
lens surface or curved mirror. kaMEsV‘EdlbegIÝtCaEpëkènèpÛLg;TI b¤ kBa¨ke; kag.
 191

Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of a rotating body
kaMrgVil
represents the distance at which the entire mass
of the body should be concentrated for its
kaMrgVilrbs;GgÁFatuvíl bgðajBIcgM ayEdlma:sGgÁFatu
moment of inertia to be equal to that of a TaMgmUlRbmUlp¿þúRtg;cnM ucmYy manm:Um:g;niclPaBesIrµ )ay GgÁFatuenaH.
distributed body. Thus, the radius of gyration is

defined by the equation I = mk2, or k 

I
.
dUecñHkaMrgVilkMnt;edaysmIkar I  mk , b¤ k  mI .
2

m
For a uniform disc, whose moment of inertia is cMeBaHfasÉksNßan manm:mU :g;niclPaB½mr kaMrgVileGayeday
2

½mr2, the radius of gyration is given by 1 2

2 mr 1
1
2 mr
2
1 k  r
k  r m 2
m 2
Radius vector
In two dimensions the position of a point
viucT½rkaM
relative to the centre of the circle (the origin) is
defined by the radius r of a circle and the angle
kñúgvímaRtBIr TItaMgcMnucmYyeFobeTAnwgpí©trgVg;¬Kl;tMruy¦
 of the radius from the positive x-axis. kMnt;edaykaMrgVg; r nig mMukaM BIG½kSvíC¢manx.
Radon
A radioactive gaseous element. At least 20
ra:dug
isotopes are known, the most stable being
radon-222 (half-life 3.8 days). It is formed by
Fatu]sµn½ víTüúskmµ. ya:gehacNas;manGIsu UtUbcMnYn@0RtUv )aneKsÁal;
decay of radium-226 and undergoes alpha ra:dug-@@@manlMngw bMput¬knøHCÍvít#>*éf¶¦. ra:
decay.
dugekItmkBIkarrlYyra:düÚm-@@^ ehIykøayeTACabnSay Gal;hVa.
Rainbow
An optical phenomenon that appears as an arc
\NÞnU
of the colours of the spectrum across the sky
when falling water droplets are illuminated by
)atuPUtGubTicEdlekItmanelIgmanTMrg;CaFëÙs,iúcBN’enAelI emX
sunlight from behind the observer. The colours eBlmandMNk;TwkFøak;qøúHCamYyBnWøRBHGaTitüxag eRkayGñksegát.
are produced by the refraction and internal
reflection of the sunlight by the water drops. BN’ekItelIgedaysarcMNaMgpøat nig cM
Two bows may be visible, the inner ring being
known as the primary bow, caused by a single NaMgpøatxagkñúgénBnWøRBHGaTitüedayd¿Nk;Twk. kMenagBIr GacemIleXIj
internal reflection, and the outer, in which the
colours are reversed, called the secondary bow,
kMenagxagkñúgCakMenagd¿bUg¬ekItelIgeday cMNaMgpøatxagkñúgmþg¦
caused by two internal reflections. ehIykMenagxageRkA¬këúgenaHBN’
bRBa©as¦ehAfakMenagTIBIr¬ekItelIgedaycMNaMgpøatxag kñúgBIr¦.
RAM
Random access memory. The main memory of
erm
a computer, fabricated from *integrated
circuits, in which data can only be stored
erndUmGakessmim:Ur.I mimr:U Iemrbs;kMuBüÚT½r eFIBV IesoKIVCa eRcInrYmcUlKña
temporarily – until the power supply is turned EdlkñúgenaHTinñn½yrkSaTukbeNþaHGasnñrhUt dl;pþac;paevIsabpøay.
off. RAM consists of arrays of cells, each
capable of holding one *bit of data. ermmantMerobEslCaCYr Eslni mYy²GaTukTinnë ½ymYyb‘tÍ .
 192

Random Walk
The problem of determining the distance from a
edIrRBav
starting position made by a walker whose
displacement from the origin in the Cartesian
lMhat;rkcMgayBITItaMgcab;epÍþmeFIVelIgedayGñkedÍr EdlbM
plane during each step is chosen randomly (e.g. las;TIBIKl;tMruykñgú bøgk; aetsüag kñúgGMLúgeBlC¿hanni
by tossing a coin). The progress of the walker is
characterised by the net distance DN travelled in mYy²eRCÍserIsedayRBav ¬]TahrN_dUcCakare)aHkak;¦. d¿
N steps. After N steps the *root mean square
value Drms, which is the average distance away enIrénGñkedÍrbBa¢ak;edaycMgaysrubD crkñúgNC¿han. bnÞab;BINC¿han
N

from the origin, is given by Drms = N . tMélrwskaermFümD EdlCacMgay mFümecjBIKl;tMruy eGayeday

rms
Physical applications of the random walk
include diffusion and the related problem of D = N . karGnu vtþnr_ UbvíTüaénd¿enIrRBavrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgsMNay nig
rms

Brownian motion.
lMhat; EdlTak;TgnwgclnaeR)anpg.
Rankine cycle
A cycle of operations in a heat engine. The
siucEr:nKIn
Rankine cycle more closely approximates to the
cycle of a real steam engine than does the
sIucEdldMenIrkarkñúgma:sIunkMedA. sIcu Er:nKIndUcKñanwgsIucma:
*Carnot cycle, thus it predicts a lower ideal sIuncMhayCagsIuckakNU dUecñHvamanTinñplkMedATabCag sIuckakNU.
thermal efficiency than the Carnot cycle.
Rarefaction
The region in a longitudinal travelling or
raerhVak;süúg
standing wave in which the fluid (or gaseous)
pressure has its minimum instantaneous value.
tMbn;kñúgrlkeNþay b¤ rlkCRBa¢aM EdlRtg;tMbn;enaHsMBaF
GgÁFaturav¬b¤]sµ½n¦mantMélxN³Gbb,rma.
Raster
The pattern of scanning lines on the screen of a
ra:sÞ½r
cathode-ray tube in a television receiver or
other device that provides a visual display.
TMrg;bnÞat;ekoselIeGRkg;bMBg;kaMrsIµkatUdkñgú eRKOgTTYlTUr TsSn_ b¤
]bkrN_d¾éTeTot Edlpþl;rbU PaBdl;EPñk.
Rational number
Any number that can be expressed as the ratio
cMnYnsniTan
of two integers, such as p/q. The decimal
representation of a rational number either cMnYnNamYyEdlGacsMEdgCaplEckénBIrcMnYnKt; dUcCa qp CaedIm.
repeats such as in1/7 = 0.142857 142857 . . . or
1
terminates, such as in ½ = 0.5. The number 2 TsSPaKtageGaycMnYnsniTanRcMEdldUcCakñúg 7
 0.142857 142857 . .
cannot be expressed in either of these ways, and
cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers.
.b¤kc¾ b;dUcCa 12  0.5 . cMnnY 2 minGacsMEdgtamvíFITaMgenH)aneT
ehIyminGacsMEdg CapleFobénBIrcMnYnKt;)aneT.
Ray
A narrow beam of radiation that can be used to
kaMBnWø
represent the direction of flow of light energy.
The use of ray diagrams enables us to trace the
)ac;BnWqø µaénkaMrsIEµ dlGaceRbIedIm,ItageGayTisedAbMlas;
passage of light through an optical system, and TIrbs;famBlBnWø. kareRbIdüaRkamkaMBnWøGaceGayeyIgkM
also enables us to determine the position and
type of the image of an object. nt;sñamBnWøkat;RbB½n§GubTic ehIyk¾GaceGayeyIgkMnt;TI taMg nig
RbePTrUbPaBrbs;vtßú)anEdr.
Rayleigh criterion
See resolving power.
lkçN³vinicä½yerLay
emIl resolving power
Rayleigh-Jeans formula
See Planck’s radiation law
rUbmnþerLay-CIn
emIl Planck’s radiation law
 193

Rayleigh scattering
See scattering of electromagnetic radiation.
r)a:yerLay
emIl scattering of electromagnetic radiation
Reactance (Symbol X)
A property of a circuit containing inductance or
erGak;tg; (nimitþsBaØa X)
capacitance that together with its resistance
makes up its impedance. The impedance Z is
lkçN³rbs;esoKIVEdlmanGaMgDuctg; b¤ kugdg;saT½r Edl
given by Z2 = R2 + X2, where R is the resistance P¢ab;CamYyersIusþgr; bs;va begItá )anCaGaMeb:dg;. GaMeb:dg;Z eGayeday Z 2

and X is the reactance of the circuit. For a pure

capacitance C, the capacitative reactance is
given by XC = 1/C, where  is the angular
frequency of the alternating voltage applied
across the capacitor. For a pure inductance L,
the inductive reactance is given by XL = C. If
the resistance, inductance and capacitance are
 R  X , Edl RCaersIs
2 2
u gþ ; ehIy XCaer Gak;tg;esoKIV.
cMeBaHkugdg;sarT½r CEtÉg erGak;tg;ka)a: sIueteGayeday X  1/C, C
EdlCaeRbkg;méMu ntg;süúg qøas;Gnuvtþqøgkat;kugdg;saT½r.
cMeBaHGaMgDuctg;LEtÉg er Gak;tg;GaMgDuctg;eGayeday X  C. L

in series the impedance Z = ebIersIusþg; GaMg Ductg; nig kugdg;saT½rtCaes‘rI GaMeb:dg;ZeGayeday

[ R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 ] . Reactance is
Z = [ R  ( X  X ) ] . erGak;tg;manxñatKitCaGUm.
2
L C
2
measured in ohms.
Reaction
A force that is equal in magnitude but opposite
Rbtikmµ
in direction to some other force, in accordance
with Newton’s second law. If a body A exerts a
kMlaMgEdlmanm:UDulesIµKañ EtTisedApÞúyKñacMeBaHkMlaMgmYy
force on body B, then B exerts an equal and eTot¬tamc,ab;TIBIrjútun¦. ebIGgÁFatuAbeBa©jkMlaMgelI GgÁFatuB
opposite force on A. Thus, every force could be
described as a ‘reaction’, but we usually refer to enaHGgÁFatuBbeBa©jkMlaMgmanm:UDulesIµKañ EtTis
a pair of equal and opposite forces as ‘action
and reaction’ forces. edApÞúymkelIGgÁFatuAvíj. dUecñH RKb;kMlaMgTaMgGs;Gacni
yayfaCaRbtikmµ EtCaTUeTAeyIgsMedAdl;KrU kMlaMgmanm:U
DulesIµEtTisedApÞúyKña kMlaMgenHCaGMeBInigRbtikmµ.
Reactor
See nuclear reactor
erGak;T½r
emIl nuclear reactor
Real gas
A gas that does not have the properties
]sµ½nBit
assigned to an *ideal gas. Its molecules have a
finite size, and there are significant forces
]sµn½ EdlminmanlkçN³dUc]sµ½nbrisuT§. m:eU lKulvamanTM hMknM t;
between them. (See equation of state). ehIymankMlaMgrvagKña. emIl equation of state
Real image
See image.
rUbPaBBit
emIl image
Recombination process
The process in which a neutral atom or
dMenIrcUlKñavij
molecule is formed by the combination of a
positive ion and a negative ion or electron. The
dMenIrkarmü:agEdlkñúgenaHGatUmNWt b¤ m:eU lKulNWt manTM
process is of the type: rg;edaykarcgsm<½n§GyIu :ugvíC¢man nig GIuy:ugGvíC¢man b¤ eG LicRtug.
A+ + B–  AB or A+ + e–  A
dMenIrkarenHmanTMrg;
A+  B–  AB or A+ + e–  A
Rectification
The process of obtaining a direct current from
karEktMrUv
an alternating electrical supply, using a
transformer and *rectifiers.
dMenIrkarTTYl)ancrnþCab;BIkarpÁt;pgÁ c; rnþqøas; edayeRbI Rtg;smV a:T½r nig
ricu TIevü.
 194

Rectifier
An electrical device that allows more current to
riucTIevü
flow in one direction than the other, thus
allowing alternating e.m.f.s to drive only direct
]bkrN_GKIÁsnIEdlGaceGaycrnþpaø s;TItamTisedAmYy
current. RbesIrCag]bkrN_d¾éT dUecñHGaceGaykMlaMgGKIÁsnIcl
krqøas;kaø yeTACacrnþCab;.
Red dwarf
A dim and cool dwarf star (i.e. one that has a
páayRkhmtUc
low luminosity and a lower temperature than
other dwarf stars). The diameter of such stars is
páaytUcRsGab;ehIyRtCak;¬páayEdlmankMrwtBnWøexSay ehIy
about half that of the sun and their surface sItuNPð aBTabCagpáaydVahVepSgeTot¦. Ggát;pí©t
temperature lies between 2000K and 3000K. It
is thought that red dwarfs are the most common páayRkhmtUcRbEhlBak;kNþalp©ítRBHGaTitü ehIysI
type of stars in the universe.
tuNPð aBépÞvacenøaH2000Knig3000K. eKcat;Tukdapáay
páayRkhmtUcKWCaRbePTpáayTUeTAkñúgcRkvaL.
Red giant
A *giant star thought to be in the later stages of
páayRkhmFM
stellar evolution. It has a surface temperature in
the range 2000–3000 K and a diameter 10–100
páayFMRtUv)aneKKitfaCaC¿hancugeRkayénbdivtþpáay. va
times that of the sun. mansItuNðPaBcenøaH 2000-3000K ehIyGgát;pí©t10-100
dgGgát;p©ítRBHGaTitü.
Redshift
A displacement of the lines in the spectra of
rwdsIuhV
distant galaxies towards the red end of the
visible spectrum, (i.e. towards longer
bMlas;TIénbnÞat;kúñgs,icú háaLak;sqIu øayeTAkan;cugRkhmén
wavelengths). It is usually interpreted as a s,icú emIleXIj¬mann½yfa eTAkan;C¿han rlkEvgCageK¦.
*Doppler effect resulting from the recession of
galaxies along the line of sight (see expansion eKbkRsaydUcKñanwgpldUEBøEdlekItecjBIkarRtlb;mk
of the universe). The redshift is usually
expressed as /, where  is the shift in
víjénháaLak;stIu ambeNþaybnÞat;Knøg (emIl expansion of the
wavelength of radiation of wavelength . If universe). CaTUeTArwdsIuhVsEM dg Ca /,
very high velocities of recession are involved,
we have to take into account relativistic time EdlCaKMlakñúgC¿hanrlkkaMrsImµ anC¿han rlk.
dilation, in which case the observed wavelength RbsinebIel,ÓnénkarRtlb;mkelOn eyIgRtUvKit dl;ry³eBlrIkeFob
′ is given by
′ =  (c  v) /(c  v) . EdlkñúgkrNIenHC¿hanrlksegát’ eGayeday ′ 
 (c  v) /(c  v) .
Reflectance
The ratio of the radiant flux reflected by a
erpiøctg;
surface to that falling on it. pleFobPøcú ra:düg;caMgpøatedayépÞeTAnwgPøúgcaMgb:HelIva.
Reflection
The return of all or part of a beam of particles
cMNaMgpøat
or waves when it encounters the boundary
between two media. The laws of reflection
karRtlb;mkvíjTaMgGs; b¤ Rtlb;mYyEpñkén)ac;BnWøpg;b¤
state: (1) that the incident ray, the reflected ray, rlkeBlvaCYbr)aMgrvagmCÄdæanBIr. PaKryénfamBlrlk
and the normal to the reflecting interface at the
point of incidence are all in the same plane; (2) caMgpøatGaRs½yelIplsgel,ÓnrlkkñúgmCÄdæanBIr. c,ab;
that the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection. cMnaMgpøateBalfa : (1) kaMcaMgb:H kaMcaMgpøat nig kaMcaMgEkg
eTAnwgépÞcaMgpøatRtg;cnM ucmYy KWzitkñúgbøgE; tmYydUcKña. (2)
mMucaMgb:HesIµmcMu aMgpøat.
 195

Refracting Telescope
See telescope
EkvqøúHcMNaMgpøat
emil telescope
Refraction
The change of direction experienced by a
cMNaMgEb
wavefront as it passes obliquely from one
medium to another in which its speed of
bMErbMrYlTisedAEdlbeBa©jedayrlkmux kalNavaqøg
propagation is altered. The phenomenon occurs kat;bBaäti BImCÄdæanmYyeTAmCÄdæanmYyeTot edaykñgú enaH
with all types of waves, but it is most familiar
with light waves. In optics the direction is el,ÓndMNalERbRbYl. )atuPUtenHekItmankñúgRKb;RbePT rlkTaMgGs;
changed in accordance with Snell’s law, i.e.
n1sini = n2sinr, where i and r are the angles b:uEnþvaRsedogKñaeTAnwgrlkBnWbø Mptu . kñgú GubTic
made by the incident and refracted rays to the
normal at the point of incidence, and n1 and n2
TisedAERbRbYleTAtamc,ab;Esñk n sini = n sinr
1 2

are the *refractive indices of the two media. EdlinigrCamMubegItá elIgedaykaMBnWøcaMgb:H nig kaMBnWcø aMgEbr
The change in direction results from a change
in the speed of propagation. eTAnwgbnÞat;EkgRtg;cMncu caMgb:H ehIyn nig n CasnÞsSn_
1 2

bMEbrénmCÄdæanBIr. bMErbMrlY TisedAekItBIbMErbMrlY el,Ónd¿ Nal.

Refractive index (Symbol n)
The absolute refractive index of a medium is
snÞsSn_bMEbr (nimitþsBaØan)
the ratio of the speed of electromagnetic
radiation in a vacuum to the speed in the
snÞsSn_bMEbrdac;xaténmCÄdæanmYy KWCapleFobénel,Ón
medium. As the speed of propagation varies kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTickñúgsuBaØakaseTAnwgel,ÓnkñúgmCÄ dæan.
with wavelength, the wavelength should be
specified. The refractive index is usually kalNael,Ónd¿NalERbRbYltamC¿hanrlk enaH
defined for yellow light (sodium D-lines;
wavelength 589.3 nm). The relative refractive eKGacsáal;C¿hanrlk)an. snÞsSn_bMEbrCaFmµtakMnt;sM
index is the ratio of the speed of light in one
medium to that in an adjacent medium.
rab;BnWøBN’elOg¬srèssUdüÙmDmanC¿hanrlk 589.3 nm)
snÞsSn_bMEbreFob KWCapleFobénel,ÓnBnWkø gñú mCÄdæan
mYyeTAnwgel,ÓnBnWøkñúgmCÄdæanCab;Kña.
Refractivity
A measure of the extent to which a medium will
kMrwtbMEbr
deviate a ray of light entering its surface. rgVas;KMlatEdlkaMBnWøgakecjeBlvacUlkñúgépÞmCÄdæan.
Refractometer
Any of various instruments for measuring the
erERhVktUEm:t
refractive index of a substance or a medium. ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;snÞsSn_bMEbrénsarFatu b¤ mCÄdæan.
Relative atomic mass (atomic weight)
Symbol Ar. The ratio of the average mass per
ma:sGatUmeFob (TMgn;GatUmmannimitþsBaØa A ) r

atom of the naturally occurring form of an

element to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
pleFobma:smFümkñúgmYyGatUmFatuekItmankñúgFmµCati
eTAnwg1/12ma:sénGatUmkabUn!@.
Relative density (specific gravity)
The ratio of the density of a substance to the
dg;sIueteFob (TMnajCak;lak;)
density of some reference substance. For liquids
or solids it is the ratio of the density to the
pleFobdg;sIuetrbs;sarFatueTAnwgdg;suIetsarFatuNa mYy.
density of water. cMeBaHGgÁFaturav b¤ GgÁFaturgw dg;sIueteFobKWCapl
eFobéndg;sueI teTAnwgdg;sIuetTwk.
 196

Relativistic mass
The mass of a moving body measured by an
ma:seFob b¤ ma:sruWLaTIv
observer in the same reference frame as the
body. According to Einstein’s *special theory
ma:sénGgÁFatupaø s;TIkMnt;edayGñksegátkñúgtMruydUcKñanwg GgÁFatu.
of relativity the mass m of a body moving with tamRTwsþeI FobBiessrbs;elakGaMgsþaj ma:sm
speed v is given by
m  m0/ 1  v 2 / c 2 ,
rbs;GgÁFatupaø s;TIedayel,ÓnveGayeday
where m0 is the rest mass of the body and c is m  m0/ 1  v 2 / c 2
the speed of light. This equation shows that a
body can never move at the speed of light as its Edlm Cama:senAnwgfál;rbs;GgÁFatu ehIycCael,ÓnBnWø.
0

mass, and hence its kinetic energy, would be

infinite.
smIkarenHbgðajfa GgÁFatuminGacpøas;TIdl;el,ÓnBnWødUc
ma:srbs;va)aneT EdlCaehtueFIVeGayfamBlsIeu nTicmin GackMnt;.
Relativistic mechanics
An extension of Newtonian mechanics that
emkaniceFob b¤ emkanicrWuLaTIv
takes into account the *special theory of
relativity.
karrIkcMerInénemkanicjÚtunQaneTAdl;RTwsþeI mkaniceFob.
Relativity
Einstein’s *special theory of relativity refers to
rWuLaTIvIs
non-accelerated (inertial) frames of reference,
while his general theory extends to accelerated
RTwsIþeFobBiessrbs;elakGaMgsþaj edaysMedAdl;tMruy
(non-inertial) systems. The two postulates of KµansMTuH¬tMruynicl¦ cMENkRTwsþTI UeTArbs;Kat;Qandl;
the special theory of relativity are (i) The
fundamental laws of physics have the same RbB½n§mansMTuH¬RbB½n§minnicl¦. karsniñdæanBIrénRTwsþeI Fob KW (i)
form in all inertial frames moving relative to
each other. (ii) The speed of light in free space c,ab;RKwHrUbvíTüamanTMrg;dUcKñakñgú tMruyniclpøas;TIeFob KñaeTAvíjeTAmk
has the same value for all inertial observers. (ii) el,ÓnBnWøkúñglMhesrImantMéldUcKñacM eBaHGñksegátnicl.
The consequences of these postulates are as
follows: 1. Time intervals measured in a frame ví)akEdlTTYl)anBIkarsnµt;TaMgenHKW 1.
moving relative to an observer are dilated; that
is, the time intervals are longer. The relation ry³eBlvas;kñúgtMruypøas;TIeFobeTAnwgGñksegátKWyWt mann½yfa
between the measured time intervals t and the
relative speed v is ry³eBlEvgCag. TMnak;TMngrvagry³eBlvas; t nig el,ÓneFobvKW t 
t = t0/ 1  v 2 / c 2 where t0 is the time interval t / 1  v / c Edlt Cary³eBl kñúgtMruyGñksegát
0
2 2
0
in the observer’s frame and c is the speed of
light. 2. Length is contracted, that is, distances ehIycCael,ÓnBnWø. @> RbEvgrYj man n½yfa
measured in the moving frame are less than in
the stationary frame. The relation is L =
rgVas;cMgaykñúgtMruypøas;TIKtW icCagRbEvgkñúgtMruy nwg. TMnak;TMngenHKW L
Lo 1  v 2 / c 2 . = L 1  v / c . ví)akepSg eToténkarsniædæanTaMgBIrKW :
o
2 2

Other consequences of the two postulates are:

the mass of a moving body is greater than for a
ma:srbs;GgÁFatupaø s;TI FMCag ma:senAnwg : m = m / 1  v / c .
0
2 2

stationary body: m = /
m0 1  v / c
2 2
. manPaBsmmUlKña rvagma:snigfamBl eGayedaysmIkarGaMgsþa E =
Also, there is an equivalence between mass and mc smIkarenHTayfa këg
2
ú RbtikmµnuyekøEG‘ RKan;Etma:sbMEbk
energy given by the Einstein equation E = mc2.
This equation predicts that in nuclear reactions b:unµannaTIb:ueNÑaHeKsegáteXIjekItmanfamBlya:gFM.
where minute mass defects (differences) are
observed there should be a huge generation of famBlenHRtUveKykeTAeRbIkúñgerGak;T½rPIsüúg nig kñúgRKab; EbkGatUm.
energy. This energy is used in fission reactors
and the atom bomb. Also, in fusion reactors it
eKk¾GacykfamBlenHeTAeRbIkñúgerGak;T½rPuy süúg)anEdr
should possible to make exploit the mass defect
that accompanies the fusion of hydrogen to
vaGaceFIVeGaypÞHú ma:sbMEbkEdl)anmkBI
form helium nuclei. PuysüúgGIuRdUEsnbegIát)anCaéNVy:UeGlüÚm.
 197

Relay
An electrical or electronic device in which a
rWuel
current in one circuit controls the current in a
second circuit. These devices are used in many
]bkrN_GKIÁsnI b¤ ]bkrN_eGLicRtUnic EdlkñúgenaHcrnþ
applications in which electrical control is kñúgesoKITV ImYyRtYtBinti ücrnþkñúgesoKIVTIBIr. ]bkrN_TaMgenH
required. The simplest relay is the
electromechanical relay in which the first RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbICaeRcInkñúgkarRtYtBinti üGKIÁsnI. rWuel
circuit energises an electromagnet that operates
a switch in a second circuit. smBaØKrW eWu leGLicRtUemkanic EdlkñúgenaHesoKITV ImYypþl; eGLicRtUemEdk
EdlRbtibtiþkarN_kugtak;kñúgesoKIVTIBIr.
Remote sensing
The gathering and recording of information
rWum:UtsinsIug
concerning the earth’s surface by techniques
that do not involve actual contact with the
karRbmUl nig karftBt’manEdlTak;TgnwgèpÛEpndI tamvé
surface. These techniques include aerial FIEdlminTak;TgpÞal;CamYyépÞ. víFITaMgenHrYmmankarftrUb RkhmGaMgRhVa
photography infrared imagery and radar.
nig ra:daBIelIGakas.
Renewable energy sources
Sources of energy that do not use up the earth’s
RbPBfamBlf͵
finite mineral resources. Various sources are
being used or investigated, such as geothermal
RbPBfamBlfÍeµ dayminBwgelIRbPBFnFanxnicBIEpndÍ.
energy, hydroelectric power, nuclear fusion, RbPBepSg²RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbI b¤ ykeTAsegát dUcCa
solar energy, tides, wind power and wave
power. famBlkMedAEpndÍ famBlRBHGaTitü TwkcUnac famBl xül; nig
famBlrlk.
Resistance (Symbol R)
The ratio of the potential difference across an
ersIusþg; (nimitsþ BaØa R)
electrical component to the current passing
through the component.
pleFobénplsgb:Utg;Esülqøgkat;smasFatuGKIÁsnIeTA
nwgcrnþqøgkat;smasFatu.
Resistance thermometer
A *thermometer that relies on the change of
ersIusþg;ETm:UEm:t
electrical resistance of a metal wire with
temperature, according to the approximate
ETm:EU m:tEdlGaRs½yelIbMErbMrYlersIusþg;GKIÁsnIrbs;ExScM
relationship R = R0(1 + aT + bT2), where R is lgelah³EdlmansItuNPð aB tamTMnak;TMng R  R (1  aT  bT )
0
2

the resistance of the wire at temperature T and

R0 is the resistance of the wire at a reference
temperature, usually 0oC; a and b are constants
characteristic of the metal of the wire. The
metal most often used is platinum and the
platinum resistance coil is usually incorporated
into one arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
Resistivity (Symbol
A measure of a material’s ability to oppose the
flow of an electric current. The Resistivity of a
material is given by RA/l, where R is the
resistance of a uniform specimen of the
material, having a length l and a cross-sectional
area A. Resistivity is measured in ohm-meters.
EdlRCaersIusþgr; bs;ExScMlgenAsItuNPð aBT ehIy
R CaersIusþg;rbs;ExScMlgenAsItuNP
0 ð aBRtg;cnM ucNa mYy CaTUeTARtg;cnM uc
0 C a nig befrExScMlgelah³.
0
elah³EdleKykeTAeRbIjwkjab;KpW aø TIn ehIyCaTUeTAeK
ykbUbn‘Í ersIusþg;pøaTIneFIVCaèdmçagrbs;sa< nvÍtsþnÙ .
ersIusÞIvIet (nimitþsBaØa 
rgVas;lT§PaBrbs;sarFatukgñú karTb;bMlas;TIcrnþGKIsÁ nI.
ersIusvIÞ Íetrbs;sarFatueGayeday RA/l, Edl RCaersIsu þg;
rUbFatumanRbEvgl nigépÞmuxkat;A. ersIsu IÞvÍetmanxñatKitCa GUmEm:Rt.
 198

Resistor
A component in an electrical or electronic
ersIusþr
circuit that provides resistance in specific parts
of the circuit in order to set up required
smasFatukúgñ esoKIVGKIsnI b¤ esoKIVeGLicRtUnci Edlpþl;er
potential differences around the circuit. sIusþg;kúñgEpñksIKu yIV a:gCak;lak; edIm,IeGayeKtMrUvplsgb:U
Resistors are either wire-wound or consist of
carbon particles in a ceramic binder. tg;EsülC¿vu éjesoKIV. ersIsu þrGacCarb‘E¿u xScMlg b¤ manpg;
kabUnCaTMrg;sm<½nesra:mic.
Resolution
The separation of a vector quantity into two
viFIbMEbk
components, which are usually at right angles
to each other. Thus, a force F acting on a body
karbMEbkbrimaNvíucT½reTACaBIrkMbU:sg; EdlCaFmµtakMb:Usg;
at an angle  to the horizontal can be resolved TaMgBIrEkgKñaeTAvíjeTAmk. dUecñHkMlaMgFmanGMeBIelIGgÁ
into a horizontal component Fcos and a Fatup)Áú¿ anmMu eTAnwgbnÞat;edk GacbMEbkeTACakMb:sU g;edk Fcos
vertical component Fsin, both in the same
plane as the original force. nigkMb:Usg;Qr Fsin kMb:Usg;TaMgBIrzítkñúgbøgd; Uc Kñanwgbøg;kMlaMgedÍmEdr.
Resonance
An oscillation of a system at one of its natural
ersUNg;
frequencies that occurs when the frequency of a
periodic driving force coincides with the natural
lMeyalrbs;RbB½n§Rtg;eRbkg;mYyéneRbkg;pÞal;rbs;va
frequency of the system. In the case of an EdlekItelIgeBlEdleRbkg;énkMlaMgRcanxYbRtUvKñaCamYy
oscillating system that has very small damping,
the amplitude of the response of the oscillator eRbkg;pÞal;rbs;RbB½n§. kñúgkrNIEdlRbB½n§lMeyalmantM hytUc
to the driving force can become extremely
large, sometimes causing catastrophic damage. GMBIøTtu RtUvKñanwglMeyalkMlaMgRcan GackøayeTA CaFMbMptu
Resonance can occur in atoms and molecules,
mechanical systems (such as musical
CYnkalbgáeGaymankarxUcxatF¶n;F¶r. ersUNg; GacekItmankñúgGatUm nig
instruments) and electrical circuits (see resonant m:UelKul kñúgRbB½n§emkanic¬dUc Ca]bkrN_ePøgCaedÍm¦
circuit).
nigkñúgesoKIVGKiÁsnI (emIl resonant circuit).
 199

Resonant circuit
A reactive circuit (see reactance) so arranged
esoKIVersUNg;
that it is capable of resonance. In a series
resonant circuit a resistor, inductor and
esoKIVRbtikmµ(emIl reactance)EdlGaceFIVeGayman)atuPUt ersUNg;.
capacitor are arranged in series. Resonance këúgesoKIeV rsUNg;es‘rI manersIsu þr GaMgDucT½r nig kugdg;saT½rtCaes‘rI.
occurs when the reactance of the capacitor is
equal to that of the inductor, in which case the )atuPUtersUNg;ekItmaneBlerGak;
voltage across the capacitor is out of phase with
the voltage across the inductor so these two tg;rbs;kugdg;saT½resIµerGak;tg;GaMgDucT½r kñgú krNIenHtg;
voltages cancel, so the impedance of the
combination is a minimum at the resonant
süúgqøgkat;kgu dg;saT½rmanpaspÞúyKñanwgtg;süúgqøgkat; GaMgDucT½r
frequency. Thus, at resonance the angular dUecñHtg;süúgTaMgBIrsMrYlecal dUcenHGaMeb:dg;
frequency is approximately given by
L  1/C. rYmmantMélGbb,rmaRtg;cMnuceRbkg;ersUNg;. dUecñHRtg;cM nucersUNg;
In a parallel resonant circuit the resistor,
inductor and capacitor are arranged in parallel,
eRbkg;mMueGayeday
and (again) resonance occurs at the frequency at L  1/C
which the inductor and capacitor have the same
reactance, in which case the currents through
kñúgesoKIeV rsUNg;Exñg manersIusþr GaMgDucT½r nig kugdg;sa T½rtCaExñg
the inductor and the capacitor are out of phase
and hence add up to zero, so the parallel
ehIy)atuPUtersUNg;ekItman¬mþgeTot¦Rtg; cMnucmYy
resonant circuit has a maximum impedance at EdlRtg;cMnucenaHGaMgDucT½r nig kugdg;saT½rman erGak;tg;dUcKña
the resonant frequency. At the resonant
frequency both circuits behave as though they kñúgkrNIenHcrnþqøgkat;GaMgDucT½r nig qøg kat;kgu dg;saT½rmanpaspÞúyKña
are purely resistive. Resonant circuits are
widely used in radio and all
dUecñHeBlbUkcUlKñaesIµsUnü
telecommunications in order to select one
signal frequency in preference to others.
dUcenHesoKIVersUNg;ExñgmanGaMeb:dg;GtibrmaRtg;cMnuceRb kg;ersUNg;.
Rtg;cMnuceRbkg;ersUNg; esoKIVTaMgBIrRtUvman GIVsMrab;Tb;.
esoKIVersUNg;RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIya:gTUlMTU laykñúgvíTüú nig
kñúgTUrKmnaKmn_TaMgGs; edIm,IeGayeK
GaceRCIserIseRbkg;sBIu aØal;mYykñúgcMeNamsIBu aØa;epSg².
Rest energy
The rest mass of a body expressed in energy
famBlenAes¶om
terms according to the relationship E = m0c2,
where m0 is the rest mass of the body and c is
ma:senAes¶omrbs;GgÁFatusMEdgCaGnuKmn_famBlGaRs½yeTAtamTMnak;TMn
the speed of light. g E  mc Edlm Cama:senAes¶ómrbs; GgÁFatu ehIycCael,ÓnBnWø.
2
0

Restitution coefficient (Symbol e)

A measure of the elasticity of colliding bodies.
emKuNTgiÁc (nimitþsBaØa e)
For two spheres moving in the same straight
line e = (v2 – v1)/(u1 – u2) where u1 and u2 are
rgVas;PaByWtènGgÀFatuTgicÀ . cMeBaHEsV‘BIrpøas;TItambnÛat; Rtg;dUcKëa
v v
the velocities of bodies 1 and 2 before collision
(u1 > u2) and v1 and v2 are the velocities of
e 2
u u
1
Edlu nigu Cael,Ónrbs;GgÁFatu! nig@muneblTgiÁc(u >
1 2 1
1 2
bodies 1 and 2 after collision. If the collision is
perfectly elastic e = 1 and the kinetic energy of u2)ehIyv nigv Cael,Ónrbs;GgÁ Fatu!nig@eRkayeBlTgicÁ . ebITgiÁcxÞate
1 2

 1 ehIyfamBl sIeu nTicrbs;RbB½n§RtUv)anrkSa cMeBaHTgiÁcsÞk; e < 1

the system is conserved: for an inelastic
collision e < 1 and some kinetic energy is lost.
ehIy famBlsIeu nTicxøHRtUv)at;bg;.
Rest mass
The mass of a body at rest when measured by
ma:senAes¶om
an observer who is at rest in the same reference
frame. Compare relativistic mass.
ma:sGgÁFatuenAes¶omeBlvas;edayGñksegát edayGñk
segátenAes¶ómkñúgtMruyEtmYydUcKña. eRbobeFob relativistic mass.
 200

Resultant
A *vector quantity that has the same effect as
pÁÜb
two or more other vector quantities of the same
kind. See parallelogram of vectors.
brimaNvíucT½rEdlmanpldUcbrimaNvíucT½rBIrb¤eRcInepSg
eToténRbePTdUcKña. emIl parallelogram of vectors
Retina
The light-sensitive membrane that lines the
erTIn
interior of the eye. smasFatuvBí aØaNBnWøEdnenAxagkñgú EPñk.
Retrograde motion
The apparent motion of a planet from east to
clnaerRtURkad
west as seen from the earth against the
background of the stars.
clnaTMngrbs;PBmYyBIekIteTAlic EdlGaceXIjBIEpndI
Tl;nwgxageRkaypáay.
Retrorocket
A small rocket motor that produces thrust in the
erRtUrUEkt
opposite direction to a rocket’s main motor in
order to decelerate it.
m:UTr½ kaMRCYcFuntUc EdlbegItá kMlaMgrujkñúgTisedApÞúyeTA
nwgm:UT½remrbs;kaMRCYc edIm,Ibg¥g;va.
Reverse osmosis
A method of obtaining pure water from water
ruWEvGUsµÚ
containing salt. Pure water and the salt water
are separated by a semi -permeable membrane
víFI)anTwksuT§BITwkGMbwl. TwksuT§ nig TwkGMbwlx½NÐdac;BIKañ
and the pressure in the salt water is raised to edayPëassWmIEBmIb ehIyebIeKbegInÝ sMBaFTwkGMbwlekIn dl;@$Gat;m:EU sV‘
about 25 atmospheres, which is above the
osmotic pressure of the salt water, causing EdlsMBaFenHenAxagelIsMBaFGUsÚrµ bs; TwkGMbwl
water in the salt solution to pass through the
membrane into the pure water. eFIVeGayTwkkñgú sUluysüúgGMbwlqøgkat;PñascUl eTAkñúgTwksuT§.
Reversible process
Any process in which the variables that define
dMeNIrrWuEvsIub
the state of the system can be made to change in
such a way that they pass through the same
dMeNIrm:üagEdlkñúgenaHGefrEdlkMnt;PaBrbs;RbB½n§GaceFIV eGaypøas;bþÚr
values in the reverse order when the process is edIm,IeGayvaqøgkat;tMéldUcKñakñgú TisedA Rcas.
reversed.
Reynold’s number
A dimensionless number used in fluid
cMnYnér:Nul
mechanics to determine the type of flow of a cMnYnKµanxñatEdleKykeTAeRbIkñúgemkanicsnÞnIyedIm,IkMnt;
fluid through a pipe. It is the ratio vl/, where
v is the flow velocity,  is the fluid density, l is
RbePThUrrbs;GgÁFaturavkat;bMBg;. vaCapleFob vl/ Edl
a characteristic linear dimension. vCael,ÓnhUr Cadg;sueI tsnÞnIy lCaTMhMRbEvg.
Rheostat
A variable resistor, the value of which can be
erGUsþa
changed without interrupting the current flow. ersIusþrERbRbYl tMélrbs;erGUsaþ GacERbRbYledaymin)ac;
pþac;crnþGKIsÁ nI.
Richter scale
A logarithmic scale to compare the magnitude
rgVas;riucT½r
of earthquakes. The scale varies from 0 to 10.
The Richter scale is related to logarithm of the
rgVas;LÚkarItsMrab;eRbobeFobTMhMBa¢ÜyEpndI. rgVas;ERb RbYlBI0eTA!0.
wave divided by the period of the dominant rgVas;rciu T½rTak;TgeTAnwgLÚkarItrlkEck edayry³eBlrlkxøaMgbMptu .
wave. On this scale a value of 2 can just be felt
as a tremor and damage occurs for values in enAelIrgVas;enH tMél@RKan; EtCadMeNIrj½r
excess of 6.
ehIytMélelIsBI^eLIgeTAeFIeV Gaykar rBa¢yÜ mankarxUcxat.
 201

Robotics
The study of the design, manufacture and
rUbUTic
operation of robots, i.e. machines capable of
being programmed to perform mechanical tasks
karsikSaBIrebobrcnaeragcRk nig Rbtibtþki arN_mnusSynþ mann½yfa
and to move by automatic control. Robots are Cama:sIunEdlmankmµvFí IedIm,IeFIVkargaremkanic
used in industry to perform tasks that are either
repetitive or in dangerous environments. nigedIm,IeFIcV lnaedaykugRtUlsV½yRbvtþ.i mnusSynþRtUv
)aneKykeTAeRbIkúñgerag]sSahkmµedIm,IeFIVkargardEdl² b¤
kargarEdlmanbrisßaneRKaHfñak;.
Rocket
A space vehicle or projectile that is forced
kaMRCYc
through space or the atmosphere by *jet
propulsion.
yanGavkas b¤ RKab;)aj;EdlmankMlaMgqøgkat;Gakas b¤ briyakas
edayeRbIm:UT½rRbtikmµ .
Roentgen
The German physicist responsible for
r:nKin
discovering X-rays. GñkrUbvíTüaCatiGalWøm:gE; dl)anrkeXIjkaMrsIµGiuc.
ROM
Read-only memory. A form of computer
r:m
memory, fabricated from *integrated circuits,
whose contents are permanently recorded at the
mimr:U IEdlGacykGanEtb:eu NÑaH. TMrg;mimUr: IkMuBüÚT½reFIVeLIg
time of manufacture. It is thus used to store data edayesoKICV aeRcInrab;lanbBa©ÚlKña vaGacfyTukÉksarCa GciéRnþ.
that never requires modification.
ehtudUecñHehIyeKeRbIvaedÍm,IpkÞú Tinñn½yEdlmin GacEkERb)an.
Root-mean-square value (RMS value)
1. (in statistics) A typical value of a number (n)
tMélrwskaermFüm (tMélRMS)
of values of a quantity (x1, x2, x3, ...) equal to
the square root of the sum of the squares of the
!> ¬kñúgsþaTic¦tMélénncMnYnrbs;brimaNx , x , x , …esInµ wg
1 2 3

values divided by n, that is: rwskaerénplbUkkaertMélEckedayn mann½yfa

( x1  x 2  x3  ...) / n
2 2 2
RMS value = tMélRMS  ( x  x  x  ...) / n
1
2
2
2
3
2

2. (in physics) A typical value of a continuously

varying quantity, such as an alternating electric
current during a cycle. This is equivalent to the
direct current that would produce the same
power dissipation in a given resistor. For a
sinusoidal current this is equal to Im/ 2 , where
Im is the maximum value of the current.
@> ¬kñúgrUbvíTüa¦tMélbrimaNERbRbYlrhUt dUcCacrnþGKIÁ
snIqøas;kñúgGMLúgeBlsiuc. tMélenHsmmUleTAnwgcrnþCab;
EdlbegItá rMsayfamBldUckñúgersIusþrEdleKeGayEdr. cM
eBaHcrnþsIunyu sUGdIu tMélenHesIµ I / 2 EdlI CatMélGti brmarbs;crnþ.
m m

Rotary converter
A device that converts direct current to
kugEvT½rr:UtarI
alternating current. ]bkrN_EdlbMElgcrnþCat;eTACacrnþqøas;.
 202

Rotational motion
The laws relating the rotation of a body about
clnargVil
an axis are closely analogous to those
describing linear motion. The angular
c,ab;Tak;TgeTAnwgGgÁFatuvlí eFobG½kS KWRsedogKñanwg
displacement ( of a body is the angle (in c,ab;clnaRtg;Edr. brimaNclnamMu(rbs;GgÁFatu KWCamMu
radians) through which a body has been rotated.
The angular velocity () is the time rate of
¬KitCara:düg;¦EdlGgÁFatu)anvil. el,ÓnmMu ()KWCabMErbM rYlbMlas;TI
d
change of displacement, that is,  = d/dt, and  ehIysMTuHmMu ()KWCabMErbMrlY el,ÓnmMu mann½yfa
the angular acceleration () is the time rate of dt
change of angular velocity, i.e.  = d /dt = d d 2 
  . smIkarclnargVilRsedogKña nwgclnaRtg;EdrKW :
d2/dt2. The equations of linear motion have dt dt 2
analogous rotational equivalents:   0  t
 = 0 + t   0 + 0t + ½t2
 = 0 + 0t + ½t2 2  02 + 2
2 = 02 + 2
Rotor
The rotating part of an electric motor, electric
r:UT½r
generator, turbine, etc. Compare stator. Epëkvélrbs;m:UT½rGKIÀsnI ma:sIunePIøg tYb‘Ín.l. eRbob eFob stator.
Rutherford scattering
The scattering of alpha particles by thin films of
r)a:yruF½rhVt
heavy metal, notably gold. The experiments
provided strong evidence for the hypothesis that
karraypg;Gal;hVaedaybnÞHesIþgrbs;elah³F¶n; mas
atoms possessed a discrete tiny positive gayRsYlkñúgkarkt;sMKal;. karBiesaFn_)anpþl;nUvPsþútag
nucleus.
ya:gc,as;cMeBaHsmµtkmµEdlfa GatUmTaMgLaymanéNV
y:UvCí m¢ antUcdac;²BIKña.
S

Satellite
1. (natural satellite) A relatively small natural
páayrNb
body that orbits a planet. For example, the
earth’s only natural satellite is the moon. 2.
!> ¬páayrNbFmµCati¦GgÁFatutUckñúgFmµCatiEdlvílC¿vu íj PB. ]TahrN_
(artificial satellite) A man-made spacecraft that rNbFmµCatiEtmYyKt;rbs;EpndIKWRBHc½nÞ @>
orbits the earth, moon, sun, or a planet.
Artificial satellites are used for a variety of ¬páayrNbsib,nimiµt¦yanGavkasbegItá elIgeday mnusS
purposes. Communication satellites are used for
relaying telephone and radio, and television EdlvílC¿vu íjEpndÍ RBHc½nÞ RBHGaTitü b¤ PBNa mYy.
signals round the curved surface of the earth
(see synchronous orbit). Astronomical satellites
páayrNbsib,nimtiµ RtUv)aneKeRbIsrM ab;eKalbMNg epSg².
are equipped to gather and transmit to earth páayrNbKmnaKmn_eRbIsMrab;bBa¢nÚ bNþak;TUrs½BÞ nig víTüú
astronomical information from space, including
conditions in the earth’s atmosphere, which is nigsMrab;bBa¢nÚ sIuBaØal;TUrTsSn_C¿uvíjépÞekagrbs; EpndÍ (emIl
of great value in weather forecasting.
synchronous orbit). páayrNbtarasaRsþ eRbIedIm,IRbmUl nig

bBa¢nÙ Bt’manGMBIpÝayBIGavkasmkEpn dÍ
rYmTaMgbBa¢ak;R)ab;BIbriyakasrbs;EpndIpg EdlCatM
éleRcInsn§kw sn§ab;kgñú karBüakrN_FatuGakas.
 203

Scalar potential
A potential function in which the variable is a
b:Utg;EsülsáaEl
*scalar quantity. The potentials of gravitation
and electrostatics are scalar potentials. For
GnuKmn_b:Utg;Esül EdlkñúgenaHGefrKWCabrimaNsáaEl.
example, the potential at a distance d from a b:Utg;EsülTMnaj nig b:Utg;EsüleGLicRtUsþaTic KWCab:tU g; EsülsáaEl.
charge q is given by
V = q/40d ]TahrN_ b:tU g;EsülRtg;cMgaydBIbnÞúkqKW
and the potential is a scalar quantity. In the case q
of a magnetic field the vector potential is a V
4 0 d
vector quantity and is therefore called a vector
potential. ehIyb:Utg;EsülCabrimaNsáaEl. kñúgkrNIEdnma:ejTic
vícu T½rb:Utg;EsülKWCabrimaNvíucT½r ehtudUcenHehIyeK
ehAvavíucT½rb:tU g;Esü.
Scalar product (dot product)
The scalar product of two vectors U and V, with
plKuNsáaEl (plKuNcMncu )
components Ux, Uy and Vx, Vy is given by U . V
= UxVx + UyVy. It can also be written U . V =
plKuNsáaElénvíucT½rBIr U nig V, mankMb:sU g; U , U nig V , V
x y x y

UVcos, where U and V are the magnitudes of eGayeday U . V = U V + U V . eKGacsr esrvaCaTMrg; U . V =

x x y y

U and V and  is the angle between them. UVcos, Edl U nig V Cam:D U ul rbs; U nig V ehIy CamMru vagKña.
Compare vector product.
eRbobeFob vector product
Scalar quantity
A physical quantity that is completely defined
brimaNsáaEl
by its magnitude only, whether positive or
magnitude. In defining a scalar quantity
brimaNrUbEdlkMnt;EtTMhMb:eu NÑaH minfavíC¢manb¤GvíC¢man eT.
direction plays no part. Examples are mass, kñúgkarkMnt;brimaNsáaEl TisedAminykmkKiteT. ]TahrN_dUcCa ma:s
speed and temperature. Compare vector.
el,Ón nig sItuNðPaB. eRbobeFob vector.
Scattering of electromagnetic radiation
The process in which electromagnetic radiation
l,aykaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic
is scattered by the particles in the matter
through which it passes. In the case of the
d¿eNIrrayEbkExJkkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic edaysarpg;
scattering of light by the atmosphere, some of kñúgrUbFatuEdlvaqøgkat;. kñúgkrNIBnWøEbkExJkedaybriya kas
the radiation is scattered by re-radiation from
gaseous atoms. The oscillating transverse kaMrsIµxøHEckcayedaybeBa©jrsImµ þgeTotBIGatUm ]sµ½n.
electric vector in the radiation drives the
electrons in the atoms to oscillate in all vícu T½rGKIÁsnIeyalkat;TTwgkaMrsIµ bBa¢nÚ eGLicRtug
transverse planes, thus the accelerating
electrons radiate electromagnetic energy
kñúgGatUmeGayeyalkñúgbøg;TTwgTaMgGs; dUecñHeFIVeGayeG
transversely out of the main beam. This light is LicRtugbeBa©jfamBleGLicRtUma:ejTickat;TTwg)ac;BnWø em.
predominately in the blue end of the spectrum,
thus the sky is blue. BnWøenHbeBa¨jBN’exovenAxagcugs,úci dUecëHehIyeFIV eGayemxBN’exov.
Schrödinger equation
An equation used in wave mechanics (see
smIkarRsáÚDIghÁr
*quantum mechanics) for the wave function of
a particle. The time-independent Schrödinger
smIkareRbIkñúgemkanicrlk (emIl quantum mechanics)
equation is: cMeBaHGnuKmn_rlkPaKli¥t. smIkarRsáÚDIghÁrminGaRs½y eBlKW :
2  82m(E – U)/h2  0
2 + 82m(E – U)/h2 = 0
EdlCaGnuKmn_rlk  CakarILapøas(emIl Laplace Equation)
2

where  is the wave function, 2 the Laplace hCaefrpøg; m Cama:spg; ECafamBlsrub rbs;va ehIyUCafamBlb:U
operator (see *Laplace equation), h the Planck
constant, m the particle’s mass, E its total tg;Esülrbs;va.
energy, and U its potential energy.
 204

Sclerometer
A device for measuring the hardness of a
eKør:UEm:t
material by determining the pressure on a
standard point that is required to scratch it or by
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;PaBxøagM rbs;rUbFatu edaykMnt;sBM aFelI
determining the height to which a standard ball cMnucsþg;daEdlRtUvkarkat;va b¤edaykMnt;kBM s;Edl)al; sþg;daelat)an
will rebound from it when dropped from a fixed
height. The rebound type is sometimes called a eRkayBIeKKnøak;vaBIkMBs;NamYy. CYn kaleKehARbePTelatrbs;)al;fa
scleroscope.
eKørT:U sSn_.
Screen grid
A wire grid in a tetrode or pentode *thermionic
sMNaj;eGRkg;
valve, placed between the anode and the
*control grid to reduce the grid–anode
sMNaj;ExSePIøgkñgú va:l;ETmIyn:U icetRtUd b¤ b:gt; Ud dak;enA cenøaHGaNUd
capacitance. See also *suppressor grid. nig sMNaj;RtYtBinti ü edIm,IbnßysmtßPaB sMNaj;-GaNUd. emIl
suppressor grid
Search coil
A small coil in which a current can be induced
bUb‘ÍnsWc
to detect and measure a magnetic field. It is
used in conjunction with a *fluxmeter.
bUbn‘Í tUcmYy EdlkëúgenaHcrnþGaccab; nig vas;Ednma:ej Tic.
eKykvaeTAeRbIkúñgfñagM PøúcEm:t.
Searle’s bar
An apparatus for determining the thermal
)aesol
conductivity of a bar of material. ]bkrN_sMrab;kMnt;kMrtw cMlgkMedArbs;r)arUbFatu.
Secant
1. See *trigonometric functions. 2. A line that
eskg;
cuts a circle or other curve. !> emIl trigonometric function @> bnÞat;kat;rgVg; b¤ FñÚ.
Second
1. Symbol s. The SI unit of time equal to the
vinaTI
duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two
!> nimitþsBaØa s. xñatSIrbs;eBl esIµnwg 9192631770xYb
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the rbs;kaMrsIµpøas;bþÚrrvagnIv:UGIuEBhVajBIrénsNßanRKwHrbs;Ga tUmessüÚm-
caesium–133 atom. 2. Symbol z. A unit of angle
equal to 1/3600 of a degree or 1/60 of a minute. !##. @> nimitþsBaØa Z. xñatmMu esInµ wg1/3600 dWeRk b¤ esIµnwg 1/60naTI.
Secondary cell
A *voltaic cell in which the chemical reaction
fµBilTIBIr
producing the e.m.f. is reversible and the cell
can therefore be charged by passing a current
fµBilv:lu ta Edlkñgú enaHRbtikmµKmI IbegIátkMlaMgGKIÁsnIcl krRcasKña
through it. See *accumulator. Compare ehtudUecñHehIyfµBilGacykeTAsakeday eGaycrnþqøgkat;va. emIl
*primary cell.
accumulator . eRbobeFob primary cell
Secondary colour
Any colour that can be obtained by mixing two
BN’TIBIr b¤ BN’rg
*primary colours. For example, if beams of red
light and green light are made to overlap, the
BN’Edl'anmkedaylayBN’emBIrbBa¨ÙlKëa. ]TahrN_ ebI'ac;BnWøRkhm
secondary colour, yellow, will be formed. nig )ac;BnWøèbtgrYmbBaÙ̈lKëa eK'anBN’ rgBN’elOg.
Secondary emission
The emission of electrons from a surface as a
xÞatecjelIkTIBIr
result of the impact of other charged particles,
especially as a result of bombardment with
karxÞatecjeGLicRtugBIépÞ edaysarkarb:HTgiÁcpgbnÞúk d¾éT
(primary) electrons. CaBiessedaysarkarb:HCamYyeGLicRtug.
Secondary winding
The winding on the output side of a
rbu‘¿mFüm
*transformer or *induction coil. Compare
*primary winding.
rbu¿e‘ lIEpëkecjrbs;Rtg;sVma:Tr½ b¤ bUbn‘Í GaMDucsüúg. eRbob eFob primary
winding
 205

Seebeck effect (thermoelectric effect) The

generation of an e.m.f. in a circuit containing
plsIbik (plETm:UGKIsÁ nI)
two different metals or semiconductors, when
the junctions between the two are maintained at
karekItmankMlaMgGKIsÁ nIclkrkñúgesoKIvEdlmanelah³BIr epSgKña b¤
different temperatures. The magnitude of the sWmIkugDucT½rBIrepSgKña eBlmuxtMnrrvagKñaman sItuNPð aBxusKña.
e.m.f. depends on the nature of the metals and
the difference in temperature. The Seebeck m:UDulkMlaMgGKIsÁ nIclkrGaRs½yelIFmµ Catiénelah³ nig
effect is the basis of the *thermocouple.
plsgsItuNðPaB. pssIbu ikCamUldæan énETm:UKbU .
Seismograph
An instrument that records ground oscillations,
PUm)almaRt (ehSsm:URkab)
e.g. those caused by earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and explosions. Most modern
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;karrBa¢yÜ dUcCabNþalmkBIrBa¢ÜyEpndI skmµPaB nig
seismographs are based on the inertia of a karpÞúHrbs;PMeñ PIøg. ehSsm:URkabTMenIbbMput Ep¥kelInci lPaBrbs;ma:sBüÚr
delicately suspended mass and depend on the
measurement of the displacement between the nig GaRs½yelIrgVas;bMlas; TIrvagma:s nig cMnucnwgeTAnwgEpndI.
mass and a point fixed to the earth. Others
measure the relative displacement between two eKGacykvaeTAvas; bMlas;TIeFobrvagcMnucBIrelIEpndÍ.
points on earth. The record made by a
seismograph is known as a seismogram.
kMnt;RtaedayehSm:U RkabehAfaehSsm:URkam.

Seismology
The branch of geology concerned with the
PUmi)alviTüa
study of earthquakes. EmkFagrbs;PUmivTí üa Tak;TgnwgkarsikSarBa¢ÜyEpndI.
Self inductance
See *inductance.
GUtUGaMgDuctg;
emIl inductance
Semiconductor
A crystalline solid with an electrical
sWmIkugducT½r
conductivity intermediate between that of a
conductor and an insulator. Semiconducting
RkamrwgmankMrtw cMlgGKIÁsnImFüm vaenAcenøaHGgÁFatucM lg nig GIusLU g;.
properties are a feature of *metalloid elements, sWmIkugDucT½rmanlkçN³BiessénFatu emtaLÚGdIu dUcCasIulkI ug nig
such as silicon and germanium.
ehSma:jm:Ú CaedÍm.
Semiconductor diode
See *diode; *semiconductor.
düÚtsWmIkugDucT½r
emIl diot; semiconductor
Series
A sequence of terms each of which can be
es‘rI
written in a form that is an algebraic function of
its position in the series. See also *asymptotic
lMdab;bnþbnÞab;éntYrnimYy² EdlGacsresrCaTMrg;GnuKmn_
series; *convergent series; *divergent series. BICKNiitènTItaMgrbs;vakëúges‘r.I emIl asymptotic series; convergent
series; divergent series
Series circuit
A circuit in which the circuit elements are
esoKIVes‘rI
arranged in sequence so that the same current
flows through each of them in turn. For
esoKIVm:üagEdlkñúgenaHFatuesoKIVerobtKña edIm,IeFIVeGay
resistances in series, the total resistance is the crnþqøgkat;FatunimYydUcKëa. cMeBaHersIusþg;tCaes‘rI ersIu
sum of the individual resistances. For capacitors
in series, the total capacitance, C, is given by sþg;srubesIpµ lbUkersIusþg;nmi Yy². cMeBaHkugdg;saT½rtCa es‘rI
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 ….
ka)a:seIu tsrubCeGay C1  C1  C1  C1  ... .
1 2 3
 206

Sets
Collections of well-defined objects or elements
sMnMu
that have at least one characteristic in common.
For example, the set X may consist of all the
karRbmUlpþv¿ú tßú b¤ Fatu EdlCaTUeTAticbMputmanFatumYy.
elements x1, x2, x3, etc. This is written X = {x1, ]TahrN_ sMnMu X manFatuTaMgGs; x , x , x , .l. eKsr esr X = {x , x ,
1 2 3 1 2
x2, x3,…}. A specific element in a set is
characterized by x1  X, meaning x1 is a member x ,…}. Faturbs;sMnm
3 Mu YyeKsresr
x  X, mann½yfa x CaFaturbs;sMnMu X. sMnurM grbs;sMnMuX ehAfasMnMu M
of set X. A subset of set X, say M, would be
written M  X, i.e. M is contained in X. If x3 is a 1 1

member of both subsets M and N, then

x3  (M  N), i.e. x3 belongs to the intersection
eKsresr M  X, mann½yfaM CaFatuenA kñúg X. ebIx 3

of M and N. M  N means the union of M and
N. For example, if M consists of {1, 4, 5, 8} and
N consists of {2, 3, 4, 5} then M  N = {4, 5}
and M  N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8}. In the Venn
diagram, a rectangle represents the universal set
U, circles represent sets or subsets.
CaFaturbs;snM MurgTaMgBIr M nig N, enaH x (M  N), mann½yfa x
3 3
Carbs;RbsBVén M nig N . M  N mann½yfaRbC¿uén M nig N.
]TahrN_ebI M manFatu {1, 4, 5, 8} ehIyN manFatu {2, 3, 4, 5} enaH
M  N = {4, 5} ehIy M  N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8}. kñúgdüaRkamvin

ctuekaNEkgtageGaysMnMuskl U, rgVgt; ageGaysMnuM b¤sMnMurg.

Shadow
An area of darkness formed on a surface when
Rsemal
an object intercepts the light falling on the
surface from a source. In the case of a point
épÞexµAekItmanenAelIépÞmYy eBlvtßúkat;BnWøFøak;elIépÞBIRb PBBnWø.
source the shadow has a sharply defined kñúgkrNIcMnucRbPB RsemalmanragÁc,as;. ebIRb PBBnWmø anmaDFMlmµ
outline. If the source has an appreciable size the
shadow has two distinct regions; one of full- RsemalmantMbn;BIepSgKña mYymøb; eBjehAfamøb;paÞ l;
shadow, called the umbra, the other of half-
shadow, called the penumbra. mYyeTotRsemalBak;kNþaehAfamøb; RBal.
Shearing force
A force that acts parallel to a plane rather than
kMlaMgeCor
perpendicularly, as with a tensile or
compressive force.
kMlaMgmanGMeBIRsbbøg;RbesIrCagkat;Ekgbøg; dUcKñaEdrCa mYykMlaMgtMnwg
b¤ kMlaMgbENÑn.
Shear modulus
See *elastic modulus.
emKuNeCor
emIl elastic modulus
Shell
See *atom.
RsTab;
emIl atom
Shell model
1. See *atom. 2. A model of the atomic nucleus
KMrURsTab;
in which nucleons are assumed to move under
the influence of a central field in shells that are
!> emIl atom. @> KMrUéNVy:UGatUm kñúgenaHnuyekøGugsmµt;
analogous to atomic electron shells. The model fapøas;TIeRkam\Ti§BlénkMlaMgcUlpí©tkñúgRsTab;dUcKñaeTAnwg
provides a good explanation of the stability of
nuclei that have *magic numbers. RsTab;GatUm. RsTab;pþl;eGayeyIgnUvkarBnül;l¥GMBIlM
nwgéNVy:UgEdlmancMnYnpS¿.
 207

Shielding
1. A barrier surrounding a region to exclude it
r)aMgkarBar
from the influence of an energy field. For
example, to protect a region from an electric
!> r)aMgC¿uvíjtMbn;mYyeGayputBI\Ti§BlénEdnfamBl. ]Ta hrN_
field an earthed barrier is required; to protect it edIm,I)aMgkarBartMbn;eGayputBIEdnGKIÁsnI eKeRbI r)aMgdÍ
from a magnetic field a shield of high magnetic
permeability is needed. 2. A barrier used to edIm,I)aMgkarBareGayputEdnma:ejTic eKeRbIr)aMg
surround a source of harmful or unwanted
radiations. For example, the core of a *nuclear EdlmanC¿rabma:ejTicx<s;. @> r)aMgeRbIB½T§C¿uvjí RbPBEdl pþl;eRKaHfñak; b¤
reactor is surrounded by a cement or lead shield
to absorb neutrons and other dangerous
kaMrsIµEdleKminRtUvkar. ]TahrN_ sñÚl
radiation. erGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘B½T§Cu¿véjedaysIum:g;t_ b¤ r)aMgsMnedIm,I RsUbNWRtug nig
kaMrsIµeRKaHfñak;epSg²eTot.
SHM
See *simple harmonic motion.
EGshas;Gwm
emIl simple harmonic motion
Short-sightedness
See *myopia.
emIleXIjCit
emIl myopia
Shunt
An electrical resistor or other element
sWn
connected in parallel with some other circuit or
device, to take part of the current passing
ersIusþrGKIÁsnI b¤ Fatud¾éTeTot tCaExñgCamYyesoKIbV ¤]b krN_mYyeTot
through it. edIm,IykcrnþxøHeGayqøgkat;va.
Sideband
The band of frequencies above or below the
sayEbnd_
frequency of the carrier wave in a
telecommunications system within which the
bg;eRbkg;xagelI b¤ xageRkameRbkg;rlkbBa¢nÚ kñúgRbB½n§ TUrKmna Kmn_
frequency components of the wave produced by EdlenAkñúgenaHsmasPaKeRbkg;rlkbegIát elIgedaybnßym:UDulkmµ.
*modulation fall. For example, if a carrier wave
of frequency f is modulated by a signal of ]TahrN_ ebIrlkbBa¢nÚ maneRb kg;fERbRbYledaysIuBaØal;manRbkg;x
frequency x, the upper sideband will have a
frequency f + x and the lower sideband a sayEbnd_xagelI maneRbkg; f  x ehIysayEbnd_xageRkammaneRbkg;
frequency f – x. f–x.
Sidereal day
See *day.
éf¶saydWerol
emIl day
Sidereal period
The time taken for a planet or satellite to
xYbsaydWerol
complete one revolution of its orbit measured
with reference to the background of the stars.
ry³eBlsMrab;eGayPB b¤ páayrNbbMeBj)anmYyC¿uén KnøgtaravífÍrbs;va
See also *day; *synodic period; *year. edayvas;eFobnwgEbkeRkanpáay. emIl day; synodic period; year
Siemens (Symbol S)
The SI unit of electrical conductance equal to
sImin (nimitþsBaØa S)
the conductance of a circuit or element that has xñatSIrbs;kgu Ductg;GKIsÁ nI esIµkugDuctg;énesoKIV b¤ Fatu
a resistance of 1 ohm. 1S = 10-1. The unit was
formerly called the mho or reciprocal ohm. EdlmanersIusþgm; YyGUm. 1S  10 . xñatpøÚvkarehAfa mho b¤
–1

mYyPaK ohm.
 208

Signal
The variable parameter that contains
sIuBaØal;
information and by which information is
transmitted in an electronic system or circuit.
)a:ra:Em:tERbRbYlEdlmanBt’manenAkëgú enaH ehIyBt’man
The signal is created by the signal generator, RtUv)aneKbBa¢nÚ kñúgRbB½n§eGLicRtUnci b¤ esoKIV. sIuBaØal;ekIt
often a voltage source in which the amplitude,
frequency, and waveform can be varied. elIgeday]bkrN_begItá sIuBaØal; Cajwkjab;mandUcCaRb PBtg;süúg
EdlkñúgenaHmanGMBIøTtu eRbkg; nig TMrg;rlk GacERbRbYl.
Sign convention
A set of rules determined by convention for
karsnµt;sBaØa
giving plus or minus signs to distances in the
formulae involving lenses and mirrors. The
sMnMuc,ab;kMnt;elIgedaykarsnµt;sBaØabUk sBaØadk cMeBaH
*real-is-positive is the convention now usually cMgaykñúgrUbmnþTak;TgnwgLg;TI nig kBa©k.; \LÚveKkMnt;
adopted.
ykBitKWyksBaØaviCm¢ an.
Silicon chip
A single crystal of a semiconducting silicon
qIbsIulIxun
material, typically having millimetre
dimensions, fabricated in such a way that it can
RkamrUbFatusulI IxunsWmIkugDucT½r manTMhMb:unaµ nmIlEI m:Rt
perform a large number of independent eFIVelIgsMrab;pkÞú FatueGLicRtUniceGay)aneRcIn (emIl integrated
electronic functions (see *integrated circuit).
circuit).
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
A form of periodic motion in which a point or
clnaGam:UnicsmBaØ
body oscillates along a line about a central
point in such a way that it ranges an equal
TMrg;clnaxYb kñgú enaHcMnuc b¤ GgÁFatueyaltambeNþay
distance on either side of the central point and bnÞat;eFobcMncu p©ít élya:gNaeGayvamanry³cMgayesIµ
that its acceleration towards the central point is
always proportional to its distance from it. One KñaelIRCugTaMgsgxagcMncu pí©t ehIyEdlsMTuHrbs;vaeq<aHsM edAeTAcMnucpí©t
way of visualizing SHM is to imagine a point
rotating around a circle of radius r with a smamaRteTAnwgcMgayrbs;vaBIp©ít. víFImYy
constant angular velocity . If the distance edIm,Iyl;clnaGam:UnicsmBaØKRW tUvnwkKitfa cMncu mYyvílC¿u
from the centre of the circle to the projection of
this point on a vertical diameter is y at time t, víjrgVgm; ankaMrCamYyel,ÓnmMeu fr. ebIcMgayBIpí©trgVge; TA
this projection of the point will move about the
centre of the circle with simple harmonic cMenalEkgcMnucenHelIGgát;pí©tQresIµyenAxN³t cMenal
motion. A graph of y against t will be a sine EkgéncMnucenHnwgpøas;TIeFobp©ítrgVg;begItá )anCaclnaGam:U nicsmBaØ.
wave, whose equation is y = rsint (see
diagram). See also *pendulum. Rkaby(t)CarlksIunus mansmIkar y = rsint (emIl diagram;
pendulum).
Simultaneous equations
A set of equations that jointly specify the values
RbB½n§smIkar
of the variables they contain. If the number of
variables is equal to the number of equations,
sMnMusmIkarEdlrYmKñabBa¢ak;tMélGefrEdlsmIkarman. ebI
each variable has a unique value, i.e. the cMnYnGefresIcµ MnnY Gefrrbs;smIkar GefrnimYy²mantMél mYy
equations can be solved.
mann½yfasmIkarGacedaHRsay.
Sine
See *trigonometric functions.
sIun
emIl trigonometric functions
 209

Sine wave (sinusoidal wave)

Any waveform that has an equation in which
rlksIun (rlksIunyu sUGdIu )
one variable is proportional to the sine of the
other. Such a waveform can be generated by an
TMrg;rlkNaEdlsmIkarmanGefrmYysmamaRteTAnwgsIun
oscillator that executes *simple harmonic énGefrmYyeTot. TMrg;rlkRbePTenHGacbegIát)anCacl
motion.
naGam:Unci smBaØa.
SI units
Système International d’Unités: the
xñatSI
international system of units now recommended
for all scientific purposes.
sIuEsþmGaMgETNasUNal;Gy‘u nIet: RbB½n§xñatGnþrCati\LÚv
RtUvkarRKb;EpñkvíTüasaRsþTaMgGs;.
Skip distance
The minimum distance from the transmitter of a
cMgayrMlg
radio wave at which reception is possible by
means of a sky wave (see *radio transmission).
cMgayGbb,rmaBIRtg;sIµT½rrlkvíTüú Rtg;cMncu enHkarTTYl
GacRbRBwtþeTA)antamry³rlkFatuGakas (emIl karbBa¢nÚ víTüú ).
Sky wave
See *radio transmission.
rlkGakas
emIl radio transmission
Slow neutron
A neutron with a kinetic energy of less than 10 2
NWRtug
eV (10-17 joule). See also *fast neutron. NWRtugEdlmanfamBlsIeu nTicticCag 10 2
eV (10 –17J) . emIl fast
neutron
Smelting
The process of separating a metal from its ore
karrMlay
by heating the ore to a high temperature in a
suitable furnace in the presence of a reducing
dMenIrbMEbkelah³BIEr:rbs;vaedaykMedAEr:dl;sItuNðPaBx<s; kñúgL
agent, such as carbon, and a fluxing agent, such edIm,Ikat;bnßykaksMNl;dUcCafµkeM )arCaedÍm.
as limestone.
Snell’s law
See *refraction.
c,ab;Esñl
emIl refraction
Sodium-vapour lamp
A form of *electric lighting that gives a yellow
cegáógcMhaysUdüÚm
light as a result of the luminous discharge
obtained by the passage of a stream of electrons
TMrg;BnWøGKIÁsnIEdlpþl;BnWBø N’elOg edaysarkarepÛrBnWø
between tungsten electrodes in a tube )anmkBIkarqøgkat;eGLicRtugrvageGLicRtUdtg;EsþnkñúgbM
containing sodium vapour. To facilitate starting,
the tube also contains some neon; for this Bg;EdlmancMhaysUdüÚm. edIm,IeGaycegáógepÍmþ )anRsYl
reason, until the lamp is warm the neon emits a
characteristic pink glow. As the sodium eKdak;eNGugxøHkñúgbMBg; edayehtufarhUtdl;cegáógekþA
vaporizes, the yellow light predominates.
Sodium-vapour lamps are widely used as street
eNGugbeBa¨jGNþatePIgø BN’sCIu m<Ù. kalNasUdüÙmkøayCa cMhay
lights because of their high luminous efficiency eFIVeGaymanBnWøBN’elOgya:geRcInelIslb;.
and because the yellow light is less absorbed
than white light by fog and mist. cegáógcMhaysUdüÚmRtUv)aneKeRbIya:gTUlTM UlayenAtamvífÍ
edaysarTinñplBnWømankMrwtx<s; ehIyedaysarBnWøelOg RsUbykG½RP nig
sMeNImticCagBnWøBN’s.
Soft iron
A form of iron that contains little carbon, has
EdkexSay
high relative permeability, is easily magnetized
and demagnetised, and has a small hysteresis
TMrg;EdkEdlmankabUntic manC¿rabeFobx<s; gayRsYl bBa©Úlma:ejTic
loss. nig dkykma:ejTicecj ehIymankar)at; bg;GIusrÞ½ rItic.
 210

Soft radiation
Ionising radiation of low penetrating power,
kaMrsIµexSay
usually used with reference to X-rays of long
wavelength. Compare *hard radiation.
kaMrsIµGIuyg:u manGnuPaBTab CaFmµtaeRbIGmCamYykaMrsIµGciu
C¿hanrlkEvg. eRbobeFob hard radiation
Software
See *computer.
esahVevo
emIl computer
Solar cell
An electric cell that uses the sun’s radiation to
pÞaMgfµBwlRBHGaTitü
produce usable electric current. Most solar cells
consist of a single-crystal silicon p–n junction.
fµBilGKIÁsnIEdleRbIkaMrsIRµ BHGaTitüedIm,IplitcrnþGKIsnI GaceRbI)an.
When photons of light energy from the sun fall fµBilRBHGaTitüCaeRcInmanRsTab;sulI Ixun Rkam p-nEtmYy.
on or near the *semiconductor junction the
electron–hole pairs created are forced by the eBlpUtugfamBlBnWøBIRBHGaTitüFøak;elI b¤Føak;CitRsTab;sWmIkugDucT½r
electric field at the junction to separate so that
the holes pass to the p-region and the electrons KUreGLicRtughUlEdlbegIát
pass to the n-region. This displacement of free
charge creates an electric current. Individual
)anRtUv)anrujedayEdnGKIsÁ nIRtg;RsTab;eGayEjkecjBI Kña
silicon solar cells cannot be made with a edIm,IeGayhUlqøgkat;eTAtMbn;p ehIyeGLicRtugqøg eTAtMbn;n.
surface area much in excess of 4000mm2 and
the maximum power delivered by such a cell is bMlas;TIbnÞúkesrIenHbegItá eGaymancrnþGKIÁsnI
approximately 0.6W at about 0.5V in full sun.
The efficiency of such devices is about 15%. pÞaMgRBHGaTitüsIulxI unnimYy²minGaceFIVépÞelIsBI4000mm )aneT
2

For practical use, therefore, solar cells have to

be assembled in arrays. Panels of solar cells
ehIyGnuPaBEdlTTYl)anBIpÞaMgnimYy²RbEhl 0.6W
have been the exclusive source of power for
satellites and space capsules. Their use on earth
RbmaNCa0.5VeBlRtUvBnWéø f¶eBj. Tinñplén]bkr N_enHRbEhl15%.
has been largely limited by their high cost, a dUecñHedIm,IykeTAeRbIkar pÞagM fµBil RBHGaTitüRtUvdak;tMelIgbBa©ÚlKña.
reduction in the cost by a factor of 10 being
required to make them competitive with other pÞaMgfµBilBnWRø BHGaTitü eRbICaRbPBfamBleRkAsMrab;paá yrNb nig
energy sources at present.
Exbs‘ulyan Gavkas. kareRbIR)as;rbs;vaenAmankMrwtedaysartMélx<s;
RtUvbnßytMél!0dgedIm,IRbkYtRbECgCamYyRbPBfamBl
EdleyIgeRbIsBVéf¶.
Solar constant
The rate at which solar energy is received per
efrRBHGaTitü
unit area at the outer limit of the earth’s
atmosphere at the mean distance between the
kMrwtEdlfamBlRBHGaTitüTTYl)ankñúgmYyÉktaRklaépÞ
earth and the sun. The value is 1.353 kWm-2. Rtg;EdnxageRkAbriyakasEpndIkgñú ry³cMgaymFümrvag
EpndÍnigRBHGaTitü. tMénfamKW 1.353 kWm . -2

Solar day
See *day.
éf¶RBHGaTitü
emIl day
 211

Solar energy
The electromagnetic energy radiated from the
famBlRBHGaTitü
sun.
The total quantity of solar energy falling on the
famBleGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlecjBIRBHGaTitü. brimaN
earth in one year is about 4 x 1018 J, whereas famBlsrubFøak;mkelIEpndÍkñúgmYyqñaMRbEhl 4  10 J 18

the total annual energy consumption of the

earth’s inhabitants is only some 3 x 1014 J. The rIÉfamBlRbcaMqñaMEdlmnusSenAelIEpndIeRbIR)as;RbEhl
3  10 J. dUecñHRBHGaTitüGacpþlf ; amBlTaMgGs;Edl eyIgRtUvkar.
sun, therefore, could provide all the energy 14
needed. The direct ways of making use of solar
energy can be divided into thermal methods
(see *solar heating) and non-thermal methods
víFIpÞal;edIm,IykfamBlRBHGaTitümkeRbI
(see *solar cell). R)as;GacGacEckCavíFIkMedA(emIl solar heating) nig víFI minkMedA (emIl
solar cell).
Solar heating
A form of domestic or industrial heating that
kMedARBHGaTitü
relies on the direct use of solar energy. The
basic form of solar heater is a thermal device in
TMrg;kMedAkñúglMenAdæan b¤ kñúgeragcRk]sShkmµ EdlBwg
which a fluid is heated by the sun’s rays in a Ep¥kelIkareRbIfamBlRBHGaTitüedaypÞal;. TMrg;RKwHrbs;
collector and pumped or allowed to flow round
a circuit that provides some form of heat ]bkrN_kMedARBHGaTitüKW]bkrN_keM dA EdlkñúgenaHGgÁ
storage and some form of auxiliary heat source
for use when the sun is not shining. More FaturaveLIgkMedAedaysarkaMrsIRµ BHGaTitükñúgkULwkT½rehIy
complicated systems are combined heating-and-
cooling devices, providing heat in the winter
)aj;ecjmkeRkA b¤ eFIVeGayGgÁFaturavhUrC¿uvjí esoKIVeday
and air-conditioning in the summer. ykkMedAmYyEpñkeTAeRbIR)as; ehIymYyEpñkeTotTukCaRb
PBkMedAC¿nyY eBlRBHGaTitüminrH. ]bkrN_mYyeTotman
]bkrN_ekþAnigRtCak;rYmCamYyKña edaypþl;kMedAnardUcRt Cak; ehIy
pþl;Cama:suInRtCak;nardUvekþA.
Solar system
The sun, the nine major planets (Mercury,
RbB½n§RBHGaTitü
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto) and their natural satellites,
RBHGaTitü PBR)aMbYnFM²¬páayRBHBuF páayRBHsuRk EpndI páayRBHGgÁar
the asteroids, the comets, and meteoroids. Over pÝayRBhsSt× pÝayesAr_ pÝayG‘uyra:nus pÝayNwbTun nig pÝayPøúytU¦ nig
99% of the mass of the system is concentrated
in the sun. The solar system as a whole moves páayrNbFmµCatirbs;va GaesÞrI :y páayduHknÞyú nig emetr:y.
in an approximately circular orbit about the
centre of the Galaxy, taking about 2.2  108
Cag99%énma:sRb B½n§KWpþK¿ú añ Rtg;RBHGaTitü.
years to complete its orbit. RbB½n§RBHGaTitüTaMgmUlvílC¿vu íj p©itháaLak;sIucMNayeBlRbEhl 2.2 
10 qñaeM dIm,IbMeBj )anmYyC¿K
8
u nøgrbs;va.
Solar wind
A continuous outward flow of charged
xül;RBHGaTitü
particles, mostly protons and electrons, from
the sun’s *corona into interplanetary space. The
pg;manbnÞúkpøas;TIecjeRkArhUtBIrgVg;Cv¿u íjRBHGaTitücUl
particles are controlled by the sun’s magnetic eTAkñgú lMhGnþrPB pg;TaMgenHPaKeRcInCaRbUtugnigeGLic Rtug.
field and are able to escape from the sun’s
gravitational field because of their high thermal pg;TaMgLayRKb;RKgedayEdnma:ejTicRBHGaTitü
energy. The average velocity of the particles in
the vicinity of the earth is about 450 km s-1 and ehIyGacecjputBIEdnTMnajrbs;RBHGaTitü edaysarfam
their density at this range is about 8  106
protons per cubic metre.
BlkMedAx<s;rbs;va. el,ÓnmFümrbs;pg;kñúgtMbn;bn;Cít²
EpndÍRbEhl450 km s ehIydg;sIuetrbs;vaRtg;ry³kM Bs;enHRbEhl
–1

810 RbUtugkñúgmYyEm:RtKUb.
6
 212

Solder
An alloy used to join metal surfaces. A soft
EdkpSa
solder melts at a temperature in the range 200–
300°C and consists of a tin–lead alloy. Hard
sMelah³eRbIsrM ab;P¢ab;épÞelah³. EdkpSaexSayrlayenA
solders contain substantial quantities of silver in sItuNPð aBkñúgkMrwt 200-300 C ehIymansMelah³sMnrnig
0

the alloy. Brazing solders are usually alloys of

copper and zinc, which melt at over 800°C. sMnr)a:haMglaycUlKña. EdkpSaxøaMgmanlayR)ak;bBa©Úl.
EdkpSas<an;manlaysMelah³s<an;nigsgásIbBa©ÚlKña
ehIyrlayenAsItuNðPaBelIsBI 800 C. 0

Solenoid
A coil of wire wound on a cylindrical former in
sUelNUGIud
which the length of the former is greater than its
diameter. When a current is passed through the
bUbn‘Í ExSePIgø rMuelIsëÙlragsIuLaMg këúgenaHRbEvgsëÙlFMCag GgÝt;pé¨trbs;va.
coil a magnetic field is produced inside the coil eBlcrnþqøgkat;bUb‘nÍ eFVIeGayekItman
parallel to its axis. This field can be made to
operate a plunger inside the former so that the Ednma:ejTicxagkëúgbUb‘ÍnRsbeTAnwgG½kSrbs;va. EdnenHeFVI
solenoid can be used to operate a circuit
breaker, valve, or other electromechanical eGaysnÞHxagkñúgsñÚleFIVkar dUecñHsUelNUGIudGaceRbIedIm,I
device. dMeNIrkaresoKIDV Isg;T½r dMeNIrkarva:l; b¤ dMeNIrkar]b
krN_eGLicRtUnicd¾éTeTot.
Solid
A state of matter in which there is a three-
GgÁFaturwg
dimensional regularity of structure, resulting
from the proximity of the component atoms,
sNßanrUbFatu kñúgenaHmanTMrg;TMhMbICaniy½t edaysarkar RbmUlpþ¿úGatUm
ions, or molecules and the strength of the forces Edk b¤ m:eU lKul nig famBlkMlaMgrvagKña.
between them. True solids are crystalline (see
also *amorphous). If a crystalline solid is GgÁFaturwgBitR)akdmanlkçN³CaRkam(emIlamorphous).
heated, the kinetic energy of the components
increases. At a specific temperature, called the ebIeKkMedARkamGgÁFaturwg famBlsIuenTicrbs;smasFatu ekIneLIg.
melting point, the forces between the
components become unable to contain them
Rtg;sItuNPð aBrlayehAfacMnucrlay kMlaMg
within the crystal structure. At this temperature, rvagsmasFatukøayeTACaKµanlMnwgkñúgTMrg;Rkamrbs;va.
the lattice breaks down and the solid becomes a
liquid. Rtg;sItuNPð aBenHbNþajRtUvdac;ecjBIKña ehIy GgÁFatu
rwgkøayCaGgÁFaturav.
Solid angle (Symbol ) mMusUlId (nimitþsBaØa)
The three-dimensional ‘angle’ formed by the
vertex of a cone. When this vertex is the centre mMumanTMhMbIekItelIgedaykMBUlekan. eBlkMBUlenHCapé¨t EsVm‘ ankaMr
of a sphere of radius r and the base of the cone
cuts out an area s on the surface of the sphere, ehIy )atekankat;)anRklaépÞselIèpÛEsV‘ enaH
the solid angle in *steradians is defined as s/r2.
This definition is analogous to the definition of
mMusUldI KitCaesþra:düg;kMnt;eday s/r . niymn½yenHRs
2

the radian, with the arc element replaced by an

element of area, and the radius replaced by
edogKñanwgniymn½yra:düg;Edr edayFatuFñCÚ n¿ YsedayFatu épÞ
radius squared. ehIykaMgC¿nsY edaykaerkaM.
 213

Solid-state physics
The study of the physical properties of solids,
rUbviTüasUlIdesþt
with special emphasis on the electrical
properties of semiconducting materials in
karsikSaBIlkçN³rUbrbs;GgÁFaturwg edayepþaykarykcitþ
relation to their electronic structure. Solid-state Tukdak;BiesselIlkçN³GKIÁsnIrbs;rbU FatusmW IkugDucT½r
devices are electronic components consisting
entirely of solids (e.g. semiconductors, kñúgTMnak;TMngeTAnwgTMrg;eGLicRtUnci rbs;va. ]bkrN_sUlId
transistors, etc.) without heating elements, as in
thermionic valves. esþtKWCasmasFatueGLicRtUnci EdlmanTMrg;TaMgmUlCaGgÁ
Faturwg¬]TahrN_dUcCa sWmkI ugDucT½r Rtg;sIusrþ .l.¦
edaymincaM)ac;keM dAFatuTaMgLaydUckñgú va:l;ETmIyn:U iceT.
Solubility
The quantity of solute that dissolves in a given
kMrwtrlay
quantity of solvent to form a saturated solution.
Solubility is measured in kilograms per metre
brimaNsarFaturlayEdlrlaykñgú TwkrMlayEdleKeGay
cubed, moles per kilogram of solvent, etc. The edIm,IbegItá CasUluysüúgrlay. kMrtw rlayKitCaKILÚRkam
solubility of a substance in a given solvent
depends on the temperature. Generally, for a kñúgmYyEm:RtKUb m:UlkñúgmYyKILÚRkaménTwkrMlay.l. kM
solid in a liquid, solubility increases with
temperature; for a gas, solubility decreases. See rwtrlayrbs;sarFatukgñú TwkrMlayEdleKeGay GaRs½y elIsItuNPð aB.
also *concentration. CaTUeTA cMeBaHGgÁFaturwgdak;kñúgGgÁFaturav
kMrwtrlayekInelIgRsbCamYysItuNPð aB cMeBaH]sµ½nman
kMrwtrlayfycuH. emIl concentration
Solute
The substance dissolved in a solvent in forming
GgÁFaturlay
a *solution. sarFatuEdlrlaykñúgTwkrMlayedIm,IbegIátCasUlyu süúg.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of a liquid (the
sUluysüúg
*solvent) with a gas or solid (the solute). In a
solution, the molecules of the solute are discrete
l,ayesIµsac;énGgÁFaturav¬TwkrMlay¦CamYy]sµ½n b¤ GgÁ
and mixed with the molecules of solvent. There Faturwg¬GgÁFaturlay¦. kñúgsUluysüúg m:eU lKulGgÁFatu
is usually some interaction between the solvent
and solute molecules. Two liquids that can mix rlaydac;ecjBIKañ ehIy layCamYym:UelKulTwkrMlay.
on the molecular level are said to be miscible.
In this case, the solvent is the major component CaTUeTAmanGnþrkmµxøHrvagm:eU lKulTwkrMlay nig m:UelKul GgÁFaturlay.
and the solute the minor component. See also
*solid solution.
kñúgkrNIenH TwkrMlaymansmasFatueRcIn
ehIyGgÁFaturlaymansmasFatutic.emIl solid solution
Solvent
A liquid that dissolves another substance or
TwkrMlay
substances to form a *solution. GgÁFaturavEdlrMlaysarFatuepSg b¤ eFIVeGaysarFatuepSg
begIát)anCasUlyu süúg.
Sonar
See echo.
sUNa
emIl echo
Sonometer
A device consisting essentially of a hollow
sUNUEm:t
sounding box with two bridges attached to its
top.
]bkrN_EdlmanRbGb;RbehagsMelgBI edaymans<anBIr
P¢ab;eTAkMBUlrbs;va.
 214

Sorption
*Absorption of a gas by a solid.
sMrUb
karRsUb]sµn½ edayGgÁFaturwg.
Sorption pump
A type of vacuum pump in which gas is
sñb;sMrUb
removed from a system by absorption on a solid
(e.g. activated charcoal or a zeolite) at low
sñb;sBu aØakas kñúgenaH]sµ½nRtUveKykecjBIRbB½nÐedaysM
temperature. rUbelIGgÁFaturwgenAsItuNðPaBTab.
Sound
A vibration in an elastic medium at a frequency
sMelg
and intensity that is capable of being heard by
the human ear.
lMj½rkñúgmCÄdñanERbRbYlenARtg;eRbkg; nig GaMgtg;suIet
EdlGaceGayRteCokmnusSsþab;l.W
Source
The electrode in a field-effect *transistor from
RbPB
which electrons or holes enter the inter-
electrode space.
eGLicRtUdkñúgplEdnRtg;sIusÞ½r EdlGaceGayeGLicRtug b¤
hUlcUleTAkñúglMhGnþreGLicRtUd.
Space
1. A property of the universe that enables
lMh b¤ Gakas
physical phenomena to be extended into three
mutually perpendicular directions. In
!> lkçN³cRkvaLEdlGaceGay)atuPUtrUblaysn§gw eTA
Newtonian physics, space, time, and matter are kñúgTisedAbIEkgKñaeTAvíjeTAmk. kñúgrUbvíTüajÚtun lMh eBl nig rUbFatu
treated as quite separate entities. In Einsteinian
physics, space and time are combined into a cat;TukfaCaFatudac;edayELkBIKña. kñgú rUbvíTüaGaMgsþaj lMh nig eBl
four-dimensional continuum (see *space–time)
and in the general theory of *relativity matter is laycUlKñaeTAkñgú vímaRt bYnEdlminGacEjkecjBIKañ )an (emIl space-
regarded as having an effect on space, causing time) ehIy kñúgRTwsIþTUeTArbs;rUbFatueFob eKcat;Tukfamanplb:HBal;
it to curve. 2. (or outer space) The part of the
universe that lies outside the earth’s elIlMh eFIVeGayvaekag. @> ¬lMhxageRkA¦EpñkcRkvaL
atmosphere.
EdlzítenAxageRkAbriyakasEpndÍ.
Space probe
An unmanned spacecraft that investigates
yanþRsavRCavGavkas
features within the solar system. A planetary
probe examines the conditions on or in the
yanþGavkasKµanmnusSebIkbr manmuxgaresIbu karN_Bi
vicinity of one or more planets and a lunar essenAkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitü. yanþRsavRCavPBkMnt;nvU sNßanelIPB b¤
probe is designed to obtain information about
the moon. tMng;Cít²PB ehIyyanRsavRCavPBRBH
c½nÛeFIVelIgedIm,ITTYlBt’manGMBIRBHc½nÛ.
Space–time (space–time continuum)
A geometry that includes the three dimensions
lMh-eBl (lMh-eBl Tak;TgKña)
and a fourth dimension of time. In Newtonian
physics, space and time are considered as
FrNImaRtEdlrab;bBa©ÚlTMhMbI nig TMhMTIbYnmYyeTotKWTMhMeBl. kñúgemka
separate entities. In Einstein’s concept of the nicjÚtun lMhnigeBlcat;Tku faenAdac;BIKañ . kñúgkarkMnt;rbs;GaMgsþaj
physical universe, based on a system of
geometry devised by H. Minkowski (1864– sIþBIrUbvíTüasakl edayEp¥kelIRbB½nÐFrNImaRtbegIáteLIg eday H
Minkowski (1864 – 1909) Kat;)ancat;Tk u lMh nigeBlKWRbTak;RbTinKña
1909), space and time are regarded as entwined,
so that two observers in relative motion could
disagree regarding the simultaneity of distant
events. In Minkowski’s geometry, an event is
dUecñH GñksegátBIkñúgclnaeFobKñaeTAvíjeTAmkGacminyl;RsbGMBIkarekIt
identified by a world point in a four- mand¿NalKñaénRBwtkiþ arN_cMgay. kñgú FrNImartrbs;mInkUvsÁIRBwtiþkarN_
dimensional continuum.
mYy bBa¢ak;edaycMncu BiPBelakmYykñgú TMhMbYnTak;TgKña
 215

Spark chamber
A device for detecting charged particles.
bnÞb;cMehH
]bkrN_sMrab;emIlpg;bnÞúk.
Special theory of relativity
See relativity
RTwsIþeFobrWLu aTIvIs
Specific
1. (in physics) Denoting that an extensive
Cak;lak;
physical quantity so described is expressed per
unit mass. For example, the specific latent heat
!> ¬kñúgrUbvíTüa¦sMKal;krM wtTMhMbrimaNrUbvíTüa dUecñHvasM
of a body is its latent heat per unit mass. When EdgecjkñúgmYyxñatma:s. ]TahrN_ kMedALatinCak;lak; rbs;GgÁFatuKW
the extensive physical quantity is denoted by a
capital letter (e.g. L for latent heat), the specific kMedALatinkñúgmYyxñatma:s. eBlEdlbri
quantity is denoted by the corresponding lower-
case letter (e.g. l for specific latent heat). 2. In manTMhMrbU víTüatagedayGkSFM¬]TahrN_dUcCa Ltag eGaykMedALatin¦
some older physical quantities the adjective
‘specific’ was added for other reasons (e.g.
brimaNCak;lak;tagedayGkSrtUcRtUv Kña (]TahrN_
specific gravity, specific resistance). These ltageGaykMedALatinCak;lak;). @> kñúgbrI maNrUbvíTüacas;²mYycMnn Y
names are now no longer used.
KuNnam }Cak;lak;}RtUv)aneK dak;bEnßmsMrab;ehtuplepSg (]TahrN_
kMlaMgTMnajCak; lak; ersIusþgC; ak;lak;).
\LÚveKElgeRbIeQµaHenHehIy.
Spectrometer
Any of various instruments for producing a
s,úicRtUEm:t
spectrum and measuring the wavelengths,
energies, etc., involved.
]bkrN_epSg²sMrab;begáIts,iúc nig sMrab;vas;C¿hanrlk
vas;famBl.l.
Spectroscope
An optical instrument that produces a
s,iúcRtUTsSn_
*spectrum for visual observation. ]bkrN_GubTicEdlbegItá s,icú sMrab;emIl.
Spectroscopy
The study of methods of producing and
s,iúcRtUTsSn_viTüa
analysing *spectra using *spectroscopes,
*spectrometers, spectrographs, and
karsikSavíFIbegIát nig víPaKs,icú edayeRbIs,icú RtUTsSn_ eRbIs,iúcRtUEm:t
spectrophotometers. eRbIs,iúcRtURkab nig eRbIs,iúcRtUpUtUEm:t.
Spectrum (pl. spectra)
1. A distribution of entities or properties
s,iúc
arrayed in order of increasing or decreasing
magnitude. For example, a beam of ions passed
!> karEbkExJkrUbsNßan b¤ lkçN³eTACaTMhMrmY b¤rIk. ]Ta rhN_
through a mass spectrograph, in which they are )ac;BnWGø Iuyg:u qøgkat;s,iúcRtURkab kñúgenaH)ac;BnWcø aMg
deflected according to their charge-to-mass
ratios, will have a range of masses called a pøatGaRs½yeTAtampleFobbnÞúkeTAnwgma:s eKehAvafa s,iúcma:s.
mass spectrum. A sound spectrum is the
distribution of energy over a range of s,icú sMelgKWCar)ayfamBlelIry³kMrwteRbkg; énRbPBNamYy. @>
frequencies of a particular source. 2. A range of
electromagnetic energies arrayed in order of
ry³cMgayénfamBleGLicRtUma:ej TicEbgEckeTAtamC¿hanrl b¤
increasing or decreasing wavelength or eRbkg;ekIneLIgb¤fycuH.
frequency.
Speed
The ratio of a distance covered by a body to the
el,Ón
time taken. Speed is a *scalar quantity, i.e. no
direction is given. Velocity is a *vector
pleFobcMgayEdlvtßú)aneFIVd¿eNIreTAnwgry³eBl. el,Ón
quantity, i.e. both the rate of travel and the CabrimaNsáaEl mann½yfaKµanTisedAeT. víucT½rel,ÓnCa brimaNvíucT½r
direction are specified.
mann½yfaTaMgcMgaycrnigTisedARtUvbBa¢ak;.
 216

Speed of light (Symbol c)

The speed at which electromagnetic radiation
travels. The speed of light in a vacuum is
2.99792458  108 ms-1. When light passes
through any material medium its speed is
el,ÓnBnWø
el,ÓnEdlkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTiccr. el,ÓnBnWøkñúgsuBaØa kasKW
2.99792458  10 ms . eBlBnWøqøgkat;cUlkñúg mCÄdæanrUbFatu
8 -1

reduced (see *refractive index). The speed of

light in a vacuum is the highest speed attainable el,Ónrbs;vafycuH (emIl refractive index).
in the universe (see *relativity; *Cerenkov
radiation). It is a universal constant and is
el,ÓnBnWkø gñú suBaØakasCael,ÓnEdlcrelOnbMput kñgú cRkvaL.
independent of the speed of the observer. Since
October 1983 it has formed the basis of the
vaCaefrsakl ehIyvaminGaRs½yel,Ónrbs; GñksegáteT.
definition of the *metre. cab;taMgBIExtulaqña!M (*#mk vamanTMrg;RKwH énniymn½yEm:Rt.
Speed of sound (Symbol c or cs)
The speed at which sound waves are propagated
el,ÓnsMelg (nimitsþ BaØa c b¤ c ) s

through a material medium. In air at 20°C

sound travels at 344 ms-1, in water at 20°C it
el,ÓnEdlrlksMelgdalkat;mCÄdæanrUbFatu. kñgú xül;enA sItuNPð aB
travels at 1461 ms-1, and in steel at 20°C at 20 C sMelgcrkñúgel,Ón 344 ms kñúgTwkenA sItuNðPaB 20 C
0 –1 0

5000 ms-1. The speed of sound in a medium

depends on the medium’s modulus of elasticity vacrkñúgel,Ón 1461 ms ehIykñgú Edk EfbenAsItuNðPaB
–1

(E) and its density () according to the 20 Cvacrkñúgel,Ón 5000 ms . el,Ón
0 –1

E
relationship c =

. sMelgkñúgmCÄdæanGaRs½yelImD:U uleGLasiÞcErbs;mCÄdæan nig
dg;sueI t()tamTMnak;TMng c  E .
Sphere
The figure generated when a circle is rotated
EsV‘
rUbragÀekIteLIgeBlrgVgv; éleFobGgÝt;pé̈t.maDEsVe‘ sIµ 43r
about a diameter. The volume of a sphere is 3

4r3/3 and its surface area is 4 r2, where r is

its radius. In Cartesian coordinates the equation
of a sphere centred at the origin is x2 + y2 + z2 = ehIyRklaépÞesIµ 4r Edl rCakaM. kñúgkUGredaenkaet süag
2

r2.
smIkarEsVm‘ anpé¨tRtg;Kl;tMruyKW x  y  z  r
2 2 2 2

Spherical aberration
See *aberration.
RBakEsV‘
emIl aberration
Spherical mirror
See *mirror.
kBa¨k;EsV‘
emIl mirror
Spherical polar coordinates
See *polar coordinates.
kUGredaenb:UElEsV‘
emIl polar coordinates
Spherometer
An instrument for measuring the curvature of a
EsV‘rU:Em:t
surface. The usual instrument for this purpose
consists of a tripod, the pointed legs of which
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;kMeNagrbs;épÞ. CaFmµta]bkrN_eFIV
rest on the spherical surface at the corners of an eLIgedayCnÛlm; aneCIgbI eCIgTaMgenHP¢ab;èpÛEsVRV‘ tg;kBM Ul
equilateral triangle. In the centre of this triangle
is a fourth point, the height of which is adjusted énRtIekaNsm½gS. kñúgpí©tRtIekaNenHKWCacMncu TIbYn kMBs;
by means of a micrometer screw. If the distance
between each leg and the axis through the Pa¢b;tamry³vÍsmIRkUEm:t. ebIcgM ayrvageCÍgnimYy²nigG½kS
micrometer screw is l, and the height of the
micrometer point above (or below) a flat
kat;vsÍ mIRkUEm:tmanRbEvgl ehIykMBs;mIRkUEm:tcg¥úlxag elI
surface is x, the radius (r) of the sphere is given ¬b¤xageRkam¦épÞrab)anRbEvgx enaHkaMrrbs;EsV‘eGay eday
by r = (l2 + x2)/2x.
(l  x )
2 2
r
2x
.
 217

Spin (Symbol s)
The part of the total angular momentum of a
s<In (nimitþsBaØas)
particle, atom, nucleus, etc., that can continue
to exist even when the particle is apparently at
Epñkm:Um:gbrimaNclnasrubrbs;pg; GatUm éNVy:U>>>> Edl
rest, i.e. when its translational motion is zero bnþenAmaneTaHCapg;eXIjfaenAes¶ómk¾eday mann½yfa
and therefore its orbital angular momentum is
zero. A molecule, atom, or nucleus in a eBlclnarMklw rbs;vaesIµsUnü eFIVeGaym:mU :g;brimaNclna esIµsUnü.
specified energy level, or a particular
elementary particle, has a particular spin, just as m:UelKul GatUm b¤ éNVy:U zítenAkñgú nIvUf: amBl Biess b¤
it has a particular charge or mass. According to
*quantum theory, this is quantised and is
PaKlit¥ d¿bUgmansIn< pÞal;rbs;va edaysavaman bnÞúk b¤ ma:spÞal;rbs;va.
restricted to multiples of h/2, where h is the tamRTwsþkI gTic enHCabrimaNkM nt;myY ehIyCaBhuKuNén 2h
*Planck constant. Spin is characterized by a
quantum number s. For example, for an electron EdlhCaefrpøg;. s<InsM Kal;edaycMnnY kgTics.
s = ±1/2, implying a spin of + h/4 when it is
spinning in one direction and –h/4 when it is ]TahrN_cMeBaHeGLicRtug s   1

2
spinning in the other. Because of their spin,
particles also have their own intrinsic TTYl)ans<InesIµ  4h eBlEdlsI<nzítkñúgTisedAmYy
*magnetic moments and in a magnetic field the
spin of the particles lines up at an angle to the
direction of the field, precessing around this
ehIy  4h eBlEdls<InzítkñúgTisedAmYyeTot.edaysar s<nI rbs;va
direction. See also *electron spin resonance;
*nuclear magnetic resonance. pg;TaMgLaymanm:mU :gm; a:ejTickñúgpÞal;rbs;va ehIykñúgEdnma:ejTic
s<Inrbs;pg;rt;CYrbegItá )anmMmu YyeTA nwgTisedAEdn
ekItmunC¿vjí TisedAenH. emIl electron spin resonance.
Spiral galaxy
See galaxy.
háaLak;sIues<ó
emIl galaxy
Spontaneous combustion
Combustion in which a substance produces
eqHedayxøÜnÉg
sufficient heat within itself, usually by a slow
oxidation process, for ignition to take place
cMehHm:üagEdlkñúgenaHsarFatubegItá kMedARKb;RKan;enAkñúg xønÜ va
without the need for an external high- ¬CaTUeTAtamdMeNIrGuksIutkmµyWt¦cMeBaHkareqHEdl
temperature energy source.
RbRBwtþeTAedaymin)ac;RtUvkarRbPBfamBlx<s;BIxageRkA.
Spontaneous emission
The emission of a photon by an atom as it
xÞatecjedayxøÜnÉg
makes a transition from an excited state to the
ground state. Spontaneous emission occurs
karxÞatecjpUtugedayGatUmkalNavaeFIVkarpøas;brþÚ BI
independently of any external electromagnetic sNßanejaceTAsNßanRKwH. karxÞatecjedayxønÜ ÉgekIt
radiation.
eLIgedayminTak;TgnwgkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTiceRkAeT.
Spring balance
A simple form of *balance in which a force is
CBa¢IgrWus½r
measured by the extension it produces in a
helical spring. The extension, which is read off
TMrg;FmµtaénCBa¢gI kñúgenaHkMlaMgvas;edayKMlatTMBk;ruWsr.
a scale, is directly proportional to the force, KMlat¬EPñkCBa¢Ig¦smamaRteTAnwgkMlaMg eGayEtrWusrmin xUcragÁ.
provided that the spring is not overstretched.
The device is often used to measure the weight ]bkrN_enHeKykeTAeRbICajwkjab;edIm,Ivas;TMgn;
of a body approximately.
GgÁFatu¬TMgn;Rbhak;RbEhl¦.
 218

Square wave
A train of rectangular voltage pulses that
rlkkaer
alternate between two fixed values for equal
lengths of time. The time of transition between
tg;süúgragÁctuekaNEkgtCab;Kañ rdwk Edlqøas;KñarvagtMél
each fixed value is negligible compared to the efrBIrcMeBaHry³eBlesIKµ ña. ry³eBlpøas;bþÚrrvagtMélefrni
duration of the fixed value.
mYy²Gacecal)aneFobeTAnwgry³eBléntMélefr.
Stable equilibrium
See *equilibrium.
lMnwgsþab
emIl equilibrium
Stainless steel
A form of *steel containing at least 11–12% of
EdkEfbesþnELssIÞl
chromium, a low percentage of carbon, and
often some other elements, notably nickel and
TMrg;EdkEfbEdlmanRkUmJm:Ú ticbMput11-12% manPaKryka bUntic
molybdenum. ehIymanlayFatuepSg²dUcCanIEklnigm:UleI dnum.
Standard cell
A *voltaic cell, such as a *Clark cell, or
fµBwlsþg;da
*Weston cell, used as a standard of e.m.f. fµBwlv:lu ta fµBwlkøak b¤ fµBwlevsþnú eRbICakMlaMgGKIÁsnI clkrsþgd; a.
Standard deviation
A measure of the dispersion of data in statistics.
lMgaksþg;da
For a set of values a1, a2, a3, … an, the mean  rgVas;Tinñn½yeRcInsnw§ksn§ab;kúñgsþaTisÞic. cMeBaHsMnMutMél
is given by (a1 + a2 + … + an)/n. The deviation
of each value is absolute value of the difference a , a , a , … a , mFüm eGayeday (a  a  …  a )/n.
1 2 3 n 1 2 n

from the mean | – a1|, etc. The standard lMgakéntMélnimYy²esInµ wgtMéldac;xaténplsg BImFüm | – a |, .l.1
deviation is the square root of the mean of the
squares of these values, i.e. lMgaksþgd; aKWCarwskaerénkaer mFüméntMélTaMgenH mann½yfa
[|   a1 | 2 ... |   a n | 2 ] / n [|   a1 | 2 ... |   a n | 2 ] / n
When the data is continuous the sum is replaced
by an integral. EdlTinñn½yKWCacMnYnCab;²Kña plbUkC¿nYsedayGaMgetRkal
Standard form (scientific notation)
A way of writing a number, especially a large
TMrg;sþg;da (sBaØaNvíTüasaRsþ)
or small number, in which only one integer
appears before the decimal point, the value
viFIsresrcMnYn CaBiesssresrcMnYnFMb¤cMnYntUc kñgú enaH
being adjusted by multiplying by the manEtcMnYnKt;mYyb:eu NÑaHenABImuxcMncu TsSPaK tMélenA
appropriate power of 10. For example, 236,214
would be written in the standard form as 2.362 xageRkayKuNedayplKuNén!0. ]TahrN_ @#^@!$ sr
14  105; likewise 0.006821047 would be
written 6.821047  10-3. Note that in the
esrCaTMrg;sþg;daKW 2.362 410 dUcKñaEdr0.006821047 GacsresrCa
5

standard form, commas are not used, the digits 6.821047  10 . sUmkt;sK
-3
M al;fakñúgTMrg; sþg;daeKmineRbIek,óseT
are grouped into threes and a space is left
between groups. xÞgT; aMgLayp¿þúeTACabI² ehIyTuk ecalcenøaHrvagRkum.
Standard temperature and pressure See *s.t.p.
sMBaF nig sItuNþPaBsþg;da
emIl s.t.p
Standing wave
See Stationary wave
rlkCRBa¢aM
emIl stationary wave
 219

Star
A self-luminous celestial body, such as the
páay
*sun, that generates nuclear energy within its
core. Stars are not distributed uniformly
GgÁFatuGavkasEdlmanBnWeø dayxøÜnÉg dUcCaRBHGaTitü
throughout the universe, but are collected vabegIÝtfamBlnuyekøEG‘enAkëúgsëÙlrbs;va. pÝayminray esIµkúëgcRkvaLeT
together in *galaxies. The age and lifetime of a
star are related to its mass (see *stellar EtRbmUlpþ¿úkñúgháaLak;s.Iu Gayukal nig
evolution; *Hertzsprung–Russell diagram).
GayuCIvítrbs;páayTak;TgeTAnwgma:srbs;va (emIl stellar evolution;
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram).
Star cluster
A group of stars that are sufficiently close to
kBa©úMpáay
each other for them to be physically associated.
Stars belonging to the cluster are formed
RkumpáayEdlenACítKñalµmedIm,IeGayvap¿cþú UlKña)an. páay
together from the same cloud of interstellar gas EdlenAkñúgkBa©bMú egIátrYmKñaBIBBk]sµn½ GnþrpáaydUcKña ehIy manGayukal
and have approximately the same age and initial
chemical composition. nig smasFatuKImeI dImRbhak;RbEhlKña.
State of matter
One of the three physical states in which matter
sNßanrUbFatu
can exist, i.e. *solid, *liquid, or *gas. *Plasma
is sometimes regarded as the fourth state of
sNßanmYykñgú cMenamsNßanrUbbI kñgú enaHrUbFatuGacman mann½yfa
matter. GgÁFaturwg GgÁFaturav b¤ ]sµ½n. CYnkalpøasµa
RtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasNßanrUbFatTIbYn.
Static electricity
The effects produced by electric charges at rest,
GKIÁsnIsþaTic
including the forces between charged bodies
(see *Coulomb’s law) and the field they
plekIteLIgedaybnÞúkGKIÁsnIenAnwgfál; plenHrab;TaMgkM
produce (see *electric field). laMgrvagGgÁFatupkÞú bnÞkú nig EdnEdlvabegItá pg.
Statics
The branch of mechanics concerned with
sþaTic
bodies that are acted upon by balanced forces
and couples so that they remain at rest or in
EmkFagemkanicTak;TgeTAnwgGgÁFatuEdlmanGMeBIelIeday KUkMlaMgesIµKña
unaccelerated motion. Compare *dynamics. élya:gNaeGayvarkSaenAnwg b¤ kñúgclna EdlKµansMTuH. eRbobeFob
dynamics
Stationary orbit
See *synchronous orbit.
G½rb‘ÍtsßanIy_
emIl synchronous orbit
Stationary state
A state of a system when it has an energy level
sNßancMNt
permitted by *quantum mechanics. Transitions
from one stationary state to another can occur
sNßanRbB½n§eBlEdlvamannIv:UfamBlkMnt;edayemkanic kgTic.
by the emission or absorption of an appropriate karelatBIsNßancMNtmYyeTAsNßanmYyeTot
quanta of energy (e.g. in the form of photons).
GacekIteLIgedaykarxÞatecj b¤ RsUbcUlrbs;famBlkg
TiclµmRKb;RKan;¬]TahrN_dUckñugTMrg;ptU ug¦.
Stationary wave (standing wave)
A form of *wave in which the profile of the
rlkcMNt (rlkCRBa¢aM)
wave does not move through the medium but
remains stationary. This is in contrast to a
TMrg;rlkmü:agEdlkñúgenaHTMrg;rlkmineFIVclnakat;mCÄdæan eT
travelling (or progressive) wave, in which the EtrkSaenAmYykEnøg. rlkenHpÞúynwgrlkpøas;TI Edl
profile moves through the medium at the speed
of the wave. kñúgrlkpøas;TITMrg;rlkpøas;TIkat;mCÄdæanedayel,Ónrlk.
 220

Statistical mechanics
The branch of physics in which statistical
emkanicsßiti
methods are applied to the microscopic
constituents of a system in order to predict its
EmkFagmYyrbs;rUbvíTüa kñúgenaHeKeRbIvíFIstiß icMeBaHFatumI
macroscopic properties. The earliest application RkUsáÚBicnimYy²rbs;RbB½n§ edIm,ITaylkçN³ma:RkUsÚBá icrbs; va.
of this method was Boltzmann’s attempt to
explain the thermodynamic properties of gases karGnuvtþnv_ íFIenHelIkdMbUgKWelakbulsµan Kat;eRbI
on the basis of the statistical properties of large
assemblies of molecules. edIm,IBnül;lkçN³ETm:UDINamicrbs;]sµ½n edayEp¥kelI
In classical statistical mechanics, each particle
is regarded as occupying a point in *phase
mUldæanlkçN³sißtiRbmUlpþdú¿ ¾FMénm:UelKul.
space, i.e. to have an exact position and kñúgemkanicsißtiburaN pg;nimYy²cat;TukfaRKb;RKgcMnuckñúg lMhpas
momentum at any particular instant. The
probability that this point will occupy any small mann½yfa manTItaMgCak;lak;mYy nig brimaN clnaRtg;xN³NamYy.
volume of the phase space is taken to be
proportional to the volume. The Maxwell– RbU)abEdlcMncu enHRKbdNþb;maD tUcNamYyénlMhpas
Boltzmann law gives the most probable
distribution of the particles in phase space.
KWsmamaRteTAmaD. c,ab;ma:k;Evl -
With the advent of quantum theory, the
exactness of these premises was disturbed (by
bulsµanpþl;eGayeyIgnUvr)ayCak;lak;bMptu rbs;pg;kgñú lM hpas.
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle). In the edaykarrIkcMerInRTwsIþkgTic PaBCak;lak;énkarkMnt;TaMg
*quantum statistics that evolved as a result, the
phase space is divided into cells, each having a enHRtUv'anrMxanedayeKalkarN_el¥ìgeGsinEb‘. këúgsiÜti kgTic
volume hf, where h is the Planck constant and f
is the number of degrees of freedom of the
lMhpasEckCaekasikaCaeRcIn ekasikanimYy²man maD hf
particles. This new concept led to Bose–
Einstein statistics, and for particles obeying the
EdlhCaefrpøg; ehIyfCacMnnY dWeRkesrIrbs;pg;.
Pauli exclusion principle, to Fermi–Dirac bBaØtfiþ ͵enHnaMeeTAdl;sßti ibUs-GaMgsþaj ¬ehIycMeBaHpg;
statistics.
eKeRbIeKalkarN_elIkElgrbs;elakb:lU I¦ naMeTAdl;sÜti I EhV‘mI-DIra:k;.
Statistics
The branch of mathematics concerned with the
sþaTisÞic
inferences that can be drawn from numerical
data on the basis of probability. A statistical
EmkFatuemkanicEdlTak;TgnwgGaMgehVr:g; EdlGacTaj
inference is a conclusion drawn about a ecjBITinñn½yCaelxEp¥kelImUldæanRbU)ab. GaMgehVr:gsitß i
population as a result of an analysis of a
representative sample. See *sampling. KWCakarsniñdæanGMBIcMnYnRbCaCn edaysarkarvíPaKtMNagKM rU. emIl
sampling
Steam engine
A *heat engine in which the thermal energy of
ma:sIuncMhay
steam is converted into mechanical energy. It
consists of a cylinder fitted with a piston and
ma:sunI kMedAm:üagEdlkñúgenaHfamBlcMhaykMedARtUv)aneKbMElgeTACafam
valve gear to enable the high-pressure steam to Blemkanic. ma:sIunenHmansIuLaMgdak;tMrUv CamYyBIsþúg nig
be admitted to the cylinder when the piston is
near the top of its stroke. The steam forces the s‘U'a:bhÀaGaceGaycMhaysMBaFx<sb; Ba¨Ùl eTAkëúgsIuLaMg
piston to the bottom of its stroke and is then
exhausted from the cylinder usually into a eBlBIsúgþ enACitkMBUltg;rbs;va. cMhayruj
condenser. The reciprocating motion of the
piston is converted to rotary motion of the
BIsgþú eTA)ateRkaméntg;rbs;va ehIybnÞab;mkEpSgBIsIug
flywheel by means of a connecting rod, LaMgcUleTAkëúgkugdg;Es‘. clnaeTAvéjeTAmkrbs;BIsgþú
crosshead, and crank. The steam engine reached
its zenith at the end of the 19th century, since bMElgclnargVli eTAeGaykg;tamry³kael tamry³k,al ExVg nig
when it has been replaced by the steam turbine
and the internal-combustion engine. See also édrgVíl. ma:sIuncMhayeRbIR)as;rhUtmkdl;Rtwm cug stvtSTI!(
*Rankine cycle.
edaysareBlvaC¿nsY edaycMhayTYb‘nÍ nig ma:suIncMehHkëúg. emIl
Rankine cycle
 221

Steel
Any of a number of alloys consisting
EdkEfb
predominantly of iron with varying proportions
of carbon (up to 1.7%) and, in some cases,
sMelah³layEdkCamYykabUn(kabUnlayrhUtdl;17%)
small quantities of other elements (alloy steels), ehIyCYnkallayFatuepSgeTotdUcCam:g;kaENs sIulIkug RkUmÚ:mJ
such as manganese, silicon, chromium,
molybdenum, and nickel. Steels containing over m:UlIedj:Úm nig nIEkl. EdkEfbEdlmanlayRkU m:mJÚ BI11-12%
11–12% of chromium are known as *stainless
steels. ehAfaEdkEfbEsþnELssIÞl¬EdkEfbmin RciHsIu¦.
Stefan’s law (Stefan–Boltzmann law) The total
energy radiated per unit surface area of a *black
c,ab;esþhVan (c,ab;esþhVan-bulsµan)
body in unit time is proportional to the fourth
power of its thermodynamic temperature. The
famBlsrubEdlPayecjkñúgmYyxñatRklaépÞrbs;GgÁFatu
constant of proportionality, the Stefan constant exµAkñgú mYyxñateBl smamaRteTAsV½yKuNTIbYnénsItuNð
(or Stefan–Boltzmann constant) has the value
5.6697  10-8 Js-1m-2K-4. The law was PaBETm:DU INamicrbs;va. efrsmamaRt¬efresþhVan-bul
discovered by Joseph Stefan (1853–93) and
theoretically derived by Ludwig Boltzmann
sµan¦mantMél5.6697  10 Js m K . c,ab;enHrkeXIj edayelak
-8 -1 -2 -4

(1844–1906). cUsib esþhVan (1853-95) nig TajecjCaRTwsIþ edayelak ludvÍk

bulsµan(1844-1906).
Stellar evolution
The changes that occur to a *star during its
bdivtþpáay
lifetime, from birth to final extinction. A star is
believed to form from a condensation of
bMErbMrYlekIteLIgcMeBaHpáaykñúgGMLúgeBlCÍvítrbs;va cab;
interstellar matter, which collects and grows by taMgBIekItrhUtdl;karvínascugeRkay. eKeCOfapáayekIt
attracting other matter towards itself as a result
of its gravitational field. This initial cloud of mkeBIkMnrcMhayFatuGnþrpáay EdlRbmUlp¿þúKñaehIylUt
cold contracting matter, called a protostar,
builds up an internal pressure as a result of its las;edaykarTajGgÁFatuepSg²cUleTAkñúgxønÜ va edaysar
gravitational contraction. The pressure raises
the temperature until it reaches 5–10  106K, at
EdnTMnajrbs;va. BBkedIménrUbFatuRtCak;rjY cUlKña ehA fapáayedIm
which temperature the thermonuclear páayedImenHbegIáteGaymansMBaFxagkñgú
conversion of hydrogen to helium begins. It is
estimated that the sun contains sufficient edaysarkMlaMgTMnajcUlrbs;va. sMBaFbegIánsItuNðPaB rhUtdl; 5-
hydrogen to burn at this rate for 10 10 years and
that it still has half its life to live as a main- 1010 K Rtg;sItuNêPaBenHETm:n
6
U yu ekøEG‘bM ElgGIRu dUEsneTACaeGlüÚm.
sequence star. Eventually, however, this period
of stability comes to an end, because the
eK)a:n;RbmaNfa RBHGaTitü
thermonuclear energy generated in the interior manGIuRdUEsnRKb;RKan;edIm,IeqHry³eBl10 qñaM ehIyva
10

is no longer sufficient to counterbalance the

gravitational contraction. The core, which is
now mostly helium, collapses until a
sufficiently high temperature is reached in a
shell of unburnt hydrogen round the core to
start a new phase of thermonuclear reaction.
This burning of the shell causes the star’s outer
envelope to expand and cool, the temperature
drop changes the colour from white to red and
the star becomes a red giant.
enAmanCÍvtí Bak;kNþaleTotedIm,Irs;enACapáayemnsikVwn. eTaHCaya:genHkIþ
Cayfaehtukúgñ GMLúgeBlmanlMnwgenH nwgeTAkan;cugbBa©b;
edaysarfamBlETm:UnuyekøEG‘Edl
ekItmankñúgEpñkxagkñúgElgRKb;RKan;edIm,IbegIátTMnaj.
sñÚlRBHGaTitü¬naeBl\LÚvenHPaKeRcInCaeGlüÚm¦)ak;t
RsutenAeBlsItuNPð aBx<sl; µmRKb;RKan;eTAdl;RsTab;GIuRdU
EhSnmineqHB½T§C¿uvjé sëÙledIm,Icab;epIþmdMNak;kalRbtikmµ ETm:nU uyekøEG‘fIµ.
kareqHRsTab;enH eFIVeGaysMbkxageRkA rbs;paá yrIkFMehIyRtCak;
sItuNPð aBFøak;cuHeFIeV GayBN’ pÝaypøas;bþrÙ BIseTARkhm
ehIypÝaykøayeTACaBN’Rkhm d¾FMèRkElg.
 222

Steradian (Symbol sr)

The supplementary *SI unit of solid angle equal
esþra:düg; (nimitþsBaØa sr)
to the solid angle that encloses a surface on a
sphere equal to the square of the radius of the
xñatSIrbs;mMusUlId esIµnwgmMusUlIdEdlB½T§Cv¿u éjèpÛelIEsV‘ esIµ
sphere. nwgkaerènkaMrbs;EsV‘.
Stimulated emission
See *laser.
karbBa¢ÚneTAmux
emIl laser
Stokes’ law
A law that predicts the frictional force F on a
c,ab;sþk;
spherical ball moving through a viscous c,ab;EdlTaykMlaMgkkwtFelI'al;ragEsV‘pøas;TIkat;mCÁdæan s¥ti .
medium. According to this law F = 6rv,
where r is the radius of the ball, v is its velocity, tamc,ab;enH F  6rv EdlrCakaMrbs;)al; vCa el,Ónrbs;va
and  is the viscosity of the medium. The ehIyCakMrtw si¥trbs;mCÁdæan. EsVm‘ ansMTuH rhUtdl;el,ÒnkMnt;mYy.
sphere accelerates until it reaches a steady
terminal speed. For a falling ball, F is equal to cMeBaH)al;kMBg;Føak; FesIkµ MlaMgTM najelIEsV‘
the gravitational force on the sphere, less any
upthrust. dUecñHkMlaMgFøak;tUcCagkMlaMgrujeLIgelI.
Stop
A circular aperture that limits the effective size
sþúb
of a lens in an optical system. rgVHrgVg;EdlkMnt;TMhMRbsiTPi§ aBrbs;Lg;TIkñúgRbB½n§GubTic.
s.t.p.
Standard temperature and pressure, formerly
EGsFIPI
known as N.T.P. (normal temperature and
pressure). The standard conditions used as a
sItuNPð aBnigsMBaFsþg;da eKsÁal;CaTUeTAfaCaGwnFIPI ¬sM BaF nig
basis for calculations involving quantities that sItuNPð aBFmµta¦. lkçx½NÐsþg;dasMrab;eRbICamUl
vary with temperature and pressure. These
conditions are used when comparing the dæankñúgkarKNnaGIVEdlTak;TgnwgbrimaNERbRbYltamsItu NðPaB nig
properties of gases. They are 273.15K (or 0°C)
and 101325 Pa (or 760.0 mmHg). sMBaF. eKeRbIlkçx½NÐTaMgenHeBleRbobeFob lkçN³]sµ½n. lkçx½NÐenHKW
273.15K (b¤ 0 C) nig 101325 Pa (b¤ 760.0 mmHg).
0

Strain
A measure of the extent to which a body is
kMhUcragÁ
deformed when it is subjected to a *stress. The
linear strain or tensile strain is the ratio of the
rgVas;énKMlatEdlGgÁFatu)anxUcRTg;RTay eBlmanvtßúGIV sgát;va.
change in length to the original length. The bulk xUcragÁbeNþay b¤ xUcragtMnwg KWCapleFobénbM
strain or volume strain is the ratio of the change
in volume to the original volume. The shear ErbMrYlRbEvgeTAnwgRbEvgedIm. xUcTMhM b¤ xUcmaD KWCapl
strain is the angular distortion in radians of a
body subjected to a *shearing force. See also eFobénbMErbMrlY maDeTAnwgmaDedÍm. kMhUcTaMgRsugKICakM
*elasticity; *elastic modulus. hUcmMura:düg;rbs;GgÁFatucMeBaHkMlaMgxUcragÁ. emIl elasticity; elastic
modulus
Strain gauge
A device used to measure a small mechanical
eRsþnháÚc
deformation in a body (see *strain). ]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;vas;kMhUcragemkanictUc²kñúgGgÁFatu.
 223

Stress
The force per unit area on a body that tends to
tMNwg
cause it to deform (see *strain). It is a measure
of the internal forces in a body between
kMlaMgkñúgmYyxñatRklaépÞelIGgÁFatuEdleTarTn;eTArkkar xUcrag (emIl
particles of the material of which it consists as strain). vakMnt;kMlaMgkñúgGgÁFaturvagpg;rUb FatuEdlvaman
they resist separation, compression, or sliding
in response to externally applied forces. Tensile kalNavaTb;Tl;ngw karbMEbk karbENÑn b¤ karrGwledaysarkMlaMgeRkA.
stress and compressive stress are axial forces
per unit area applied to a body that tend either tMnwgTaj nig sgát;bENÑn
to extend it or compress it linearly. Shear stress
is a tangential force per unit area that tends to
KWCakMlaMgtamG½kSkñúgmYyxñatépÞGnuvtþcMeBaHGgÁFatuEdl GaceGayvayWt
shear a body. See also *elasticity; *elastic b¤ eGayvarYjtambeNþaybnÞat;Rtg;. kM
modulus.
laMgkat;KCW akMlaMgb:HkñúgmYyxñatépÞEdlGackat;GgÁFatu. emIl
elasticity; elastic modulus
Stroboscope
A device for making a moving body
RsþÚbUTsSn_
intermittently visible in order to make it appear
stationary.
]bkrN_sMrab;eFIVeGayclnaGgÁFatueXIjedIrQb;² eFIvV a
eGayemIleTATMngdUcCaenAes¶ómvíj.
Strong interaction GnþrkmµxøaMg
See *fundamental interactions.
emIl fundamental interactions
Subatomic particle
See *elementary particles.
pg;GatUmrg
emIl elementary particles
Subcritical
See *critical mass; *critical reaction;
sab;RKIFIxl
*multiplication factor. emIl critical mass; critical reaction; multiplication factor
Subsonic speed
A speed that is less than *Mach 1.
el,ÓnyWtCagsMelg
el,ÓnEdltUcCagma:c!.
Sun
The *star at the centre of the *solar system. The
RBHGaTitü
sun is some 149600000 km from earth. It has a
diameter of about 1392000 km and a mass of
páayEdlenARtg;p©íténRbB½n§RBHGaTitü. RBHGaTitümancM
1.9  1030 kg. Hydrogen and helium are the gay!$(^00000KILÚEm:RtBIEpndÍ. RBHGaTitümanGgát;
primary constituents (about 75% hydrogen,
25% helium), with less than 1% of heavier p©ítRbEhl!#(@000KILÚEm:Rt ehIymanma:s1.910 KILÚ Rkam.
30

elements. In the central core, some 400000 km

in diameter, hydrogen is converted into helium
GIRu dUEsn nig eGlüÚmCasmasFatud¿bUg(GIRu dUEsn RbEhl75%
by thermonuclear reactions, which generate
vast quantities of energy. This energy is
eGlüÚmRbEhl25%) manFatuticCag1% F¶nC; agGIRu dUEsn nig eGlüÚm.
radiated into space and provides the earth with sñÚlkNþalmanGgátp©ítRb Ehl$00000KILÚEm:Rt
all the light and heat necessary to have created
and maintained life (see *solar constant). The kñúgsñÚlenHGIRu dUEsnbMElgeTACa eGlüÙmedayRbtikmµETm:UnuyekøEG‘.
surface of the sun, the *photosphere, forms the
boundary between its opaque interior and its famBlenHsaycUl eTAkñúglMh ehIypþl;eGayEpndÍnUvBnWø nig
transparent atmosphere. It is here that *sunspots
occur. Above the photosphere is the
kMedAcaM)ac; edIm,IbegIátnigrkSaCÍvít(emIl solar constant). épÞRBHGa
*chromosphere and above this the *corona, Titü¬pUtUEsV‘¦begItÝ RBMEdnrvagGgÀFatuXkµw Epëkxagkëúg nig
which extends tenuously into interplanetary
space. See also *solar wind. briyakasRBalrbs;va. Rtg;enaHehIyEdleFIVeGayekIt
mansëamRBHGaTitü. xagelIpUtUEsVK‘ IRkUmE:U sV‘ nig ehIyxag
elIenHeTotKWkUr:UNa Edllatsn§wgcUleTAkñgú lMhGnþrPB. emIl solar
wind
 224

Sunspot
A dark patch in the sun’s *photosphere
sñamRBHGaTitü
resulting from a localized fall in temperature to
about 4000K.
sëamexµAtUc²këúgpUtUEsV‘rbs;RBHGaTitü sëamenHekItmkBI
karFøak;cuHsItN u ðPaBRbEhl$000GgSaEklvín.
Superconductivity
The absence of measurable electrical resistance
s‘ueBIkugDucTIvIet (kMrwtcMlgxøagM )
in certain substances at temperatures close to
0K. First discovered in 1911 in mercury,
sarFatuEdlKµanersIsu þg;GKÁsnIenAsItuNðPaBCítsUnüGgSa Eklvín.
superconductivity is now known to occur in vaRtUv)aneKrkeXIjkñúgqña!M (!!enAkñúg)ar:t mkTl;
some 26 metallic elements and many
compounds and alloys. The temperature below \LÚveKdwgfavamanenAkñgú elah³FatucMnYn@^ nig kñúgsmas
which a substance becomes superconducting is
called the transition temperature (or critical FatunigsMelah³CaeRcIneTot. sItuNPð aBxageRkamsar
temperature, TC). Fatukaø yCakMrtw cMlgxøagM ehAfasItuNðPaBRtg;sIusüúg (b¤sI
tuNPð aBdl;krM wt T ).
c

Supercooling
1. The cooling of a liquid to below its freezing
s‘ueBIxUlIg
point without a change from the liquid to solid
state taking place. In this metastable state the
!> karRtCak;rbs;GgÁFaturavxageRkamcMncu kkrbs;va eday
particles of the liquid lose energy but do not fall min)ac;paø s;bþrÚ BIPaBraveTAPaBrwg. kñúgsNßanemtasþabenH
into place in the lattice of the solid crystal. 2.
The analogous cooling of a vapour to make it pg;GgÁFaturav)at;bg;famBl EtminFøak;cUleTAkñúgbNþaj RkamrwgeT. @>
supersaturated until a disturbance causes
condensation to occur, as in the Wilson *cloud cMhayRtCak;Eq¥trhUtdl;krCaejIs dUc
chamber. kñúgbnÞb;RsGab;rbs;elakvIlsun.
Superheating
The heating of a liquid to above its normal
ekþAhYskMrwt
boiling point by increasing the pressure. kMedAGgÁFaturaveGayekþAelIsBIcMnucrMBuHrbs;va edaybegIná sMBaF.
Supernova
An explosive brightening of a star in which the
s‘ueBINUva:
energy radiated by it increases by a factor of
1010. It takes several years to fade and while it
páaypÞúHbeBa©jBnWxø øaMg kñúgenaHfamBlsayekIndl;ktþa 10 .
10

lasts dominates the whole galaxy in which it karpÞúHenHcMNayeBlbIbYnqñaM ehIyenAeBlEdlva Qb;pHÞú

lies.
háaLak;sIuTaMgmUlElgeFIVclna.
Superposition principle
A general principle of linear systems that when
eKalkarN_pÁÜb
applied to wave phenomena states that the
combined effect of any number of interacting
eKalkarN_TUeTArbs;RbB½n§lIenEG‘ eBlGnuvtþcMeBaH)atuPUt rlkeBalfa
waves at a point may be obtained by the plrYméncMnYnGnþrkmµrlkRtg;cnM ucmYyGac
algebraic summation of the displacements of all
the waves at the point. For example, the )anedaybUkBiCKNiténbMlas;TIrlkTaMgGs;Rtg;cMnucenaH. ]TahrN_
superposition of two oscillations x1 and x2, both
of frequency f, produces a disturbance of the karpÁÜblMeyalBIx nigx EdllMeyalTaMgBIr maneRbkg;fdUcKña
1 2

same frequency. The amplitude and phase angle

of the resulting disturbance are functions of the
begIát)anCalMeyalf͵maneRbkg;dUcKña. GMBTIø ut nig
component amplitudes and phases. Thus, if x1 = mMupasrbs;leM yalf͵CaGnuKmn_énkMb:Usg;GMBITut nig pas. dUecñHebI x 
1
A1sin(2f + 1) and x2 = A2sin(2f + 2), the
resultant disturbance x will be given by x = A sin(2f +  ) ehIy x  A sin(2f +  ),
1 1 2 2 2

Asin(2f + ), where amplitude A and phase TTYl)anrlkGnuKmn_rlkf͵ x eGay eday x  Asin(2f + ),
angle  are found by adding the phasors
representing the two disturbances. EdlGMBIøTtu A nigmMupas )an mkBIkarbUkpasrlkTaMgBIr.
 225

Supersaturation
1. The state of the atmosphere in which the
sMeNImEq¥t
relative humidity is over 100%. This occurs in
pure air where no condensation nuclei are
!> sNßanbriyakas kñúgenaHsMenImeFobelIsBI100%.
available. Supersaturation is usually prevented sNßanenHekItmaneLIgkñúgxül;brisuT§EdlminGacmanéNV y:sU MeNIm.
in the atmosphere by the abundance of
condensation nuclei (e.g. dust, sea salt, and CaFmµtasMeNImEq¥tkarBarbriyakasedayPaB
smoke particles). 2. The state of any vapour
whose pressure exceeds that at which sMbUrénéNVy:UseM NIm¬]TahrN_ FUlI GMbwlsmuRT nig pg; EpSg¦. @>
condensation usually occurs (at the prevailing
temperature).
sNßancMhayEdlsMBaFelIssMeNImFmµtaenA sItuNPð aBTUeTA.
Supersonic
See Mach number.
elOnCagsMelg
emIl march number
Surface tension (Symbol ) tMnwgépÞ (nimitþsBaØa )
The property of a liquid that makes it behave as
if its surface is enclosed in an elastic skin. The lkçN³GgÁFaturavEdleFIVeGayvaRbRbwtþ kalebIépÞrbs;va
property results from intermolecular forces: a
molecule in the interior of a liquid experiences biTCítkñúgEs,kyWt. tMnwgépÞekItmkBIklM aMgGnþrm:UelKul:
a force of attraction from other molecules
equally from all sides, whereas a molecule at
m:UelKulEpñkxagkñúgGgÁFaturavbeBa©jkMlaMgTajcUlBIm:Uel
the surface is only attracted by molecules below
it in the liquid. The surface tension is defined as
KulepSgeTotesI²µ KñaBIRKb;RCugTaMgGs; cMENkÉm:UelKul
the force acting over the surface per unit length Rtg;épÞRKan;EtTajcUledaym:UelKulxageRkamvakñúgGgÁFatu ravb:eu NÑaH.
of surface perpendicular to the force. It is
measured in newtons per metre. It can equally tMnwgépÞKCW akMlaMgmanGMeBIelIépÞkñúgmYyxñatRb
be defined as the energy required to increase
the surface area by one square metre, i.e. it can EvgénRklaépÞEkgeTAnwgkMlaMg. vamanxñatKitCajÚtunkñúg mYyEm:Rt.
be measured in joules per metre squared (which
is equivalent to Nm-1).
vaGacesIµnwgfamBlcaM)ac;edIm,IbegIánRklaépÞ mYyEm:tkaer mann½yfa
vaGacKitCas‘lU këúgmYyEm:Rtka er(smmUlnwg N/m).
Susceptance (Symbol B)
The reciprocal of the *reactance of a circuit and
susibtg; (nimitsþ BaØa B)
thus the imaginary part of its *admittance. It is
measured in siemens.
mYyPaKerGak;tg;rbs;esoKIV dUecñHehIyvaCaEpñknimtµi én Gat;mItg;rbs;va.
vamanxñatKitCasImin.
Susceptibility
kMrwtCMrab
1. (or magnetic susceptibility) Symbol m. It is
equal to r–1, where r is the relative !> (b¤ kMrtw CMrabma:ejTic) nimitþsBaØa  . vaedInµ wg –1, Edl
m r

*permeability of the material. Diamagnetic

materials have a low negative susceptibility,
 CaC¿rabma:ejTiceFobrbs;rUbFatu. rUbFatudüama:ej Tic
r

paramagnetic materials have a low positive

susceptibility, and ferromagnetic materials have
a high positive value. 2. (or electric
susceptibility) Symbol e. The dimensionless
quantity referring to a *dielectric equal to
P/0E, where P is the electric polarization, E is
the electric intensity producing it, and 0 is the
electric constant. The electric susceptibility is
also equal to r – 1, where r is the relative
mankMrtw C¿rabma:ejTicGvíC¢manTab rUbFatu)a:ra:ma:ej
TicmankMrtw C¿rabma:ejTicvéCm¢ anTab ehIy rUbFatuEhVr‘ :Uma:
ejTicmantMélvíC¢manx<s;. @ (b¤ kMrwtC¿rabGKIsÁ nI) vaesInµ wg
P
EdlPCab:UlkmµGKIsÁ nI ECaGaMgtg;sIuetGKIÁsnI E
 E
0
CaGaMgtg;seIu tGKIÁsnIbegItá va ehIy CaefrGKIÁsnI. kMrtw
0

*permittivity of the dielectric. C¿rabGKIÁsnIke¾ sIµngw  – 1Edr Edl CaC¿rabDIeGLicRTic eFob.

r r

Suspension
A mixture in which small solid or liquid
particles are suspended in a liquid or gas.
sUs,:g;süúg
l,ayEdlmanlaypg;GgÁFaturwg nig pg;Gg;Faturav pg;
enAGENþtkñúgGgÁFaturav b¤ ]sµn½ .
 226

Symmetry
The set of invariances of a system. Upon
sIuemRTI
application of a symmetry operation on a
system, the system is unchanged. Symmetry is
sMnMuminERbRbYlénRbB½n§mYy. tamkarGnuvtþnR_ bmanvíFIsIuem RTIelIRbB½n§
studied mathematically using *group theory. RbB½n§enaHminpøas;bþÚr. sIuemRTIKICakarsikSa
Some of the symmetries are directly physical.
Examples include reflections and rotation for tamKNitviTüaedayeRbIRTwsIþRkum. sIeu mRTIxøHmanlkçN³Ca rUb.
molecules and translation in crystal lattices.
Symmetries can be discrete (i.e. have a finite ]TahrN_rYmman karqøHú nig karvílrbs;m:UelKul nig
number), such as the set of rotations for an
octahedral molecule, or continuous (i.e. do not
karrMkwlkñúgbNþajRkam. sIeu mRTIGacdac;²¬mann½yfa
have a finite number), such as the set of mancMnYnkMnt;)dUcCa sMnrMu gVli rbs;m:UelKulGuktaehRdal; CaedIm b¤
rotations for atoms or nuclei.
GacbnþCab;²Kña¬mann½yfa mancMnnY minkMnt;¦ dUcCasMnrMu gVli rbs;GatUm b¤
éNVy.:U
Synchrocyclotron
A form of *cyclotron in which the frequency of
saMgRkUsIukøÚRtug
the accelerating potential is synchronized with
the increasing period of revolution of a group of
TMrg;sIukøÚRtugm:üag kñúgenaHeRbkg;rbs;b:Utg;EsülsMTuHRtUv
the accelerated particles, resulting from their KñanwgkMenInry³eBlbdivtþrbs;Rkumpg;sÞúH edaysarkMenIn
relativistic increase in mass as they reach
*relativistic speeds. The accelerator is used ma:seFobrbs;va kalNavaQandl;el,ÓnrWuLaTIv. Gak;
with protons, deuterons, and alpha-particles.
eselra:T½rRtUv)aneKeRbICamYyRbUtug edETr:ug nig pg;Gal; hVa.
Synchronous
Taking place at he same time, at the same rate,
saMgRkun
or with the same period. Many examples of
synchronous events occur in physical science
ekItmanenAeBldMNalKña edayGRtadUcKña b¤ edayeBl dUcKña.
and engineering. ]TahrN_RBwtiþkarN_saMgRkUnCaeRcIn ekIteLIgkñúg víTüasaRsþrUbvíTüa nig
kñúgvísVkmµ.
Synchronous motor
See *electric motor.
m:UT½rsaMgRkUn
emIl electric motor
Synchronous orbit (geosynchronous orbit)
An orbit of the earth made by an artificial
Grb‘ÍtsaMgRkUn (Grb‘tÍ saMgRkUnPUmisaRsþ)
*satellite with a period exactly equal to the
earth’s period of rotation on its axis, i.e. 23
Grb‘tÍ C¿vu éjEpndIrbs;pÝayrNbsib,nimµit manxYbesIµKëa
hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds. nwgxYbrgVilrbs;EpndIelIG½kSrbs;va mann½yfamanxYb @#em:ag %^naTI
$!vínaTI.
Synchrotron
A particle accelerator used to impart energy to
saMgRkURtug
electrons and protons in order to carry out
experiments in particle physics and in some
pg;Gak;eselra:T½reRbIedIm,IEckrMElkfamBleTAeGayeG LicRtug nig
cases to make use of the *synchrotron radiation RbUtug edIm,IBiesaFkñúgrUbvíTüapg; nig kñúgkar begItá kaMrsIµsaMgRkURtug.
produced.
 227

Synchrotron radiation
Electromagnetic radiation that is emitted by
kaMrsIµsaMgRkURtug
charged particles moving at relativistic speeds
in circular orbits in a magnetic field. The rate of
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlbeBa©jedaypg;bnÞúkpøas;TI
emission is inversely proportional to the edayel,ÒnrWuLaTIvÍskëúgGrb‘ÍtrgVgk; ëúgEdnma:ejTic. GRta
product of the radius of curvature of the orbit
and the fourth power of the mass of the bnSaykaMrsIµRcassmamaRteTAnwgplKuNkaMkeM Nagrbs; Grb‘Ít nig
particles. For this reason, synchrotron radiation
is not a problem in the design of proton sV½yKuNbYnénma:srbs;pg;. ehtuenH kaMrsIµ
*synchrotrons but it is significant in electron
synchrotrons.
saMgRkURtugKµanbBaðakñúgkarrcnasaMgRkURtugRbUtugeT Etva
mansar³sMxan;kñúgsaMgRkURtugeGLicRtug.
Système International d’Unités
See *SI units.
RbB½n§xñatGnþrCati
emIl SI units
T

Tachometer
An instrument for measuring angular speed,
taqUEm:t
especially the number of revolutions made by a
rotating shaft in unit time. Various types of
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;el,ÓnmMu CaBiessvas;cnM YnC¿ru bs;dg
instrument are used, including mechanical, rgVilkñúgry³eBlmYy. ]bkrN_maneRcInRbePTxus²Kña dUcCaemkanic
electrical, and electronic devices. The widely
used electrical-generator tachometer consists of GKIÁsnI nig eGLicRtUnci . taqUEm:tCnitaGKIÁ snIRtUv)aneKeRbIeRcInCageK
a small generator in which the output voltage is
a measure of the rate of rotation of the shaft that kñúgenaHmanCnitatUcmYyEdl
drives it. tg;süúgecjGacvas;edayGRtargVilrbs;dgEdlbgVilva.
Tachyon
A hypothetical particle that has a speed in
taqIy:ug
excess of the *speed of light. According to
electromagnetic theory, a charged particle
pg;EdleKsnµt;famanel,ÓnelIsBIel,ÓnBnWø. tamRTwsIþeG LicRtUma:ejTic
travelling through a medium at a speed in pg;bnÞúkcrkat;mCÄdæanedayel,ÓnelIsBI el,ÓnBnWø
excess of the speed of light in that medium
emits *Cerenkov radiation. A charged tachyon kñúgmCÄdæanenaHmanbeBa©jkaMrsIµesrinkUv. taqI
would emit Cerenkov radiation even in a
vacuum. No such particle has yet been detected. y:gu manbnÞúknwgbeBa©jkaMrsIµesrinkUveTaHCakñúgsuBaØakask¾ eday.
According to the special theory of *relativity, it
is impossible to accelerate a particle up to the
pg;enHeKminTan;emIleXIjenAeLIyeT. tamRTwsrIþ Wu LaTIv
speed of light because its energy E, given by E eKminGaceFIVeGaypg;mansMTuHelOndl;el,ÓnBnWø )aneT eRBaHfamBl
= mc2/ 1  v 2 / c 2 , would have to become mc 2

infinite. The theory, however, does not forbid E køayeTACaminGackMnt; )an. eTaHya:genHkIþ
the existence of particles with v > c (where c is v2
1
the speed of light). In such cases the expression c2
in the brackets becomes negative and the
energy would be imaginary. c,ab;min)anhamXat;pg;Edlman el,Ón v > c eT EdlcCael,ÓnBnWø.
kñúgkrNIdUcenH kenSamkñúgra:DIkal;kaø yCaGvíC¢man ehIyfamBlCacMnYn
nimµit.
Tangent
1. A line that touches a curve or a plane that
tg;hSg;
touches a surface. Compare *secant. 2. See
*trigonometric functions.
!> bnÞat;Edlb:HExSekag b¤ bøgE; dlb:HRtg;épÞ. eRbobeFob secant. @>
emIl trigonometric functions
 228

Taylor series
The infinite power series of derivatives into
es‘rIétl½r
which a function f(x) can be expanded, for a es‘rIsyV½ KuNedrIevminkMnt;eTAkëgú GnuKmn_f(x)GacBnøat)an
fixed value of the variable x  a: f(x)  f(a) +
f´(a)(x – a) + f(a)(x – a)2/2! + … When a = 0, cMeBaHtMélénGefrmYyefr x  a: f(x)  f(a) + f´(a)(x – a) + f(a)(x –
the series formed is known as Maclaurin’s
series: f(x) = f(0) + f´(0)x + f(0)x2/2! + … a) /2! + … . eBl a  0, es‘rm
2
I anTMrg; mYyeQµaHfaes‘rmI a:k;LrÙ In: f(x) 
f(0)  f´(0)x  f(0)x2/2!  …
Telecommunications
The study and application of means of
TUrKmnaKmn_
transmitting information, either by wires or by
electromagnetic radiation.
karsikSa nig karGnuvtþnB_ IvFé IbBa¢ÙnBt’man TaMgtamExScM lg b¤
tamkaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTic.
Telephoto lens
A camera lens used to produce an enlarged
Lg;TIeteLpUtU
image of a distant object without the need for a
lens of very long focal length. A telephoto lens
Lg;TIma:suInft eRbIedIm,IbegItá rUbPaBeGayFMénvtßúenAq¶ay
essentially consists of a combination of a edaymin)ac;eRbILg;TIEdlmankMnMuEvgeT. Lg;TIeteLpUtUpSM
converging lens and a weak diverging lens.
This combination of lenses has the same effect elIgedayLg;TIbRgYm nig Lg;TIBRgIkexSay. Lg;TITaMgBIr
as a single lens of very long focal length
reduced to a much shorter actual length. The enHpÁc¿ú UlKñaTTYl)anpldUcLg;TImYyEdlmanRbEvgkMnEMu vg
zoom lens has a variable focal length and thus
can be used for both a distance shot to a close-
vaCYykat;bnÜyRbEvgBiteGaykan;EtxIø. Lg;TIhS‘mÙ manRb EvgkMnuMRbRbYl
up shot without changing lenses. dUecñHehIyvaGaceRbIsrM ab;TaMgcMgayCít nig cMgayq¶ay
edaymin)ac;paø s;bþÚrLg;TI.
Telescope
An instrument that collects radiation from a
Ekvywt
distant object in order to produce an image of it
or enable the radiation to be analysed. An
]bkrN_EdlRbmUlkaMrsIµBIvtßeú nAq¶ay edIm,IbegItá CarUbPaB rbs;vtßú b¤
optical telescope uses visible radiation (see also GaceGayeKykkaMrsIµeTAvíPaK. EkvywtGubTic eRbIkaMrsIµemIleXIj (emIl
*radio telescope). Optical astronomical
telescopes fall into two main classes: refracting radio telescope). EkvqøHú páay manBIEpñksMxan;²KW : EkvywtcMNaMgEbr nig
telescopes and reflecting telescopes. The
refracting telescopes use a converging lens to EkvywtcMNaMg pøat. EkvywtcMNaMgEbreRbILg;TIbRgYmedIm,IRbmUlBnWø
collect the light and the resulting image is
magnified by the eyepiece, a lens of short focal
ehIyeRkaymkrUbPaBGacemIleXIjRtg;GUKyu El Rtg;GU
length. For terrestrial telescopes an additional KuyElmanLg;TIEdlmanRbEvgkMnuxM I.ø cMeBaHEkvtywtsMrab;
lens is usually inserted in order to provide an
upright image. The first reflecting telescope eRbIenAelIEpndI manbEnßmLg;TImYyeTotedIm,IeGayrUbPaB QrRtg;.
was produced by Newton in 1668. This used a
concave mirror to collect and focus the light EkvywtcMNaMgpøatelIkd¿bUgbegItá eLIgedayjÚ tunkñúgqña!M ^^*.
and a small secondary mirror at an angle of 45°
to the main beam to reflect the light into the
EkvywtenHeRbIkBa©ke; kagedIm,IRbmUlBnWø nig
magnifying eyepiece. kBa©kT; IBIrtUcpÁ)ú¿ anmMu$%GgSaeTAnwg)ac;BnWøem edIm,IbM
pøatBnWøcUleTAkñúgGUKyu El.
Television
The transmission and reception of moving
TUrTsSn_
images by means of radio waves or cable. The
scene to be transmitted is focused onto a
karbBa¢nÚ nig karTTYlrUbPaBmanclna tamry³rlkvíTüú b¤
photoelectric screen in the television *camera. tamry³ExSkab. rUbPaBEdleKbBa¢nÚ )ancaMgeTAelIeG
This screen is scanned by an electron beam.
The camera produces an electric current, the Rkg;pUtUGKIÁsnIkúñgTUrTsSn_. eGRkg;enHekoseday)ac;BnWø eGLicRtug
instantaneous magnitude of which is
proportional to the brightness of the portion of TMhMrbU PaBsmamaRteTAnwgPaBPWøénPaKeGRkg; Edlekos)an.
the screen being scanned.
 229

Temperature
The property of a body or region of space that
sItuNðPaB
determines whether or not there will be a net
flow of heat into it or out of it from a
lkçN³rbs;GgÁFatu b¤ tMbn;lMhEdlkMnt;famanb¤KµanbM
neighbouring body or region and in which las;TIkeM dAcUleTAkñúgva b¤ kMedAecjBIva tamry³vtßú b¤ tM bn;Ctí xag
direction (if any) the heat will flow. If there is
no heat flow the bodies or regions are said to be ehIykñúgenaHbMlas;TIkMedAmanTisedA. ebIKaµ n bMlas;TIkMedAeT
in thermodynamic equilibrium and at the same
temperature. If there is a flow of heat, the eKniyayfavtßú b¤ tMbn;zítkñúglMnwgETm:UDI Namic
direction of the flow is from the body or region
of higher temperature.
ehIyzítRtg;stI uNðPaBdUcKña. ebImanbMlas;TIkM edA
TisedAbMlas;TIecjBIvtßúb¤tMbn;NaEdlmansItuNðPaB x<sC; ag.
Temperature coefficient
A coefficient that determines the rate of change
emKuNsItuNðPaB
of some physical property with change in
temperature. For example, the dependence of
emKuNEdlkMnt;krM wtpøas;bþÚrlkçN³rUbxøHedaysarsItuNð PaBERbRbYl.
the resistance (R) of a material on the Celsius ]TahrN_ PaBGaRs½yrbs;ersIusþg;Rrbs; rUbFatuelIsItuNPð aBEslsIust
temperature t, is given by R = R0 + at + bt2,
where R0 is the resistance at 0°C and a and b KW R = R + at + bt , Edl R CaersIusþg;enAsItuNPð aB 0 C ehIy a nig
0
2
0
0

bCacMnn Y efr. ebIbM)at;becal enaHaCaemKuNsItuNðPaBrbs;ersIusþg.;

are constants. If b is negligible, then a is the
temperature coefficient of resistance.
Temperature scales
A number of empirical scales of *temperature
maRtdæansItuNðPaB
have been in use: the *Celsius scale is widely
used for many purposes and in certain countries
maRtdæansItuNPð aBEdl)aneRbIR)as;KW maRtdæanEslsIsu
the *Fahrenheit scale is still used. These scales CamaRtdæaneRbIR)as;)aneRcInmux ehIyeRbIkgñú RbeTsCa eRcIn
both rely on the use of fixed points, such as the
freezing point and the boiling point of water, maRtdæanhVarinéheRbIkgñú RbeTsmYycMnnY . maRtdæan
and the division of the fundamental interval
between these two points into units of TaMgBIrenHEp¥kelIcMnucnwgmYy dUcCacMnucTwkkk nig cMnucTwk BuH
temperature (100 degrees in the case of the
Celsius scale and 180 degrees in the Fahrenheit
ehIyEckcenøaHrvagcMnucTaMgBIreTACaÉktasItuNðPaB
scale). However, for scientific purposes, the ¬!00GgSakñúgkrNImaRtdæanEslsIus ehIy!*0GgSakñúg
thermodynamic Kelvin scale is used. This scale
specifies absolute zero (0K) to be at –273.15oC, krNImaRtdæanhVarinéh¦. eTaHCaya:genHkIþ kñgú EpñkvíTüa
and the unit temperature intervals are the same
as for the Celsius scale. Thus, the freezing point saRsþeKeRbImaRtdæankMedAEklvín. manRtdæanenHmancMnuc
of water is at 273.15K, and the boiling point at
373.15K.
sUnüdac;xatRtg; –273.15 C ehIymanÉktasItuNPð aB
0

dUcKñanwgmaRtdæanEslsIusEdr. dUecñHcMncu kkrbs;TwkKW

@&#>!%GgSaEklvín ehIycMncu BuHrbs;TwkKW#&#>!% GgSa Eklvin.
Temporary magnetism
Magnetism in a body that is present when the
ma:ejTicGanaciéRnþ
body is in a magnetic field but that largely
disappears when it is removed from the field.
karmanCatiqk;kñúgGgÁFatueBlvazítkñúgEdnma:ejTic Etva
)at;bg;Catiqk;víjeBlykvaecjBIEdn.
Tensile strength
A measure of the resistance that a material
kMlaMgtMnwg
offers to tensile *stress. It is defined as the
stress, expressed as the force per unit cross-
rgVas;Tb;EdlrUbFatupþl;edIm,Irwtbnþgw . vaCakMlaMgRKb;RKan;
sectional area, required to break it. edIm,Ipþac;rUbFatuecjBIKañ manxñatKitCajÚtunkñgú mYyRkla épÞmuxkat;.
Tensiometer
Any apparatus for measuring *surface tension.
tg;süÚEm:t
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;tMnwgépÞ.
 230

Tera- Symbol T.
A prefix used in the metric system to denote
etra: (nimitsþ BaØa T)
one million million times. For example, 1012
volts = 1 teravolt (TV).
buBVbTeRbIkñúgRbB½n§maD edIm,ItageGaymYylanlandg. ]TahrN_ 10 12

v:lu  1etra:vl:u (TV).

Terminal
1. The point at which electrical connection is
b:Ul/ ETmINal;
made to a device or system. 2. A device at
which data is put into a *computer or taken
!> cMnucEdlsMrab;P¢ab;tamlkçN³GKIÁsnIeTAnwg]bkrN_ b¤ eTAnwgRbB½n§. @>
from it. kEnøgsMrab;bBa©ÚlTinñny½ b¤ beBa©jTinñn½y kMuBüÚT½recjBIva.
Terminal speed
The constant speed finally attained by a body
el,ÓnETmINal;
moving through a fluid under gravity when
there is a zero resultant force acting on it. See
el,ÓnefreRsccugeRkayrbs;vtßúpaø s;TIkat;GgÁFaturaveRkam kMlaMgTMnaj
*Stokes’ law. For a body falling in a resisting eBlenaHkMlaMgsrubmanGMeBIelIvaesIµsUnü. emIl Stokes’ law.
medium, the drag force acting on the body is
often proportional to the speed of the body, in cMeBaHvtßúmYyFøak;kgñú mCÄdæanEdlmankM laMgTb;
which case the terminal speed is reached when
the drag force equals the weight of the body; kMlaMgFøak;manGMeBIelIvtßúsmamaRteTAnwgel,Ón rbs;vtßú
that is kv = mg, or vT = mg/k. kñúgkrNIEdlQandl;el,ÓnETmINal; kMlaMgFøak; esIµTMgn;rbs;vtßú
mann½yfa kv  mg b¤ v  mg
t
k
.
Terminator
The boundary, on the surface of the moon or a
ETmIeNT½r
planet, between the sunlit area and the dark
area.
RBMEdn¬elIépÞRBHc½nÞ b¤ elIépÞPB¦rvagtMbn;manBnWRø BHGa Titü nig
tMbn;ggwt.
Terrestrial magnetism
See *geomagnetism.
ma:ejTicEpndI
emIl geomagnetic
Tertiary colour
A colour obtained by mixing two *secondary
BN’rgTIbI
colours. BN’Edl'anmkedaylayBIrBN’rgTIBIrbBaÙ̈lKëa.
Tesla (Symbol T)
The SI unit of magnetic flux density equal to
etsøa (nimitsþ BaØa T)
one weber of magnetic flux per square metre,
i.e. 1 T = 1 Wbm-2.
xñatSIrbs;dg;sueI tPøúcma:ejTic esIµmYyevEb‘ènPøúcma:ejTic
kñúgmYyEm:Rtkaer mann½yfa 1T  1Wbm . –1

Tesla coil
A device for producing a high-frequency high-
bUb‘Ínetsøa
voltage current. ]bkrN_sMrab;begIátcrnþtg;süúgx<se; Rbkg;x<s.;
Tetrahedron
A polyhedron with four triangular faces. In a
etRtaeGRdug
regular tetrahedron all four triangles are
congruent equilateral triangles. It constitutes a
b:UlIeGRdugEdlmanmuxRtIekaNbYn. etRtaeGRdugniy½t mux
regular triangular *pyramid. TaMgbYnCaRtIekaNsm½gS. vabegIát)anCaBIra:mItRtIekaNni y½t.
 231

Tetrode
A *thermionic valve with a screen grid placed
etRtUd
between the anode and the control grid of a
*triode to reduce the capacitance between these
sU‘'a:bETmIy:Unci mansMNaj;eGRkg;dak;cenøaHGaNUd nig sM
two electrodes and so improve the valve’s Naj;RtYtBinitürbs;RTIy:Ut edIm,IbnßysmtßPaBrvageG LicRtUdTaMgBIr
performance as an amplifier or oscillator at high
frequencies. The screen grid is maintained at a dUecëHehIysU'‘ a:bmanmuxgarCaGMBIø b¤ man
fixed potential.
muxgarCalMeyalEdlmaneRbkg;x<s;. eGRkg;sN M aj;rkSa
b:Utg;Esülefr.
Theoretical physics
The study of physics by formulating and
rUbviTüaRTwsIþ
analysing theories that describe natural
processes. Theoretical physics is
karsikSarUbvíTüaedayeRbIrUbmnþ nig edayvíPaKRTwsIþ Edl
complementary to the study of physics by erobrab;BIdMeNIrkarFmµCati. rUbvíTüaRTwsIþKWCamuxvíC¢abEnßm
experiment, which is called experimental
physics. A large part of theoretical physics eTAelIrUbvíTüaedaykarBiesaFn_ b¤ehAfarUbvíTüaBiesaF.
consists of analysing the results of experiments
to see whether or not they obey particular tYnaTIsxM an;rbs;rvU víTüaRTwsKIþ WvPí aKlT§plBiesaFn edIm,I eGayeXIjfa
theories. The branch of theoretical physics
concerned with the mathematical aspect of
etIvadUctamRTwsEIþ drb¤eT. rUbvíTüaRTwsIþKCW a EpñkmYyrbs;rUbvíTüa
theories in physics is called mathematical edayykcitþTku dak;CasMxan;elITMrg; KNitvíTüaénRTwsþIkúñgrUbvíTüa
physics.
b¤ehAfarUbKNit.
Thermal capacity
See *heat capacity.
ka)a:sIuetkMedA
emIl heat capacity
Thermal conductivity
See *conductivity.
kMrwtcMlgkMedA
emIl conductivity
Thermal diffusion
The diffusion that takes place in a fluid as a
DIPuysüúgkMedA
result of a temperature gradient. If a column of
gas is maintained so that the lower end is cooler
DIPuysüúgEdlekItmankñúgGgÁFaturav edaysarRkadüg;sItu NðPaB.
than the upper end, the heavier molecules in the ebIsrsr]sµ½neFIVeGayxageRkamRtCak;CagxagelI
gas will tend to remain at the lower-temperature
end and the lighter molecules will diffuse to the enaHm:eU lKulF¶n;kúñg]sµn½ rt;eTAxagNaEdlmansItuNPð aB TabCag
higher-temperature end. This property has been
used in the separation of gaseous isotopes (see ehIym:UelKulRsalrt;eTArkxagNaEdlmansItu NðPaBx<s.;
*Clusius column). lkçN³enHRtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIkñúgkarEjkGIu sUtUb]sµ½n (emIl Clusius
column).
Thermal imaging
The production of images by detecting,
rUbPaBkMedA
measuring, and recording the thermal (infrared)
radiation emitted by objects. Applications of
karekItmanrUbPaBedayemIleXIj edayvas; nig edayft
thermal imaging include mapping of the surface kaMrsIµkeM dA¬kaMrsIµRkhmGaMgRhVa¦EdlecjBIvtß.ú rUbPaBkM
of the earth from the air, mapping the weather,
and *thermography in medicine. edAykeTAeRbIR)as;kñúgkareFIVEpnTIépÞdIBIGakas EpnTIGa kasFatu nig
ETm:RU kahVIkñúgEpñkvíCs¢ aRsþ.
 232

Thermionic emission
The emission of electrons, usually into a
karbeBa©jETmIy:Unic
vacuum, from a heated conductor. The emitted
current density, J, is given by the Richardson
karxÞat;eGLicRtugecjBIGgÁFatucMlgekþA¬CaFmµtacUleTA kñúgsuBaØakas¦.
equation, i.e. beBa©jdg;sueI tcrnþJeGayedaysmIkarrI qatsun KW
J = AT2exp(–W/kT), J = AT2exp(–W/kT)
where T is the thermodynamic temperature of
the emitter, W is its *work function, k is the EdlTCasItuNðPaBETm:DU INamicrbs;eGLicRtugxÞatecj W
Boltzmann constant, and A is a constant.
Thermionic emission is the basis of the CaGnuKmn_kmµnrþ bs;va kCaefrbulsµan ehIyACacMnYnefr.
*thermionic valve and the *electron gun in
cathode-ray tubes.
karbeBa©jETmIyn:U ci KWCamUldæanrbs;va:l;ETmIy:Unic nig kaM
ePIøgeGLicRtugkñúgbMBg;kaMrsIµkatUd.
Thermionics
The branch of electronics concerned with the
ETmIy:Unic
study and design of devices based on the
emission of electrons from metal or metal-oxide
EpñkmYyrbs;eGLicRtUnci Tak;TgeTAnwgkarsikSa nig rcna
surfaces as a result of high temperatures. The ]bkrN_TaMgLayEp¥kelIkarxÞatecjeGLicRtugBIelah³ b¤
primary concern of thermionics is the design of
*thermionic valves and the electron guns of BIépÞGuksIdu elah³ bNþalmkBIstI uNPð aBx<s.; ETmIy:Unci
cathode-ray tubes and other devices.
dMbUgepþatkarykcitþTukdak;eTAelIkarrcnas‘U'a:bETmIy:Unci nig
kaMePIøgeGLicRtugrbs;bMBg;kaMrsIµkatUt RBmTaMg]b
krN_d¾éTCaeRcIneTot.
Thermionic valve
An electronic valve based on *thermionic
sU‘)a:bETmIy:Unic
emission. In such valves the cathode is either
directly heated by passing a current through it
sU‘'a:beGLicRtUnci BwgEp¥kelIkarxÛatecjETmIyn:U ci . këgú sU‘ 'a:benH
or indirectly heated by placing it close to a katUtGacekþAedaypÞal;tamry³crnþqøgkat;va b¤
heated filament. Directly heated cathodes are
usually made of tungsten wire, whereas ekþAedayRbeyaltamry³dak;vaCitPILam:g;ekAþ. katUtekþA
indirectly heated cathodes are usually coated
with barium and strontium oxides. Most edaypÞal;CaFmµtaeFIVBIExScMlgtg;Esþn cMENkkatUtekþA
electronic valves are thermionic vacuum
devices, although a few have cold cathodes and
edayRbeyalCaFmµtaeRsabeday)arüÚm nig GuksIutRsþg cUm.
some are gas-filled (see *thyratron). See s‘U'a:beGLicRtUnci PaKeRcInCa]bkrN_suBaØakasETmI y:Unci
*diode; *triode; *tetrode; *pentode.
xøHeTotmankatUdRtCak; ehIyxøHeTotmanbMeBj ]sµn½ (emIl thyratron).
emIl diode; triode; tetrode; pentode.
Thermistor
A semiconductor electronic device the
ETmIsþr
resistance of which decreases as its temperature
increases.
]bkrN_eGLicRtUnci sWmIkugDucT½r ersIsu þgr; bs;vafycuH
kalNasItuNðPaBekIneLIg.
 233

Thermocouple
A device consisting of two dissimilar metal
ETm:UKUb
wires or semiconducting rods welded together
at their ends. A thermoelectric e.m.f. is
]bkrN_enHmanExScMlgBIxusKña b¤ cgáiHsWmkI ugDucT½rBIrrMuclU
generated in the device when the ends are KñaRtg;cugrbs;va. kMlaMgGKIsÁ nIclkrETm:UGKIÁsnIekItman kñúg]bkrN_enH
maintained at different temperatures, the
magnitude of the e.m.f. being related to the eBlEdlcugTaMgsgxagrbs;vamansItuNð PaBxusKña
temperature difference. This enables a
thermocouple to be used as a thermometer over TMhMkMlaMgGKIsÁ nIclkrTak;TgnwgplsgsItuNð PaB.
a limited temperature range. One of the two
junctions, called the hot or measuring junction,
RbkarenHGaceGayETm:UKbU RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbICaET
is exposed to the temperature to be measured. m:UEm:tcenøaHkMrtw sItuNPð aBkMnt;. cMnucRbsBVmYyeQµaHfacM nucekþA b¤
The other, the cold or reference junction, is
maintained at a known reference temperature. cMnucvas; EdlGaceGayeKvas;sItN u Pð aBRtg;cM nucenaH)an.
The e.m.f. generated is measured by a suitable
millivoltmeter or potentiometer incorporated cMnucRbsBVmYyeToteQµaHfacMnucRtCak; b¤cnM cu sMGag
into the circuit. See *Seebeck effect;
*thermopile.
CacMncu EdleKsÁal;sItuNðPaB. kMlaMgGKIÁsnIcl
krekItmankñgú ETm:KU Ubvas;edayeRbIvl:u Em:tsmRsb b¤ vas;
edayb:tU g;tüÚEm:tbBa©ÚleTAkñgú esoKI.V emIl Seebeck effect;
thermopile.
Thermodynamics
The study of the laws that govern the
ETm:UDINamic
conversion of energy from one form to another,
the direction in which heat will flow, and the
karsikSaGMBIc,ab;EdlRKb;RKgkarrkSafamBlBITMrg;mYyeTA TMrg;mYyeTot
availability of energy to do work. It is based on sikSaBITisedAbMlas;TIrbs;kMedA nig sikSaBI lT§PaBfamBlbegItá kmµnþ.
the concept that in an isolated system anywhere
in the universe there is a measurable quantity of vaEp¥kelIc,ab;EdlmankñúgRb B½n§RtemacRKb;TIkEnøgkñúgcRkvaL
energy called the *internal energy (U) of the
system. This is the total kinetic and potential Edlc,ab;enHniyayBIbri
energy of the atoms and molecules of the
system of all kinds that can be transferred
maNfamBlmYyeQµaHfafamBlkñúgUrbs;RbB½n§. famBl
directly as heat; it therefore excludes chemical enHCafamBlsIuenTicsrub nig famBlb:tU g;Esülsrubrbs; GatUm nig
and nuclear energy. The value of U can only be
changed if the system ceases to be isolated. In m:UelKulénRbB½n§RKb;RbePTTaMgGs;EdlGacbM ElgedaypÞal;eTACakMedA
these circumstances U can change by the
transfer of mass to or from the system, the ehtudUcenHfamBlenHminKitBI famBlKImI nig famBlnuyekøEG‘eT.
transfer of heat (Q) to or from the system, or by
the work (W) being done on or by the system.
tMélUGacpøas;bþÚrRb sinebIRbB½n§ElgenARtemacb:eu NÑaH.
For an adiabatic (Q = 0) system of constant kñúgkrNIEdlUElg enARtemacvaGacERbRbYledayepÞr b¤ RsUbykma:s
mass, U = W. By convention, W is taken to be
positive if work is done on the system and b¤eday epÞrb¤RsUbykkMedA(Q)BIRbB½n§epSg b¤k¾GacERbRbYleday
negative if work is done by the system. For
non-adiabatic systems of constant mass, U
kmµnþWEdlva)aneFIVelIRbB½n§ b¤ kmµnþEdl)aneFImV kelIva.
= Q + W. This statement, which is equivalent to cMeBaHRbB½n§Gadüa)a:Tci (Q  0)Edlmanma:sefr U  W.
the law of conservation of energy, is known as
the first law of thermodynamics. edaysnµt;ykWvíCm¢ anebIkmµnþ)aneFIVelIRbB½n§ ehIyyk
WGvíCm ¢ anebIkmµnþ)aneFIVedayRbB½n§. cMeBaHRbB½n§minGadüa
)a:TicEdlmanma:sefrU  Q  W . BMeu nalenHsmmUl
eTAnwgc,ab;rkSafamBl ehIycat;TukvaCac,ab;TImyY énET m:DU INamic.
Thermodynamic temperature
See *temperature.
sItuNðPaBETm:UDINamic
emIl temperature
 234

Thermoelectricity
An electric current generated by temperature
ETm:UGKIÁsnI
difference. There are three interrelated
thermoelectric effects. See *Peltier effect;
crnþGKIsÁ nIEdlekIteLIgedaysItuNðPaBxusKña. manpl
*Seebeck effect; *Thomson effect. ETm:GU KIsÁ nIbITak;TgKñaeTAvíjeTAmk. emIl Peltier effect; Seebeck
effect; Thomson effect.
Thermograph
1. A recording thermometer used in
ETm:URkab
meteorology to obtain a continuous record of
temperature changes over a period on a graph.
!> ETm:UEm:tkt;Rta eKeRbIkgñú ]tþnú iymedIm,ITTYl)ankMnt;Rta
2. A record so obtained. 3. (or thermogram) A bMErbMrYlsItuNPð aBCab;²KñakñúgcenøaHeBlNamYyelIRkab. @>
record obtained by the technique of
*thermography. kMnt;Rta)anmkBIETm:RU kab. # ETm:URkab b¤ ETm:URkam Ca
kMnt;Rta)anmkedayeRbIETm:RU kahVú.I
Thermography
A medical technique that makes use of the
ETm:URkahIVú
infrared radiation from the human skin to detect
an area of elevated skin temperature that could
viFIvCí ¢saRsþeRbIkaMrsIµRkhmGaMgRhVaBIEs,kmnusSedIm,IemIl
be associated with an underlying cancer. The épÞrbs;sItuNðPaBEs,ke)a:gEdlGacbNþaleGayekIt mharIk.
heat radiated from the body varies according to
the local blood flow, thus an area of poor kMedAPayBIsarBagÁkayERbRbYleTAtamTItaMg Qamrt;
circulation produces less radiation. A tumour,
on the other hand, has an abnormally increased dUcenHtMbn;Qamrt;exSaymanbnSaykMedAtic. m:üagvíjeTot
blood supply and is revealed on the thermogram
(or thermograph) as a ‘hot spot’. The technique
sac;duHmancrnþQamxusBIRbRktI ehIyelc
is used particularly in mammography, the ecjeGayeXIjelIETm:RU kam¬b¤ETm:URkab¦CacMncu ekþA. víFI
examination of the infrared radiation emitted by
human breasts in order to detect breast cancer. enHRtUv)aneKykeTAeRbICaBiessenAkñúgma:m:URkahVIú edIm,IkM
nt;kaMrsIRµ khmGaMgRhVaEdlPayecjBIdegIðmmnusS edIm,I
RtYtBnitüemIlmaharIkpøvÚ degIðm.
Thermometer
An instrument used for measuring the
ETm:UEm:t
*temperature of a substance. A number of
techniques and forms are used in thermometers
]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;vas;sItuNðPaBrbs;sarFatu. cMnYnTMrg;nig
depending on such factors as the degree of víFIeRbIkñúgkñgú ETm:EU m:tGaRs½yelIktþadWeRkCak;lak;caM)ac; nig
accuracy required and the range of temperatures
to be measured, but they all measure kMrwtsItuNPð aBEdlRtUvvas; b:Eu nþETm:UEm:tTaMgGs;vas;sI
temperature by making use of some property of
a substance that varies with temperature. For tuNPð aBedayeRbIlkçN³sarFatuEdlERbRbYltamsItuNð PaB. ]TahrN_
example, liquid-in-glass thermometers depend
on the expansion of a liquid, usually mercury or
ETm:EU m:tsnÞnIykñúg]sµn½ GaRs½yelIkarIk rbs;snÞnIy CaFmµtaCa)ar:t b¤
alcohol coloured with dye. The gas CaGal;kulElmanBN’.
thermometer, which is more accurate than the
liquid-in-glass thermometer, measures the ETm:EU m:t]sµn½ ¬Cak;lak;CagETm:EU m:tsnÞnIylaykñúg]sµ½n¦
variation in the pressure of a gas kept at
constant volume. The resistance thermometer is vas;sBM aF]sµ½nERbRbYlkñúgmaDefr. ETm:UEm:tersIusþg;Ep¥k
based on the change in resistance of conductors
or semiconductors with temperature change.
elIbMErbMrYlersIusþgr; bs;GgÁFatucMlg b¤ sWmIkgu DucT½reday
Platinum, nickel, and copper are the metals
most commonly used in resistance
sItuNPð aBERbRbYl. pøaTIn nIEkl nig s<an; Caelah³Edl
thermometers. eKykeRbICaTUeTAkñúgETm:UEm:tersIusgþ .;
 235

Thermonuclear reactor (fusion reactor)

A reactor in which *nuclear fusion takes place
erGak;T½rETm:UnuyekøEG‘ (erGak;T½rPuysüúg)
with the controlled release of energy. Although
thermonuclear reactors do not yet exist, intense
erGak;T½rkëúgenaHPuysüúgnuyekøEG‘RbRBwteTAedaybeBa¨j
research in many parts of the world is being famBlRKb;RKg'an. eTaHCaerGak;T½rETm:UnuyekøEG‘minTan; mank¾eday
carried out with a view to achieving such a
machine. There are two central problems in the karvívtþn_énBiPBelaknaeBlxagmuxGaceGay
creation of a self-sustaining thermonuclear
reactor: heating the reacting nuclides to the eKsMercbegIátma:snIu enH)an. manbBaðasMxan;BIrkñúgkarbegItá
enormous *ignition temperature (about 40  106
K for a deuterium–tritium reaction) and
erGak;T½rETm:nU uyekøEG‘RTRTg;edayxønÚ ÉgKW : karkMedAnuy
containing the reacting nuclides for long KIøtRbtikmµeGayekþAdl;kMedAcMehHd¾xøaM(RbEhl 4010 KcM
6

enough for the fusion energy released to exceed

the energy required to achieve the ignition
temperature (see *Lawson criterion). The two
methods being explored are magnetic
containment and pellet fusion.
eBaHRbtikmµedETrüÚm-RTIcUm) nig kareFIeV GaymannuyKItø Rb
tikmµeGay)anEvglµmRKb;RKan;sMrab;famBlPuysüúgecj
elIsBIfamBlcaM)ac;edIm,IsMerc)ansItuNðPaBcMehH (emIl Lawson
criterion). víFIBIrEdleK)anrkeXIjKW kugetnm:g; ma:ejTic nig

Puysüúgeb:el.
Thermonuclear weapon
See *nuclear weapons
GavuFETm:UnuyekøEG‘
emIl nuclear weapons
Thermopile
A device used to detect and measure the
ETm:UBwl
intensity of radiant energy. ]bkrN_eRbIsMrab;emIl nig vas;GaMgtg;sueI tfamBlra:düg;.
Thermostat
A device that controls the heating or cooling of
ETm:Usþat
a substance in order to maintain it at a constant
temperature
]bkrN_EdlRtYtBinitükMrwtekþA nig kMrtw RtCak;rbs;sarFatu
edIm,IeGaysarFaturkSaenAsItuNðPaBefr.
Thomson effect (Kelvin effect)
When an electric current flows through a
plfmsun ¬plEklvin¦
conductor, the ends of which are maintained at
different temperatures, heat is evolved at a rate
eBlcrnþGKIÁsnIpaø s;TIkat;GgÁFatucMlg¬cugTaMgsgxagGgÁ
approximately proportional to the product of FatucMlgmansItuNðPaBxusKña ¦ brimaNkMedAekItmansma
the current and the temperature gradient.
maRteTAnwgplKuNcrnþnigRkadüg;sItuNðPaB.
Thomson scattering
The scattering of electromagnetic radiation by
r)ayfmsun
free charged particles, especially electrons,
when the photon energy is small compared with
r)aykaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlbeBa©jedaypg;bnÞkú esrI
the energy equivalent to the *rest mass of the ¬CaBiesseGLicRtug¦eBlfamBlpUtugmantMéltUcebI
charged particles. The energy lost by the
radiation is accounted for by classical theory as eFobCamYyfamBlpg;bnÞkú enAes¶óm. tamRTwsIþkøasiuc
a result of the radiation emitted by the charged
particles when they are accelerated in the famBl)at;bg;edaykaMrsIµ edaysarkaMrsIµEdlecjBIpg; bnÞúk
transverse electric field of the radiation. eBlvasÞúHcUleTAkñúgEdnGKIsÁ nIkat;TTwg.
Threshold
The minimum value of a parameter or variable
sNþab;lW
that will produce a specified effect. tMélGbb,rmaén)a:ra:Em:t b¤ Gefr EdlbegIát)anplCak; lak;NamYy.
Threshold frequency
See *photoelectric effect.
eRbkg;sNþab;lW
emIl photoelectric effect
 236

Thrust
The propelling force generated by an aircraft
rbuj
engine or rocket. It is usually calculated as the
product of the rate of mass discharge and the
kMlaMgrujekIteLIgedayma:suInynþehaH b¤ r:UEkt. vaCapl KuNénma:sepÞr
velocity of the exhaust gases relative to the nig el,Ónrbs;]sµ½n)aj;ecjeFobeTAnwg yan.
vehicle.
Thyratron
A thermionic valve (usually a triode) that
FIra:Rtug
functions as a gas-filled relay. sU‘'a:bETmIy:Unci ¬CaFmµtaRTIyt:U ¦EdlmanmuxgarCaGëk bBa¢nÙ ]sµ½nbMeBj.
Thyristor
A silicon-controlled rectifier whose anode–
FIrIsþr
cathode current is controlled by a signal applied
to a third electrode (the gate) in much the same
GñkEktMrvU sIulkI ugkugRtUl EdlcrnþGaNUd-katUdRKb;RKg
way as in a thyratron valve. edaycrnþenARtg;eGLicRtUdTIbI¬ehÝt¦ tamvéFIdUcKëanwgsU‘
)a:bETmIy:UnicEdr.
Tides
The regular rise and fall of the water level in
TwkeCaTwknac
the earth’s oceans as a result of the gravitational
forces between the earth, moon, and sun. The
karekIn nig cuHCaeTogTat;énnIvUT: wkkñúgmhasmuRTEpndI
forces involved are complex, but the moon is edaysarkMlaMgTMnajrvagEpndI RBHc½nÞ nig RBHGaTitü.
approximately twice as effective as the sun in
causing tides. TMnak;TMngrvagkMlaMgmanlkçN³sµúRKsµaj EtbuBVehtuEdl
The use of tidal energy, estimated at some 4 
1018 J per annum at known tidal sites, dates
naMeGaymanTwkeCaTwknacenH RbEhlCaRBHc½nÞman\Ti§Bl
back to medieval tidal mills. Modern tidal
power stations use specially designed turbines,
BIrdgRBHGaTitü. kareRbIfamBlTwkeCaTwknac tamkar
operated by tidal waters, to drive generators. )a:nR; bmaNRbEhlCa 410 JkñúgmYyqñaRM tg;TItaMgmYy.
18

sßanIyfamBledIredayTwkeCaTwknacsm½yTMenIb maneRbI
tYb‘ÍnedIredaykMlaMgTwkedIm,ITajma:snIu ePIøg.
Timbre
See *quality of sound.
KuNPaBsUr
emIl quality of sound
Time
A dimension that enables two otherwise
eBl
identical events that occur at the same point in
space to be distinguished (see *space–time).
TMhMEdlRBwtkiþ arN_BIrepSgKña ekIteLIgRtg;cMncu dUcKñakñúglM h
The interval between two such events forms the GaceGayeKsÁal;)an(emIl space-time). cenøaHrvag
basis of time measurement. For general
purposes, the earth’s rotation on its axis RBwtkiþ arN_BIrxagelIenH begIát)anCaRKwHénrgVas;eBl. CaTU eTA
provides the units of the clock (see *day) and
the earth’s orbit round the sun (see *year) karvilrbs;EpndICv¿u íjG½kSrbs;vanaMeGay)anÉkta ema:g (emIl day)
provides the units of the calendar. For scientific
purposes, intervals of time are now defined in
ehIyrgVilC¿urbs;EpndIC¿uvjí RBHGaTitü (emIl year)naMeGay)anÉktaqña.M
terms of the frequency of a specified tamlkçN³víTüasaRsþ
electromagnetic radiation (see *second).
eKkMnt;ry³eBlKICaGnuKmn_éneRbkg;kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ej Tic (emIl
second).
 237

Timebase
A voltage applied to the electron beam in a
eKaleBl
cathode ray tube at regular intervals so that the
luminous spot on the screen is deflected in a
tg;süúgGnuvtþcMeBaH)ac;BnWøeGLicRtugkñgú bMBg;kaMrsIkµ atUd
predetermined manner. The timebase is kñúgry³eBlmYyeTogTat;edIm,IeGays,:tBnWøcaMgpøatkñúgtM
designed to make the beam sweep the screen
horizontally, the period during which the spot bn;NamYyEdleKkMnt;. eKaleBlrcnaeLIgedIm,IeFIeV Gay
returns to its starting point (the flyback) being
suppressed. The timebase thus provides a time- )ac;BnWeø koselIeGRkg;tambnÞat;edk ry³eBlEdls,:tRt
axis for a V(t) plot of voltage. lb;eTAkan;cMnuccab;epIþmrbs;vavijRtUv)anTb;sáat;. dUecñH
eKaleBlpþl;eGaynUvG½kSeBlsMrab;sg;Rkabtg;süúgV(t)
Time-lapse photography
A form of ciné photography used to record a
ftRBwtiþkarN_knøgeTA
slow process, such as plant growth. A series of
single exposures of the object is made on ciné
TMrg;énkarfyPaBynþedayftdMeNIrkaryWt²dUcCa karlUt
film at predetermined regular intervals. las;rukçCatiCaedIm. rUbPaBvtßúEdlpítþ bnþbnÞab;elIhVIlft
mancenøaHkMnt;ya:gCak;lak;.
Tomography
The use of X-rays to photograph a selected
tUm:URkab
plane of a human body with other planes
eliminated. The CT (computerized tomography)
kareRbIkaMrsIµGciu ftbøgr; agÁkaymnusSRtg;kEnøgmYy eFob
scanner is a ring-shaped X-ray machine that nwgbøg;Rtg;kEnøgNamYyeTot. ma:suInEsánCTKWCama:sIunkaM
rotates through 180° around the horizontal
patient, making numerous X-ray measurements rsIµGiucmanragCargVg; Edlvíl!*0dWeRkC¿uvjí GñkC¿gWedk eFIV
every few degrees. The vast amount of
information acquired is built into a three- eGaykaMrsIµGiucya:geRcInvas;erogral;BIrbIdWeRk. Bt’man
dimensional image of the tissues under
examination by the scanner’s own computer.
ya:geRcInelceLIgCarUbPaBTMhMbIelIRkdasEdlkMnt;eday ma:sunI Esán.
Torque (moment of a force or couple). The
product of a force and its perpendicular distance
kMlaMgbgVil ¬m:Um:g;kMlaMg¦
from a point about which it causes rotation or
*torsion. The unit of torque is the newton
plKuNénkMlaMgnwgcMgayEkgrbs;vaBIcMnucmYyEdlCacMnuc eFIeV Gayvavil
metre, a vector product, unlike the joule, also b¤ rmYl. xñatm:Umg: k; MlaMgKitCajÚtunEm:Rt
equal to a newton metre, which is a scalar
product. A turbine produces a torque on its ¬plKuNviucT½r¦xusBIsU‘lEdlesIµngw jÙtunEm:RtEdr ¬pl KuNsÝaEl¦.
central rotating shaft. See also *couple.
TYb‘ÍnbegIÝtm:Um:g;kMlaMgelIp¨itdgbgVilrbs;va.
Torr
A unit of pressure, used in high-vacuum
T½r
technology, defined as 1mmHg. 1 torr is equal
to 133.322 pascals.
xñatsMBaF¬eRbIkúñgbec©kvíCa¢ suBaØakasx<s;¦esIµ!mIlEI m:Rt)a r:t. 1 torr 
133.322 pascals.
Torsion
A twisting deformation produced by a *torque
rmYl
or *couple. A torsion bar is a form of spring in
which one end of a bar is fixed and a torque is
karmYleGayxYcragÁedaym:Umg: ;kMlaMg. r)armYlCaTMrg;rWusr
applied to the other end. Torsion bars are used kñúgenaHcugmçagrbs;r)aenAnwg ehIyGnuvtþmUm: :g;kMlaMgelI cugmçageTot.
in the suspension systems of motor vehicles.
r)armYleRbIkñúgRbB½n§RTrbs;yanþynþ.
 238

Torsion balance
An instrument for measuring very weak forces.
CBa¢IgrmYl
It consists of a horizontal rod fixed to the end of
a vertical wire or fibre or to the centre of a taut
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;kMlaMgexSay. ]bkrN_enHmancgwáHmYy
horizontal wire. The forces to be measured are dak;edkCab;nwgcugExScMlgQr b¤Cab;ngw p©itExScMlgtwg.
applied to the end or ends of the rod. The
turning of the rod may be measured by the kMlaMgEdlRtUvvas;KWCakMlaMgGnuvtþcMeBaHcugmçag b¤ cugTaMg
displacement of a beam of light reflected from a
plane mirror attached to it. The best-known sgxagrbs;cgáwH. rgVilrbs;cgwáHGacvas;edaybMlas;TI)ac;
form is that used by Henry Cavendish (1731–
1810) and later by Sir Charles Boys (1855–
BnWøcaMgpøatBIkBa©kb; øge; TAb:Hva. TMrg;EdleKsÁal;bMputKWCaTM
1944) to determine the *gravitational constant. rg;EdleRbIedayhg;rIkavWundIs¬!&#!-!*!0¦ ehIyeRkay
mkeTotedayelakqalb‘y¬!($$-!($$¦ edIm,IkMnt;efrTM najsakl .
Total internal reflection
The total reflection of a beam of light at the
cMnaMgpøatxagkñúgsrub
interface of one medium and another medium
of lower refractive index, when the angle of
cMnaMgpøatsrubén)ac;BnWøRtg;Gnþrmuxrbs;mCÄdæanmYy nig
incidence to the second medium exceeds a mCÄdæanmYyeTotEdlmansnÞsSn_bMEbrtUcCag eBlmMucaMg
specific critical angle.
If a beam of light passing through a medium b:HcUlkñúgmCÄdæanTIBIrelIsBImdMu l;krM wt. ebI)ac;BnWøqøgkat;
A (say glass) strikes the boundary to a medium
B of lower refractive index (say air) with a mCÄdæanA(Ekv)cUlmCÄdæanB(xül;)mansnÞsSn_bMEbrtUcCag
small angle of incidence i, part will be
refracted, with an angle of refraction r, and part
edaymMcu MnaMgb:HitUc eBlenaHBnWømYyEpñkcaMgEbredaymMucM naMgEbrr
will be reflected. If i is increased it will reach a ehIyBnWømYyEpñkeTotcaMgpøat. ebIiekInrhUtdl; mMukMrtw c enaHeK)an r 
critical angle c, at which r = 90°. If i is now
increased further, no refraction can occur and 90 . ebI\LÚviekInEfmeTot enaH KµanbMEbrekIteLIgeT
0

all the light energy is reflected by the interface.

This total internal reflection occurs when c
(given by nsinc  1) is exceeded (n is the
refractive index of A relative to B). The critical
angle of optical glass is usually about 40° and
total internal reflection is made use of by
incorporating prisms in some optical
instruments instead of mirrors.
Transcendental number
A number that is not algebraic, such as  or e.
A transcendental function is also non-algebraic,
such as ax, sinx, or logx.
ehIyfamBlBnWøTaMgGs;caMgpøateday GnþrépÞ.
cMnaMgpøatxagkñúgsrubenHekItmaneBlielIsBIc kñúgkrNIenHsmIkareGay
nsinc  1 EdlnCasnÞsSn_bMEbr énmCÄdæanAeFobmCÄdæanB.
mMudl;krM wtrbs;EkvGubTicCa FmµtaRbEhl$0GgSa
ehIycMnaMgpøatxagkñúgsrubeFIeV lIg
edayeRbIRBIsdak;kúñgRbB½n§GubTicCaC¿nYseGaykBa©k.;
cMnYnviess
cMnYnEdlminEmnCacMnYnBiCKNIt dUcCa  b¤ eCaedIm. Gnu
Kmn_vei ssk¾CaGnuKmn_minEmnBiCKNitEdr dUcCa a sinx b¤
x

logxCaedIm.
Transducer
A device for converting a non-electrical signal,
Rtg;Duys½r
such as sound, light, heat, etc., into an electrical
signal, or vice versa. Thus microphones and
]bkrN_sMrab;bMElgsIuBaØal;minGKIsÁ nI dUcCasMelg BnWø kMedA
loudspeakers are electro-acoustic transducers. .l.eGayeTACasIBu aØal;GKIsÁ nI. dUcenHmIRkUhnVÚ nig
GU)a:l½rKWCaRtg;Duys½reGLicRtUGaKUsiÞc.
 239

Transformer
A device for transferring electrical energy from
Rtg;sVma:T½r
one alternating-current circuit to another with a
change of voltage, current, phase, or
]bkrN_sMrab;bBa¢nÚ famBlGKIÁsnIBIesoKIVcrnþqøas;eTAesoKIV
impedance. It consists of a primary winding of mYyeTotedaybþÚrtg;süúg bþrÚ crnþ bþÚpas b¤ bþrÚ GaMeb:dg;.
Np turns magnetically linked by a ferromagnetic
core or by proximity to the secondary winding Rtg;sVma:T½rmanrbub‘¿ zmN C¿u rMuB½T§Cuv¿ jí sñÚlEhVrm:U a:ejTicCab;
p
of Ns turns. The turns ratio (Ns/Np) is
approximately equal to Vs/Vp and to Ip/Is, where eTAnwgrbu¿T‘ IBIrmanN C¿u. pleFobcMnYnC¿u (N /N ) RbEhl esInµ wg V /V
s s p s p

Vp and Ip are the voltage and current fed to the

primary winding and Vs and Is are the voltage
ehIyRbEhlCaesIµ I /I , EdlV nig I Ca tg;süúg nig crnþmankëúgrbu‘b¿ zm
p s p p

and current induced in the secondary winding, ehIy V nig I Catg;süúg nig crnþkëúgrbu‘¿mFüm
s s
assuming that there are no power losses in the
core. In practice, however, there are *eddy- snµt;faKµan)at;bg;famBlkñgú sñÚl. eTaHCaya:genHkIþ mancrnþGaMgDIV nig
current and *hysteresis losses in the core,
incomplete magnetic linkage between the coils, kar'at;bg;GIusrÛ½ ersIus këúgsëlÙ ¬edaysarxVHTMnak;TMngma:ejTicrvagbUb‘nÍ ¦
and heating losses in the coils themselves. By
the use of a *laminated core and careful design,
nig'at; bg;kMedAkëgú bUb‘ÍnxønÚ va. edayeRbIsÙlë sMEb:t ehIyrcna
transformers with 98% efficiency can be
achieved.
edayRbugRby½t eKGacsMerc)anRtg;sVma:T½rmanTinñpl 98%.
Transient
A brief disturbance or oscillation in a circuit
Rtg;süg;
caused by a sudden rise in the current or e.m.f. karrMxanmYyePøt b¤ lMeyalkñúgesoKIV bNþalmkBIkMenIn crnþ b¤
kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkrrh½seBk.
Transistor
A *semiconductor device capable of
Rtg;sIusþr
amplification in addition to rectification and
switching. It is the basic unit in radio,
]bkrN_sWmIkgu DucT½rEdlGacBRgIk GacEktMrUv nig GacCa kugtak;.
television, and computer circuits, having almost Rtg;sIusþrCamUldæanRKwHkñúgesoKIvV íTüú TUrTsSn_ nig kMuBüÚT½r
completely replaced the *thermionic valve.
vaC¿nYsesIÛrEtTaMgRsugnUvs‘U'a:bETmIy:nU ci .
Transition point
1. The temperature at which one crystalline
cMnucpøas;bþÚr
form of a substance changes to another form. 2.
The temperature at which a substance changes
!> sItuNðPaBRtg;cnM ucmYyEdlTMrg;Rkamrbs;sarFatubrþÚ eTA
phase. 3. The temperature at which a substance CaTMrg;mYyepSgeTot. @> sItuNþPaBRtg;cnM cu mYyEdlsar FatubþÚrsNßan.
becomes superconducting (see
*superconductivity). 4. The temperature at #>sItuNPð aBRtg;cMnucmYyEdlsarFatukøay
which some other change, such as a change of
magnetic properties (see also *Curie eTACaGgÁFatuclM gxøagM bMput(emIl superconductivity). $>
temperature), takes place. sItuNPð aBRtg;cMnucmYyEdlkarpøas;bþÚrxøHdUcCa pøas;bþÚrlkç
N³ma:ejTicCaedImekIteLIg (emIl Curie temperature).
Transmitter
The equipment used to generate and broadcast
Rtg;sIµT½r
radio-frequency electromagnetic waves for
communication purposes. It consists of a
briFaneRbIedIm,IbegIát nig pSayeRbkg;víTüúrlkeGLicRtUma:
carrier-wave generator, a device for modulating ejTicCaRbeyaCn_KmnaKmn_. kñúgRtg;sµTI ½rmanCnitarlk bBa¢nÚ
the carrier wave in accordance with the
information to be broadcast, amplifiers, and an man]bkrN_srM ab;bMErbMrYlrlkbBa¢nÙ eTAtamBt’man pSaymk manGMBIø
aerial system.
nig manRbB½n§Gg;Etn.
Transmutation
The transformation of one element into another
karbþÚrsNßan
by bombardment of nuclei with particles. For
example, plutonium is obtained by the neutron
karbMElgFatumYyeTACaFatumYyeToteday)aj;bMEbkéNVy:U ]TahrN_
bombardment of uranium. PøúytUnjI mÙ: 'anmkeday'aj;RKab;NWRtugGuy‘ ra: nIjm:Ù .
 240

Transparent
Permitting the passage of radiation without
GgÁFatuføa
significant deviation or absorption. Compare
*translucent. A substance may be transparent to
GaceGaykaMrsIµqøgkat;edaymingak b¤ minRsUb. eRbob eFob
radiation of one wavelength but not to radiation translucent. GgÁFatumYyGacføacMeBaHkaMrsIC µ ¿han rlkmYy
of another wavelength. For example, some
forms of glass are transparent to light but not to EtminGacføacMeBaHkaMrsIµC¿hanrlkmYyeTot. ]TahrN_
ultraviolet radiation, while other forms of glass
may be transparent to all visible radiation TMrg;EkvxøHføacMeBaHBnWø EtmincMeBaHkaMrsIµsVay G‘ulRta
except red light. cMENkÉEkvxøHføacMeBaHkaMrsIµemIleXIjTaMgGs;
elIkElgEtBnWøRkhmecj.
Transuranic elements
Elements with an atomic number greater than
FatuRtg;suyra:nic
92, i.e. elements above uranium in the *periodic
table. Most of these elements are unstable and
FatuTaMgLayNaEdlmancMnYnGatUmFMCag(@ mann½yfa
have short half-lives. FatuxagelIGy‘u ra:njI :ÙmkëúgtaragxYb. PaKeRcInènFatuTaMg enHKWKµanlMnwg
ehIymanknøHCÍvítxIø.
Triangle of vectors
A triangle constructed so that each of its sides
RtIekaNviucT½r
represents one of three coplanar *vectors acting
at a point with no resultant. If the triangle is
sMNg;RtIekaNEdlRCugnimYy²tageGayviucT½rmYyénviucT½r bIkñúgbøg;EtmYy
closed, with the sides representing the vectors manGMeBIRtg;cMncu mYyedayKµantMélsrub. ebIRtIekaNCaRtIekaNbiTvíj
in both magnitude and direction, so that there
are no gaps between the sides, then the vectors edayRCugnimYy²tageGay vicu T½rmYymanTaMgm:UDulmanTaMgTisedA
are in equilibrium. If the three vectors are
forces, the figure is called a triangle of forces; if dUecñHKµancenøaHrvag RCugnimYy²eT eBlenaHeKfavicu T½rzitkñúglMngw .
they are velocities, it is a triangle of velocities. ebIvciu T½rbI Cavicu T½rkMlaMgvíj eK)anrUbPaBvicu T½reQµaHRtIekaNkMlaMg
ebIvaCael,Ónvíj eK)anRtIekaNel,Ón.
Triboelectricity
*Static electricity produced as a result of
RTIbUGKIÁsnI
friction. GKIÁsnIsaþ TicekIteLIgedaysarkarkkit.
Tribophysics
The study of friction, lubrication, and
rUbviTüaRTIbU
lubricants. karsikSaBIkkit eRbgb¤xøaj; nig eRbgrMGwl.
Trigonometric functions
Functions defined in terms of a right-angled
GnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRt
triangle (see diagram) and widely used in the
solution of many mathematical problems. They
GnuKmn_EdlCab;Tak;TgnwgRtIekaNEkg ehIyeKeRbIya:gTU
are defined as: lMTUlaykñgú karedaHRsaylMhat;KNitviTüaCaeRcIn.
tangent of angle A, written tanA = a/b
sine of angle A, written sinA = a/c GnuKmn_RtIekaNmaRtkMnt;eday :
cosine of angle A, written cosA = b/c,
where a is the length of the side opposite the tg;hSg;énmMAu eKsresr tan A  ba
angle A, b is the length of the side opposite the
angle B, and c is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
sIunusénmMuA eKsresr sin A  ac
kUsIunusénmMAu eKsresr cos A  bc
EdlaCaRbEvgRCugQmnwgmMuA b CaRbEvgRCugCab;ngw mMuA ehIyc
CaGIbu :UetnusRtIekaN.
 241

Triode
A *thermionic valve with three electrodes.
RTIy:Ut
Electrons produced by the heated cathode flow
to the anode after passing through the
va:l;ETmIy:UnicEdlmaneGLicRtUdbI. eGLicRtugekIteLIg
negatively biased *control grid. edaykatUtkMedApøas;TIBIGNUdbnÞab;BIqøgkat;cUleTAxagGví
C¢mantamry³sMNaj;kgu RtUl.
Triple point
The temperature and pressure at which the
cMnucRTIb
vapour, liquid, and solid phases of a substance
are in equilibrium. For water the triple point
sItuNPð aB nig sMBaFRtg;cucM mYyEdlcMhay GgÁFaturav nig
occurs at 273.16K and 611.2Pa. This value GgÁFaturwgzitkñúglMnwg. cMeBaHTwk cMncu RTIbekItmanenA
forms the basis of the definition of the *kelvin
and the thermodynamic *temperature scale. sItuNPð aB@&#>!^GgSaEklvin ehIysMBaF^!!>@)a:sáal;.
tMélenHekIt)anCaniymn½ymUldæanrbs;Eklvin nig maRt
dæansItuNPð aBETm:DU INamic.
Tritium (Symbol T)
An isotope of hydrogen with mass number 3;
RTIcUm (nimitsþ BaØa T)
i.e. the nucleus contains 2 neutrons and 1
proton. It is radioactive (half-life 12.3 years),
GIusUtUbGIRdUEhSnmancMnnY ma:s# mann½yfaéNVym:U anNW Rtug@ nig
undergoing beta decay to helium–3. Tritium is RbUtugmYy. vaCaFatuvTi üúskmµ(knøHCIvit !@>#qñaM)
used in *labelling.
TTYlrgbnSayEbtakøayeTACaeGlüÚm#. RTIcmU eRbIsMrab;
CasñamsMKal;GmIV Yy.
Troposphere
See *earth’s atmosphere.
RtUpUEsV‘
emIl earth’s atmosphere
Tuned circuit
A *resonant circuit in which there is a
esoKIVpøas;bþÚr
resonance at a certain frequency, called the
resonant frequency. In an RC circuit, the
esoKIVersUNg; EdlkñúgenaHmanersUNg;Rtg;eRbkg;NamYy
resonance occurs when the frequency is such ehAfaeRbkg;ersUNg;. kñúgesoKIVRC ersUNg;ekItmaneBl
that the reactance of the capacitor equals that of
the inductor, that is, when L = 1/C, hence eRbkg;erGak;tg;kugdg;saT½resIµGaMgDucT½r mann½yfaeBl
the angular resonant frequency is given by  = 1
L 
C
dU e cñ H eRbkg; e rsU N g; m M u e Gayeday 
1
LC
. ebIL nig
1 / LC . If L and C are in parallel, the circuit
has maximum impedance at the resonant CtCaExñg esoKIVmanGaMeb:dg;GtibrmaRtg;eRbkg;er sung;. ebI L nig
frequency. If L and C are in series the circuit
has minimum impedance. The tuned circuit can CtCaes‘rI esoKIVmanGaMeb:dg;Gbb,rma.
be tuned to a particular frequency by altering
the value of either the capacitor or inductor. esoKIVpøas;bþÚrGacbþÚreTAkan;eRbkg;NamYyedaybþÚrtMélkug dg;saT½r b¤
GaMgDucT½r.
Tunnel diode
A semiconductor diode, based on the *tunnel
düÚtTuyENl
effect. düÚtsWmkI ugDucT½rEp¥kelIplTuyENl.
 242

Tunnel effect
An effect in which electrons are able to tunnel
plTuyENl
through a narrow *potential barrier that would
constitute a forbidden region if the electrons
plmüa:gEdlkñúgenaHeGLicRtugGacrUgcUlr)aMgb:Utg;Esül
were treated as classical particles. That there is ceg¥ótedaybnþrhUtdl;tMbn;r)aMg ebIeGLicRtugbMeBjtam pg;køasiuc.
a finite probability of an electron tunnelling
from one classically allowed region to another manRbU)abkMnt;myY rbs;eGLicRtugrUgcUlBItMbn;
arises as a consequence of *quantum
mechanics. The effect is made use of in the køasiuceTAkan;emkanickgTic. plenHeFIeV GayeKbegIát)an düÚtTuyENl.
*tunnel diode. Alpha decay (see *alpha
particle) is an example of a tunnelling process.
bnSayGal;hVaCa]TahrN_mYyéndMeNIr karrUgcUl.
Turbine
A machine in which a fluid is used to produce
TYb‘Ín
rotational motion. The most widely used
turbines are the steam turbines and water
ma:sunI EdleRbIGgÀFaturavedIm,IbegIÝtclnargVil. TYb‘nÍ Edl
turbines that provide some 95% of the world’s eKniymeRbITUeTAKWTYb‘ÍncMhay nig TYbn‘Í Twk edaypþl;GKIÀ
electric power (in the form of *turbogenerators)
and the gas turbines that power all the world’s snIdl;BiPBelakRbEhl95%(CaTMrg;ma:sIunePIøgTYbU) nigTY
jet-propelled aircraft.
b‘Ín]sµ½n'anpþl;famBldl;ynþehaHRbtikmµTaMgGs;kgëú BI PBelak.
Turbogenerator
A steam turbine driving an electric generator.
ma:sIunePIøgTYbU
This is the normal method of generating
electricity in power stations. In a conventional
TYb‘ÍncMhaydMeNIrkarkëúgma:suInePIøg. enHCaviFITUeTAènkar
power station the steam is raised by burning a begIátGKIsÁ nIkgñú sßanIy_famBl. CaFmµtasßanIfamBl cM
fossil fuel (coal, oil, or natural gas); in a nuclear
power station the steam is raised by heat hayekIneLIgedaykarduteRbg\nÞn³pUsIul¬FüÚgfµ/ eRbg b¤ ]sµ½nFmµCati¦
transfer from a nuclear reactor.
këúgsÜanIyfamBlnuyekøEG‘ cMhayekIn
eLIgedaykMedAepÛrBIerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘.
Turbojet
See *jet propulsion.
TYbURbtikmµ
emIl jet propulsion
Tweeter
A small loudspeaker capable of reproducing
TVIF½r
sounds of relatively high frequency, i.e. 5
kilohertz upwards.
GU)a:l½rtUc²EdlGacbegItá sMelgeRbkg;x<s; mann½yfaeRb kg;cab;BI
%KILÙEG‘keLIgeTA.
U

Ultracentrifuge
A high-speed centrifuge used to measure the
ma:sIunEjkG‘ulRta
rate of sedimentation of colloidal particles or to
separate macromolecules, such as proteins or
ma:sunI Ejkmanel,ÓnxøagM eRbIedIm,Ivas;kMrtw kkrénpgkULÚ GIud b¤
nucleic acids, from solutions. Ultracentrifuges edIm,IEjkma:RkUm:UelKul ¬dUcCaRbUetGIun b¤ GasIudnuy
are electrically driven and are capable of speeds
up to 60000 rpm. ekøGic¦ecjBIslU uysüúg. ma:sIunEjkG‘lu RtaedIredayGKIÀ snI
ehIyGaceGayel,ÓneLIgdl; ^0000C¿ukñúgmYynaTI.
Ultrahigh frequency (UHF)
A radio frequency in the range 3 x 10 9–0.3 x
eRbkg;G‘ulRtahay (UHF)
109 Hz; i.e. having a wavelength in the range 10
cm to 1 m.
eRbkg;víTüúkñúgkMrtw 310 – 0.310 Hz mann½yfamanC¿
9 9

hanrlkkñúgkMrwt 10 cm eTA 1 m.
 243

Ultrasonics
The study and use of pressure waves that have a
sUrG‘ulRta
frequency in excess of 20,000 Hz and are
therefore inaudible to the human ear. Ultrasonic
karsikSa nig kareRbIrlksMBaFEdlmaneRbkg;elIsBI 20000EG‘k
generators make use of the *piezoelectric effect dUecñHehIyRtecokmnusSminGacsþab;lWeT. ]bkrN_begItÝ sUrG‘ulRta
to act as transducers in converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Ultrasonics are maneRbIplBIhSÚGKIÁsnIedIrtYCa
used in medicine for diagnosis, particularly in
conditions such as pregnancy, in which X-rays Rtg;düÚsr½ kñúgkarbMElgfamBlGKIÁsnIeTACafamBlemka nic.
could have a harmful effect, and for treatment,
the vibratory effect being used to break up
sUrG‘ulRtaRtUv'aneKeRbIkëúgEpëkvéCs¢ aRsþedIm,IvinicyÞ½ Gakar³GIVmYy
kidney stones, etc. Ultrasonic techniques are CaBiessvinci Þ½ydMenIrmanKt’ këúgenaHkaMrsIµ
also used industrially to test for flaws in metals,
to clean surfaces, to test the thickness of parts, Gicu GaceFIVeGayb:HBal;dl;suxPaB nigeRbIsMrab;Büa)al
and to form colloids.
eraKdUcCa'aj;bMEbkRKYskëúgtMrgm:Ut.l. sUrG‘ulRtak¾eRbI
kñúgEpñk]sSahkmµEdr edIm,IBinitüKuNvíbtiþkñúgelah³ edIm,IlayépÞ
edIm,Ivas;kMras; nig edIm,IbegIátCakULÚGIud.
ultraviolet radiation (UV) Electromagnetic
radiation having wavelengths between that of
kaMrsIµsVayG‘ulRta (kaMrsIµUV)
violet light and long X-rays, i.e. between 400
nanometres and 4 nm.
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicmanC¿hanrlkcenøaHBnWBø N’sVay nig kaMrsIµEvgX
mann½yfacenøaH 400 nm nig 4 nm.
Umbra
See *shadow.
møb;pÞal;
emIl shadow
Uncertainty principle (Heisenberg uncertainty
principle; principle of indeterminism)
eKalkarN_kMrwtel¥óg (eKalkarN_krM wtel¥ìgeGsinEb‘ b¤
The principle that it is not possible to know
with unlimited accuracy both the position and
eKalkarN_minc,as;niym)
momentum of a particle. This principle, is eKalkarN_EdlminGacdwgeGay)anCak;lak;nUvTItaMg nig
usually stated in the form: xpx  h/4,
where x is the uncertainty in the x-coordinate
brimaNclnarbs;pg;. eKalkarN_enHmanTMrg; :
of the particle, px is the uncertainty in the x- xp  h/4, Edl xCakMrwtel¥ógkñúgkUGredaenxrbs; pg;
x
component of the particle’s momentum, and h
is the *Planck constant.
p CakMrtw el¥ógkñúgkMb:Usg;xénm:Um:g;rbs;pg; ehIyh Caefrpøg;.
x

Union
See Sets
RbC¿u
emIl sets
Unit
A specified measure of a physical quantity,
xñat b¤ Ékta
such as length, mass, time, etc., specified
multiples of which are used to express
rgVas;énbrimaNrUbdUcCa RbEvg ma:s ry³eBl.l. Bhu
magnitudes of that physical quantity. For many KuNEdleRbIedIm,IsMEdgm:UDulénbrimaNrUb. kñgú EpñkvíTüa saRsþ
scientific purposes previous systems of units
have now been replaced by *SI units. xañtBImunRtUv)anC¿nsY edayxñatSI.
Unit cell
The group of particles (atoms, ions, or
yUnItEsl
molecules) in a crystal that is repeated in three
dimensions in the *crystal lattice. See also
Rkumpg; (GatUm/ GIuyg:u b¤ m:UelKul)kñúgRkamEdlmandEdl
*crystal system. ²kñúgbNþajRkam. emIl crystal system
 244

Unit vector
A vector that has the magnitude 1. Unit vectors
viucT½rÉkta
define directions in space. The unit vectors i, j
and k represent directions in the x, y and z
vicu T½rEdlmanm:DU ul!. vicu T½rÉktakMnt;TisedAkñúglMh. viuc T½rÉkta i ,
directions respectively. For example, a vector a j nig k tageGayTisedAtamG½kSx, y nig z erogKña. ]TahrN_ vicu T½r
of length 5 units directed at an angle of 36.9 o
anticlockwise from the x-axis can be a manRbEvg%ÉktatamTispÁu¿ )anmMu36.9 RcasRTnicnaLikarBIG½kSx
0

represented by
a = 4i + 3j. Gactageday :
a  4i  3 j
Universe
All the matter, energy, and space that exists.
cRkvaL
See *cosmology. rUbFatu famBl nig lMhTaMgGs;Edlman. emIl cosmology
Unstable equilibrium
See *equilibrium.
lMnwgmins‘b;
emIl equilibrium
Upper atmosphere
The upper part of the *earth’s atmosphere
briyakasEpñkxagelI
above about 300km. This is the part of the
atmosphere that cannot be reached by balloons.
EpñkxagelIénbriyakasEpndIRbEhl#00KILÚEm:Rt. enH
CaEpñkbriyakasEdl)aLúgminGaceTAdl;.
Upthrust
See *Archimedes’ principle.
d¿eNal
emIl Archimedes’ principle
Uranium (Symbol U)
A white radioactive metallic element belonging
G‘uyra:nIj:Úm (nimitþsBaØa U)
to the *actinoids. It occurs as *uraninite, from
which the metal is extracted by an ion-exchange
Fatuelah³véTüúskmµBN’szitkëgú RkumGak;TINUGIud. vakøay
process. Three isotopes are found in nature: CaG‘yu ra:njI m:Ù ecjBIdMeNIrkarbþrÚ GIyu :ug. GIusUtUbbIRtUv)aneK
uranium–238 (99.28%), uranium–235 (0.71%),
and uranium–234 (0.006%). As uranium–235 rkeXIjkëúgFmµCatiKW G‘yu ra:nIjm:Ù -238(99.28%) Guy‘ ra:nI j:mÙ -
235(0.71%) nig G‘uyra:nIjm :Ù -234(0.006%). eBl G‘yu ra:nIjm:Ù -
undergoes *nuclear fission with slow neutrons
it is the fuel used in *nuclear reactors and
*nuclear weapons; uranium has therefore 235rgPIsüúgnuyekøEG‘CamYyNWRtugyWt vaCa
assumed enormous technical and political
importance since their invention. It was \nÛn³eRbIkëúgerGak;T½rnuyekøEG‘ nig eRbIkëúgGavuFnuyekøEG‘
discovered by M. H. Klaproth in 1789.
dUcenHehIyG‘uyra:nIj:ÙmRtUveKykeTAeRbICaeRcInkëúgbec¨kvi C¢a nig
kñúgneya)aycab;taMgBIva)anrkeXIjmk. vaRtUv)an rkeXIjeday M.H.
Klaproth kñúgqñaM!**(.
Uranium series
See radioactive series
es‘rIG‘uyra:nIj:Úm
emIl radioactive series
UV
See ultraviolet radiation
yUvI
emIl ultraviolet radiation
V
 245

Vacuum
A space in which there is a low pressure of gas,
suBaØakas
i.e. relatively few atoms or molecules. A perfect
vacuum would contain no atoms or molecules,
lMhEdlmansMBaF]sµ½nTab mann½yfamanGatUm b¤ m:eU l KulBIrbI.
but this is unobtainable as all the materials that suBaØakassuT§KµanGatUm b¤ m:eU lKuleT EteKmin GacsMerceTA)aneT
surround such a space have a finite *vapour
pressure. In a soft (or low) vacuum the pressure edaysarrUbFatuTaMgGs;EdlB½T§C¿uvij lMhenaHmansMBaFcMhaykMnt;mYy.
is reduced to about 10-2 pascal, whereas a hard
(or high) vacuum has a pressure of 10 -2–10-7 suBaØakassMBaFTabKW fycuHRbEhl10 )a:sáal;
–2

pascal. Below 10-7 pascal is known as an

ultrahigh vacuum. See also *vacuum pump.
rIÉsuBaØkassMBaFx<sv; íjman sMBaF 10 - 10 )a:saá l;. xageRkam10
–2 –7 –

Vacuum pump
A pump used to reduce the gas pressure in a
container. The normal laboratory rotary oil-seal
pump can maintain a pressure of 10-1Pa. For
pressures down to 10-7Pa a *diffusion pump is
7
'a:saÝ l;KWCa suBaØakasGu‘lRtahay. emIl vacuum pump.
sñb;suBaØakas
sñb;eRbIedIm,IbnßysMBaF]sµn½ kñúgkugetn½r. sñb;G‘lsIulkëúg
TIBiesaFGacrkSasMBaF10 'a:sÝal;. eKeRbIsbë ;DIhVyú‘ süúg
–1

required. *Ion pumps can achieve a pressure of

10-9Pa and a *cryogenic pump combined with a edIm,IbnßysMBaFcuHdl; 10 )a:sáal;. sñb;GyIu :ugGacsMerc sMBaF)an10
–7 –

diffusion pump can reach 10-13Pa. 9

'a:saÝ l; ehIysëb;RKIy:UEhSn rYmCamYysëb;DI hVú‘ysüúgGacbnÜysMBaFdl;
10 )a:sáal;.
–13

Vacuum tube
See thermionic valve.
bMBg;suBaØakas
emIl thermionic valve
Valence band
See energy bands.
Rkumva:Lg;
emIl energy bands
Valence electron
An electron in one of the outer shells of an
eGLicRtugva:Lg;
atom that takes part in forming chemical bonds. eGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;xageRkAmYyrbs;GatUm EdlCaEpñk
mYykñúgkarbegItá sm<n½ §KImI.
Valve
See thermionic valve
va:l;
emIl thermionic valve
Van Allen belts (radiation belts)
Belts that are sources of intense radiation
kNwþgva:n;GaELn (kNwgþ kaMrsIµ)
surrounding the earth, consisting of high-energy
charged particles trapped in the earth’s
kNwþgEdlCaRbPBénkaMrsIRµ bBlC¿uvjí EpndI pg;bnÞúkman
magnetic field within which they follow famBlx<s;sÞak;Cab;kúñgEdnma:ejTicEpndI EdlkñúgenaHva
roughly helical paths. They were discovered in
1958 by James Van Allen as a result of crtamKnøgKRKatrageGlic. eKrkeXIjvakñúgqøa!M (%*eday ECm va:nG; aLin
radiation detectors carried by Explorer
satellites. The lower belt, extending from 1000 edayeRbI]bkrN_cab;kaMrsIµEdlpáayrNb rkeXIj.
to 5000 km above the equator, contains
electrons and protons, while the upper belt,
kNwþgeRkamlatsn§wgBI!000eTA%000KILÚEm:Rt xagelIeGkVaT½r
15000–25000 km above the equator, contains maneGLicRtug nig RbUtugenAkñúgenaH cMEnk
mainly electrons.
ÉkNþwgelIlatsn§wgcab;BI!%000eTA@%000KILÚEm:Rtxag elIeGkVaT½r
maneGLicRtugPaKeRcIn.
 246

Van de Graaff generator

An electrostatic generator used to produce a
ma:sIunePIøgva:n;dWRkahV
high voltage, usually in the megavolt range. ma:sunI ePIgø eGLicRtUsaþ TiceRbIedIm,IbegIáttg;süúgx<s; CaFmµ
takñgú kMrwtemháav:ul.
Van der Waal’s equation
See equation of state
smIkarva:n;dWva:l;
emIl equation of state
Van der Waals’ force
An attractive force between atoms or
kMlaMgva:n;dWva:l;
molecules. The force accounts for the term a/V2
in the van der Waals equation (see *equation of kMlaMgTMnajrvagGatUm b¤ m:eU lKul. kMlaMgenHKWCatY a 2
V
state). These forces are much weaker than those
arising from valence bonds and are inversely kñúgsmIkarva:nd; Wva:l(; emIl equation of state). kMlaMgTaMg
proportional to the seventh power of the
distance between the atoms or molecules. They enHexSayCagkMlaMgekItecjBIsm<½n§va:Lg;xøaMgNas; ehIy
are the forces responsible for non-ideal
behaviour of gases and for the lattice energy of
RcassmamaRteTAnwgsV½yKuNR)aMBIréncMgayrvagGatUm b¤ m:eU lKul.
molecular crystals. There are three factors vaCakaMlaMgTTYlxusRtUvcMeBaH]sµ½nminbrisuT§ nig
causing such forces: (1) dipole–dipole
interaction, i.e. electrostatic attractions between cMeBaHfamBlbNþajrbs;Rkamm:UelKul. manktþabIya:g
two molecules with permanent dipole moments;
(2) dipole-induced dipole interactions, in which EdlbNþaleGaymankMlaMgenHKW : (1) GnþrkmµrvagDIb:lU nig DIb:Ul
the dipole of one molecule polarizes a
neighbouring molecule; (3) dispersion forces
mann½yfaTMnajeGLicRtUsaþ Ticrvagm:UelKul BIredaym:Umg: ;DIb:UlGciéRnþ
arising because of small instantaneous dipoles (2) DIb:l
U eFIVeGaymanGnþrkmµDI b:Ul
in atoms.
kñúgenHDIb:Ulm:UelKulmYyeFIeV Gaym:eU lKulenACítva manb:UlEdr (3)
ekItmankMlaMgEbkExJk eRBaHmanDIbl:U ekIt eLigPøam²kñúgGatUm.
Vapour pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapour. All solids
sMBaFcMhay
and liquids give off vapours, consisting of
atoms or molecules of the substances that have
sMBaFEdlbeBa©jedaycMhay. ral;GgÁFaturwg nig GgÁFatu
evaporated from the condensed forms. These ravsuT§EtbeBa©jcMhay kñgú cMhayenaHmanGatUmb¤me:U l
atoms or molecules exert a vapour pressure. If
the substance is in an enclosed space, the KulsarFatuEdlGackøayCakMnrejIs. GatUm b¤ m:eU lKul
vapour pressure will reach an equilibrium value
that depends only on the nature of the substance TaMgenHbeBa©jsMBaFcMhay. ebIsarFatuenAkñgú lhbiT sM
and the temperature. This equilibrium value
occurs when there is a dynamic equilibrium
BaFcMhaynwgeTAdl;tMélnwgmYyEdlGaRs½yelIEtFmµCati énsarFatu nig
between the atoms or molecules escaping from sItuNPð aBb:ueNÑaH. tMéllMnwgenHekIteLIg
the liquid or solid and those that strike the
surface of the liquid or solid and return to it. eBlmanlMnwgDINamicrvagGatUm b¤ m:eU lKulecjBIGgÁFatu rav b¤
The vapour is then said to be a saturated vapour
and the pressure it exerts is the saturated vapour GgÁFaturwg ehIyGatUmb¤me:U lKulTaMgenaHpÞb;nwgépÞ
pressure.
GgÁFaturavb¤GgÁFaturwgehIyRtlb;eTAvíj. eBlenaHeKni
yayfacMhayEq¥t ehIysMBaFEdlvabeBa©jCasMBaFcM hayEq¥t.
Variable star
A star that varies in brightness. This variation,
páayva:rIya:b
which can be regular or irregular, can be due
either to changes in internal conditions or due
páayEdlpøas;brþÚ BnW. karpøas;bþÚrBnWøenH¬GaceTogTat; b¤
to external reasons, such as a star being eclipsed mineTogTat;¦GacbNþalmkBIkarpøas;bþÚrlkçx½NÐxagkñúg
by another star.
rWGacbNþalmkBImUlehtuxageRkA dUcCapáayRtUv)aMgeday
páaymYyeTot.
 247

Variometer
1. A variable inductor consisting of two coils
va:rIy:UEm:t
connected in series and able to move relative to
each other. It can be used to measure
!> GaMgDucT½rGacERbRbYl'an GaMgDucT½renHmanbUbn‘Í BIrtCa es‘rI
inductance. 2. Any of several devices for ehIyGaccl½teFobKñaeTAvíjeTAmk. eKGayeRbIva edIm,Ivas;GaMgDuctg;.
detecting and measuring changes in the
geomagnetic elements (see *geomagnetism). @> ]bkrN_sMrab;emIl nig vas;bMErbM rYlkñúgFatuma:ejTicEpndI (emIl
geomagnetism).
Vector
1. (in mathematics) A quantity in which both
viucT½r
the magnitude and the direction must be stated
(compare *scalar quantity). Force, velocity, and
!> ¬kñúgemkanic¦brimaNmYyEdlkñúgenaHmanbBa¢ak;TaMgm:U Dul nig
field strength are examples of vector quantities. TaMgTisedA (eRbobeFobI scalar quatity). kMlaMg viucT½rel,Ón nig
Note that distance and speed are scalar
quantities, whereas displacement and velocity GaMgtg;sIuetEdnKWCa]TahrN_énbrimaN vícu T½r. sUmkt;sMKal;fa cMgay
are vector quantities. Vector quantities must be
treated by vector algebra, for example, the nig el,ÓnKWCabrimaNvicu T½r cMENkÉbMlas;TI nig
resultant of two vectors may be found by a
*parallelogram of vectors. A (three-
vicu T½rel,ÓnCabrimaNviucT½r. bri maNvicu T½rRtUvsMKal;edayBiCKNitviucT½r
dimensional) vector V may be written in terms ]TahrN_ viucT½r pÁÜbénBIrviucT½rGackMnt;)anedayeRbIRbelLÚRkaménvicu T½r.
of components V1, V2, and V3 along the x, y, and
z axes as V1i + V2j + V3k, where i, j, and k are vicu T½r¬vímaRtbI¦VGacsresrCaGnuKmn_énkMb:Usg;V , V nig
1 2
unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes. See also
*triangle of vectors. V tambeNþayG½kS x, y nig z Ca V i + V j + V k Edl i, j nig k
3 1 2 3

vicu T½rÉktatambeNþayG½kS x, y nig z. emIl triangle of vectors

Vector product (cross product)
The product of two *vectors U and V, with
plKuNviucT½r (plKuNExVg)
components U1, U2, U3 and V1, V2, V3,
respectively, given by:
plKuNénBIrviucT½r U nig V, edaymankMb:sU g; U , U , U nig V , V , V ,
1 2 3 1 2 3

erogKña eGayeda:
U  V = (U2V3 – U3V2)i +
U  V = (U2V3 – U3V2)i +
(U3V1 – U1V3)j + (U1V2 – U2V1)k.
(U3V1 – U1V3)j + (U1V2 – U2V1)k.
It is itself a vector, perpendicular to both U and
V, and of length UVsin, where U and V are the
lengths of U and V, respectively, and  is the
vaCaviucT½rxøÜnÉg EkgeTAnwg U pg EkgeTAnwg V, ehIyman RbEvgUVsin
angle between them. Compare *scalar product. EdlU nig V CaRbEvgrbs;U nig V,erog Kña ehIyCamMru vagva.
eRbobeFob scalar product.
Velocity (Symbol v)
The rate of change of the displacement of a
viucT½rel,Ón (nimitþsBaØa v)
body. It is the *speed of a body in a specified
direction. Velocity is thus a *vector quantity,
bMErbMrYlbMlas;TIrbs;vtßú. vaCael,Ónrbs;vtßtú amTisedANa mYy.
whereas speed is a scalar quantity. dUecñHviucT½rel,ÓnKWCabrimaNviucT½r cMENkÉel,ÓnKW CabrimaNsáaEl.
Velocity ratio (distance ratio)
The ratio of the distance moved by the point of
pleFobviucT½rel,Ón (pleFobcMgay)
application effort in a simple *machine to the
distance moved by the point of application load
pleFobcMgayEdlpøas;TIedaycMncu beBa©jkMlaMgclkrkñúg ma:suIngay
in the same time. eTAnwgcMgaypøas;TIedaycMnucGnuvtþbnÞkú kñúg eBldUcKña.
Venn diagram
See sets.
düaRkamvin
emIl sets
 248

Venturi tube
A device for mixing a fine spray of liquid with
bMBg;vinTYrI
a gas or measuring a flow rate of a gas. ]bkrN_sMrab;)aj;layGgÁFaturavnig]sµ½neGaycUlKña b¤bM
Bg;srM ab;vas;krM wthUrrbs;]sµ½n.
Vernier
A short auxiliary scale placed beside the main
EvnIej
scale on a measuring instrument to enable
subdivisions of the main scale to be read
RkitxIøbEnßmenAEk,rRkitemelI]bkrN_rgVas; edIm,IGac
accurately. The vernier scale is usually eGayeKEbgEckteTAeToténRkitemGankan;EtCak;lak;.
calibrated so that each of its divisions is 0.9 of
the main scale divisions. RkitEvnIejCaFmµtaRkitya:gNaeGaycMENknimYy²esIµ0>(
éncMENkRkitem.
Very high frequency (VHF)
A radio frequency in the range 3  108–0.3 
eRbkg;x<s;bMput
108 Hz, i.e. having a wavelength in the range 1–
10 m.
eRbkg;viTüúkñúgkMrtw 3  10 – 0.3  10 Hz mann½yfaman C¿hanrlk 1–
8 8

10m.
Very low frequency (VLF)
A radio frequency in the range 3  104–0.3 
eRbkg;TabbMput
104 Hz, i.e. having a wavelength in the range
10–100 km.
eRbkg;viTüúkñúgkMrtw 3  10 – 0.3  10 Hz mann½yfaman
4 4

C¿hanrlkcab;BI 10–100km.
Virtual image
See image.
rUmPaBminBit
emIl image
Virtual work
The imaginary work done when a system is
kmµnþnimiµt
subjected to infinitesimal hypothetical
displacements. According to the principle of
kmµnþnimµti eBlRbB½n§manbMlas;TItUceBk. tameKalkarN_ kmµnþnimtµi
virtual work, the total work done by all the kmµnþsrubEdl)aneFIVedaykMlaMgTaMgGs;manGM
forces acting on a system in equilibrium is zero.
This principle can be used to determine the eBIelIRbB½n§kúñglMnwgesIsµ Unü. eKalkarN_enHGaceRbIedIm,I
forces acting on a system in equilibrium.
kMnt;kMlaMgmanGMeBIelIRbB½n§kúñglMngw .
Viscometer
An instrument for measuring the viscosity of a
vIsáÚEm:t
fluid. ]bkrN_sMrab;vas;kMrtw xab;rbs;GgÁFaturav.
Viscosity
A measure of the resistance to flow that a fluid
kMrwtrav
offers when it is subjected to shear stress. For a
*Newtonian fluid, the force, F, needed to
rgVas;Tb;Tl;lMhUrrbs;GgÁFaturaveBleKsegátvacMeBaHtMnwg Ejk.
maintain a velocity gradient, dv/dx, between cMeBaHGgÁFaturavjÚtun kMlaMgFcaM)ac;edIm,IrkSaRka düg;el,Ón
adjacent planes of a fluid of area A is given by:
dv dv
F = A(dv/dx), where  is a constant, the
dx
rvagbø g ; Cab; GgÁ
F atu r avmanRklaépÞ AeGay eday F  A
dx
coefficient of viscosity. In *SI units it has the
unit pascal second (in the c.g.s. system it is Edl  CacMnYnefr¬emKuNkMrtw rav¦.
measured in *poise). Non-Newtonian fluids,
such as clays, do not conform to this simple kñúgRbB½n§SIvamanxñatKitCa)a:saá l;vinaTI (kñúgRbB½n§c.g.sva
model. See also *kinematic viscosity.
manxñatKitCapoise). GgÁFaturavminjÚtun¬dUcCadI\dæ¦min
GnuelamtamKMrgU ayenHeT. emIl kinematic viscosity.
Visible spectrum
The *spectrum of electromagnetic radiations to
s,iúcemIleXIj
which the human eye is sensitive. See *colour. s,úci kaMrsIeµ GLicRtUma:ejTicEdlEPñkmnusSGacemIleXIj emIl colour.
 249

Visual-display unit (VDU)

The part of a *computer system or word
vIDIyU
processor on which text or diagrams are
displayed. It consists of a *cathode-ray tube and
EpñkénRbB½n§kMuBüÚT½r b¤ vuWdRbUsis½r sMrab;bgðajGtßbTb¤düa Rkam.
usually has its own input keyboard attached. vapSMedaybMBg;kaMrsIµkatUd ehIyCaFmµCamanP¢ab; XIb‘trbs;vapÛal;.
Volt (Symbol V)
The SI unit of electric potential, potential
v:ul (nimitþsBaØa V)
difference, or e.m.f. defined as the difference of
potential between two points on a conductor
xñatSIénb:Utg;Esül plsgb:Utg;Esül b¤ kMlaMgGKIsÁ nI clkrGKIsÁ nI
carrying a constant current of one ampere when vaCaplsgb:tU g;EsülrvagcMnucBIrelIGgÁ FatucMlgpÞúkcrnþedrmYyGMEBr
the power dissipated between the points is one
watt. GnuvPaBrvagcMncu TaMgBIr Pay)anmYyva:t.;
Voltage (Symbol V)
An e.m.f. or potential difference expressed in
tg;süúg (nimitþsBaØa V)
volts. kMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkr b¤ plsgb:Utg;Esül sMEdgCav:ul.
Voltage divider (potential divider;
potentiometer)
DIva:yD½rtg;süúg (DIva:yD½rb:Utg;Esül b¤ b:Utg;tüÚEm:t)
A resistor or a chain of resistors connected in
series that can be tapped at one or more points
ersIusþrmYy b¤ ersIusþreRcIntCaes‘rI EdlGacP¢ab;Rtg;cMnuc mYy b¤
to obtain a known fraction of the total voltage Rtg;cMnuceRcInedIm,IsÁal;RbPaKéntg;süúgsrubqøg kat;ersIusrþ mYy b¤
across the whole resistor or chain.
ersIusþrTaMgmUl.
Voltaic cell (galvanic cell)
A device that produces an e.m.f. as a result of
fµBilv:ulta (fµBilháalva:nci )
chemical reactions that take place within it.
These reactions occur at the surfaces of two
]bkrN_EdlGacbegIátkMlaMgGKIÁsnIclkr edaysarRbti
electrodes, each of which dips into an kmµKmI IEdlenAkñúgenaH. RbtikmµTaMgenHekIteLIgRtg;épÞén eGLicRtUdBIr
electrolyte. The first voltaic cell, devised by
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), had electrodes eGLicRtUdnimYy²kb;kñúgeGLicRtUltI . fµ
of two different metals dipping into brine. See
*primary cell; *secondary cell. Bilv:lu tadMbUgbegItá eLIgedayGaLicsg;RdU v:ulta (1745- 1827)
maneGLicRtUdelah³BIepSgKñadak;RtaMkgñú TwkGMbil.
Voltmeter
An instrument used to measure voltage.
v:ulEm:t
]bkrN_eRbIedIm,Ivas;tg;süúg.
Volume (Symbol V)
The space occupied by a body or mass of fluid.
maD (nimitþsBaØa V)
The volume of a cylinder of height h and radius lMhRKb;RKgedayGgÁFatu b¤ ma:srbs;GgÁFaturav. maDsIu LaMgkMBs;h nig
r is given by V = r2h.
kaMr eGayeday V = r h. 2

Volume integral
An integral over a volume, which can involve
GaMgetRkalmaD
vectors and scalars. The volume element dV =
dxdydz is a scalar. For a vector function F(x, y,
GaMgetRkalelImaD vaGacTak;TgCamYyviucT½r nig sáaEl. FatumaD dV =
dxdydzCabrimaNsáaEl. cMeBaHGnuKmn_viuc T½r F (x, y, z)
 
z) the volume integral is given by  FdV .  
V GaMgetRkalmaDeGay  FdV .
V
W
 250

Watt (Symbol W.)

The SI unit of power, defined as a power of one
va:t; (nimitþsBaØa W)
joule per second. In electrical contexts it is
equal to the rate of energy transformation by an
xñatSIrbs;GnuPaB vaCaGnuPaBmYys‘UlkëúgmYyvinaTI. këgú n½yGKIÀsnI
electric current of one ampere flowing through vaesIeµ TAnwgbMErbMrYlfamBlepÞredaycrnþGKIÁ
a conductor the ends of which are maintained at
a potential difference of one volt. snImYyGMEBrpøas;TIqøgkat;GgÁFatuclM gEdlcugTaMgsg;xag
mantg;süúgmYyv:ul.
Wattmeter
An instrument for measuring the power in watts
va:t;Em:t
in an alternating-current electric circuit. In a
direct-current circuit, power is usually
]bkrN_sMrab;vas;GnuPaBKitCava:t;kúgñ esoKIVGKIÁsnIcrnþqøas;
determined by separate measurements of the kñúgesoKIcV rnþCab;vij CaTUeTAGnuPaBkMnt;edayvas;bMEbk tg;süúg nig
voltage and the current.
crnþ.
Wave
A periodic disturbance in a medium or in space.
rlk
In a travelling wave (or progressive wave)
energy is transferred from one place to another
claclxYbkñúgmCÄdæan b¤ kñúglMh. kñgú rlkpøas;TI fam
by the vibrations (see also *stationary wave). In BlRtUv)anepÞrBIkEnøgmYyeTAkEnøgmYyeTottamry³lMjr½ . ]TahrN_
a wave passing along a string, for example, the
string rises and falls as the wave passes but the kñúgrlkqøgkat;ExS ExseLIg nig cuHkalNa rlkqøgkat;
particles in the string do not move forward with
the wave. This is called a transverse wave Etpg;kñúgExSminpøas;TIeTAmuxCamYyrlkeT. rlkenHehAfarlkTTwg
because the disturbances are at right angles to
the direction of propagation.
eRBaHkarrBa¢yÜ EkgeTAnwgTisedA dMNal.
Electromagnetic waves are also of this kind, rlkeGLicRtUma:ejTick¾CarlkRbePTenHEdr edaymanEdnGKIÁsnI nig
with electric and magnetic fields varying in a
periodic way at right angles to each other and to Ednma:ejTicERbRbYltamxYbEkg KñaeTAvijeTAmk
the direction of propagation. In sound waves,
the air is alternately compressed and rarefied by ehIyEkgeTAnwgTisedAdMNal. kñúgrlk sMelg
displacements in the direction of propagation.
Such waves are called longitudinal waves.
xül;ENnqøas;bNþak;Kañ ehIyeFIVeGayexSayeday
The chief characteristics of a wave are its
speed of propagation, its frequency, its
sarbMlas;TItamTisedAdMNal. rlkdUcenHehAfarlk TTwg.
wavelength, and its amplitude. lkçN³sMxan;rbs;rlkKIel,ÓndMNalrbs;va eRbkg;rbs; va
C¿hanrlkrbs;va nig GMBIøTtu rbs;va.
Wave form
The shape of a wave or the pattern representing
TMrg;rlk
a vibration. It can be illustrated by drawing a
graph of the periodically varying quantity
rUbragÁrlk b¤ KMrUEdltageGaylMj½r. eKGacbgðajvaeday
against distance for one complete wavelength. sg;RkabénbrimaNERbRbYltamxYb Tl;nwgcMgaybMeBj
See also *sine wave.
)anmYyC¿hanrlk. emIl sine wave.
Wavefront
A line or surface within a two- or three-
muxrlk
dimensional medium through which waves are
passing, being the locus of all adjacent points at
bnÞat; b¤ épÞenAkñúgmCÄdæanvimaRtBIrEdlrlkqøgkat; vaCaTI
which the disturbances are in phase. At large zancMncu Cab;²KñaTaMgGs;EdlRtg;cMnucenaHkarrBa¢Üyman pasdUcKña.
distances from a small source in a uniform
medium, the fronts are small parts of a sphere Rtg;ry³cMgayq¶ayBIcnM cu RbPBtUckñgú EdnÉk sNæan
of very large radius and they can be considered
as plane. For example, sunlight reaches the muxrlkKICaEpëktUcmYyènEsV‘EdlmankaMya:gFM
earth with plane wavefronts. ehIyeKGaccat;TukvaCabøg;. Ca]TahrN_ BnWøRBHGaTitü
mkdl;EpndImanmuxrlkCabøg;.
 251

Wave function
A function (x,y,z) appearing in the
GnuKmn_rlk
*Schrödinger equation in *quantum mechanics.
The wave function is a mathematical expression
GnuKmn_ (x, y, z)mankñúgsmIkarRsáDÚ IghÁr½ kñúgemkanickg Tic.
involving the coordinates of a particle in space. GnuKmn_rlkKWCakenSamBiCKNitTak;TgeTAnwgkUGr edaenénpg;kñúglMh.
If the Schrödinger equation can be solved for a
particle in a given system (e.g. an electron in an ebIsmIkarRsáDÚ IghÁ½rGacedaHRsay
atom) then, depending on the boundary
conditions, the solution is a set of allowed wave
)ancMeBaHpg;kúñgRbB½n§EdleKeGay¬dUcCaeGLicRtugkñúgGa
functions (eigenfunctions) of the particle, each
corresponding to an allowed energy level
tUm¦edayGaRs½yelIlkçx½NÐ enaHcMelIyrbs;smIkarKWCa
(eigenvalue). The physical significance of the sMnuMGnuKmn_rlk¬GnuKmn_paÞ l;¦rbs;pg; GnuKmn_nimYy²
wave function is that the square of its absolute
value, ||2, at a point is proportional to the RtUvKñanwgnIv:UfamBlmYy¬tMélpÞal;¦. lkçN³rUbsMxan;rbs;
probability of finding the particle in a small
element of volume, dxdydz, at that point. For an
GnuKmn_rlkKWfa kaeréntMéldac;xatrbs;va|| Rtg;cMnuc
2

electron in an atom, this gives rise to the idea of mYysmamaRteTAnwgRbU)abénkarrkpg;kúñgFatutUcmYyén maD

atomic and molecular *orbitals.
dxdydzRtg;cn M cu enaH. cMeBaHeGLicRtugkñúgGatUm Rb
karenHeFIVeGayekItmanKMnitGMBIG½rb‘tÍ GatUm nig m:UelKul.
Wave guide
A hollow tube through which microwave
háayrlk
electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted
with relatively little attenuation
bMBg;RbehagkñúgEdlGaceGaykaMrsIµmIRkUrlkGacbBa¢nÚ )an
edayGaMgtg;seIu tBnWøfycuHtictYc.
Wavelength
See *wave.
C¿hanrlk
emIl wave
Wave mechanics
See *quantum mechanics.
emkanicrlk
emIl quantum mechanics
Wave number (Symbol k)
The number of cycles of a wave in unit length.
cMnYnrlk (nimitþsBaØa k)
The wave number is given by cMnYnC¿éu nrlkkñúgmYyxñatRbEvg. cMnnY rlkeGayeday
k = 2/.
2
(see *wave). k

emIl wave.
Wave–particle duality
The concept that waves carrying energy may
pg;Carlk
have a corpuscular aspect and that particles may
have a wave aspect; which of the two models is
RTwsIþEdlniyayfa rlkmanpÞúkfamBlmanTMrg;CaRKab; pg; nig
the more appropriate will depend on the pg;enaHGacmanTMrg;CarlkpgEdr EdlKMrTU aMgBIr
properties the model is seeking to explain. For
example, waves of electromagnetic radiation enHGaRs½yeTAtamKMrEU dlRtUvBnül;. ]TahrN_ rlkkaM
need to be visualized as particles, called
*photons, to explain the *photoelectric effect rsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicGaccat;TukCapg;¬ehAfapUtug¦edIm,I
while electrons need to be thought of as de
Broglie waves in *electron diffraction. See also
Bnül;plpUtUGKIÁsnI rIÉeGLicRtugvijcat;TukfaCarlkRbU
*complementarity; *de Broglie wavelength; KIøkñúgDIR)ak;süúgeGLicRtug. emIl complementarity; de Broglie
*light.
wavelength; light.
Wave power
The use of wave motion in the sea to generate
GnuPaBrlk
energy. kareRbIclnarlkenAkñúgsmuRTedIm,IbegIátfamBl.
 252

Wave theory
See *light.
RTwsIþrlk
emIl light
Weak interaction
See *fundamental interactions.
GnþrkmµexSay
emIl fundamental interactions
Weber (Symbol Wb)
The SI unit of magnetic flux equal to the flux
viEb‘ (nimitþsBaØa Wb)
that, linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it
an e.m.f. of one volt as it is reduced to zero at a
xñatSIrbs;Pøúcma:ejTic esIeµ TAnwgPøcú ¬qøgkat;esoKIVmYyC¿u¦
uniform rate in one second. EdlbegItá kMlaMgGKIsÁ nIenAkñúgenaHmYyv:uleBlvafyeTA
sUnüedayGRtaesIµkúñgmYyvinaTI.
Weight
The force by which a body is attracted to the
TMgn;
earth. See *mass. kMlaMgEdlGgÁFatuTajeTArkEpndI. emIl mass.
Weightlessness
True weightlessness is a condition of a body
PaBKµanTMgn;
when it is an infinite distance from any other
body. Apparent weightlessness is the
PaBKµanTMgn;BitKWCalkçx½NrÐ bs;GgÁFatu eBlvaenAcMgay
appearance of weightlessness that occurs in GnnþBIGgÁFatud¾éT. PaBKµanTMgn;TMngKWTMngCaKµanTMgn;Edl
space when the gravitational attraction of the
earth on a body in space is equal to the ekIteLIgkñúglMh eBlkMlaMgTMnajrbs;EpndIelItGgÁFatu kñúglMh
centripetal force required by its orbital motion
so that the body is effectively in free fall. esIµnwgkMlaMgcUlpi©tEdlbeBa©jedayclnargVilC¿u rbs;va
Weightlessness can also be simulated for short
periods in an aircraft flying a parabolic flight
edIm,IeGayGgÁFaturg\TI§BlTnøak;esrI. PaBKµanTM
path, so that its occupants are again in free fall. gn;kG¾ acekItmankñúgry³eBlxIøeBlEdlyanGavkaskMBg;
ehaHtamKnøgCa)a:ra:bUl edaysarvakMBg;Tb;Tl;ngw Tnøak; esrI.
Wheatstone bridge
An electrical circuit for measuring the value of
s<anvItsþún
a resistance. The Wheatstone bridge is used in
various forms.
esoKIVGKIÁsnIsrM ab;vas;tMélersIusþg;. s<anvItsþúneRbItam
eRcInrebobxus²Kña.
White dwarf
A compact stellar object that is supported
va:ydVahV
against collapse under self-gravity by the
*degeneracy pressure of electrons. White
páaytUclµmEdlTb;Tl;nwgkardYlrlMeRkamTMnajrbs;va
dwarfs are formed as the end products of the edaybnßysMBaFeGLicRtug. va:ydVahVmanrUbrageLIgeBl
evolution of stars of relatively low mass (about
that of the sun); high-mass stars may end up as cugbBa©b;bdivtþpáayTaMgLayEdlmanma:stUcebIeFobCa mYyRBHGaTitü
*neutron stars or *black holes (see *stellar
evolution). White dwarfs consist of helium cMENkÉpáayEdlmanma:sFMGackøayCa páayNWRtug b¤ EbøkhUl (emIl
nuclei (and carbon and oxygen nuclei in the stellar evolution). kñúg va:ydVahVmanéNVy:UeGlüÚm¬ehIymankabUn nig
more massive cases) and a *degenerate gas of
electrons. GuksIuEsn kñúgkrNIma:skan;EtFM¦ nig karbMEbk]sµ½neGLicRtug.
Wien’s displacement law
c,ab;bMlas;TIevün
For a *black body, mT = constant, where m is
the wavelength corresponding to the maximum cMeBaHGgÁFatuexµA  T  cMnYnefr Edl  CaC¿hanrlk
m m
radiation of energy and T is the thermodynamic
temperature of the body. RtUvKñanwgkaMrsIµfamBlGtibrma ehIy TCasItuNðPaBETm:U
DINamicrbs;GgÁFatu.
 253

Wilson cloud chamber

See *cloud chamber.
bnÞb;BBkvIlsun
emIl cloud chamber
Wimshurst machine
A laboratory electrostatic generator.
ma:sIunvImeRsIs
CnitaeGLicRtUsþaTiceRbIkñúgTIBiesaF.
Wind power
The use of winds in the earth’s atmosphere to
GnuPaBxül;
drive machinery, especially to drive an
electrical generator. The power, P, available to
kareRbIR)as;xül;kgñú briyakasrbs;EpndIedIm,ITajma:sIun
drive a wind generator is given by P = kd2v3, CaBiessedIm,ITajma:suInePIøg. GnuPaBPEdlxül;GacTaj
where k is the air density, d is the diameter of
the blades, and v is the average wind speed. begIátCaGKIsÁ nIKW P  kd v EdlkCadg;suIetxül; dCa Ggát;pi©tebøt
2 3

ehIyvCael,ÓnmFümrbs;xül;.
Word
A number of *bits, often 32, 48, or 64,
Bakü
processed by a computer as a single unit. cMnYnb‘Ít ¬CaFmµtaman"@/ #( b¤ ^#¦dMeNIrkaredaykMBu üÙT½r
CaÉktasIBu aØal;.
Work
The work done by a force acting on a body is
kmµnþ
the product of the force and the distance moved
by its point of application in the direction of the
kmµnþEdl)aneFIeV daykMlaMgmanGMeBIelIGgÁFatu KWCapl KuNénkMlaMg nig
force. If a force F acts in such a way that the cMgayEdl)anpøas;TIBIcMncu GnuvtþklM aMg tamTisedAkMlaMg. ebIklM aMg
displacement s is in a direction that makes an
angle  with the direction of the force, the work FeFIVeGay)anbMlas;TIstam
done is given by: W = Fscos. Work can also TisedAmYyEdlbegIát)anmMu CamYyTisedAkMlaMg enaHkmµnþ
be expressed as the scalar product F . s of the
force and displacement vectors. It is measured eFIV)aneGayeday W = Fscos. kmµnþk¾GacsMEdgCapl KuNsáaEl F  s
in joules.
ènviucT½rkMlaMg nig viucT½rbMlas;TI'anEdr. kmµnþmanxëatKitCas‘Ul.
Work function
A quantity that determines the extent to which
GnuKmn_kmµnþ
*thermionic or *photoelectric emission will
occur according to the Richardson equation or
brimaNEdlkMnt;TMhMkarbeBa©jETmIyn:U ci b¤ pUtUGKIÁsnI Ga
Einstein’s photoelectric equation (see *Einstein Rs½yeTAtamsmIkarrIqatsun b¤ smIkarpUtUGKIÁsnIrbs; GaMgsþaj (emIl
equation). It is sometimes expressed as a
potential difference (symbol ) in volts and Einstein equation). CYnkalvasMEdgCa plsgb:Utg;Esül (nimitþsBaØa
sometimes as the energy required to remove an )KitCav:l u ehIyCYnkal
electron (symbol W) in electronvolts or joules.
The former has been called the work function sMEdgCafamBlcaM)ac;edIm,IeGayeGLicRtugpøas;TI (nimitþ sBaØa
potential and the latter the work function
energy. W)KitCaeGLicRtucv:ul b¤ s‘Ul. BImuneKFøab;ehAfa

GnuKmn_kmµnb:Utg;Esül ehIyeRkaymkeToteKehAfa famBlkmµnþ.

Work hardening
An increase in the hardness of metals as a result
BRgwgKuNPaB
of working them cold. It causes a permanent
distortion of the crystal structure and is
karbegIánKuNPaBelah³eGaykan;Etrwg edayeFIvV aeGayRt Cak;.
particularly apparent with iron, copper, vaeFIVeGayxUcragGciéRnþbNþajRkam ehIyGaceFIV )anCamYyEdk/
aluminium, etc., whereas with lead and zinc it
does not occur, as these metals are capable of Tg;Edg/ GaluymIj:Úm.l. cMENkÉsMnr nig sgásIminGaceFIV)aneT
recrystallizing at room temperature.
edaysarelah³TaMgenHGac
eGaybNþajRkamRtlb;eTAkan;TMrg;edImvijenAsItuNðPaB Fmµta.
 254

X-ray astronomy
The study of *X-ray sources by rockets and
taraviTüakaMrsIµGiuc
balloons in the earth’s atmosphere and by
satellites beyond it. The first non-solar X-ray
karsikSaBIRbPBkaMrsIµGiucedayeRbIru:Ekt nig )aLúgkñúgbriya kasEpndI nig
source was detected during a rocket flight in edayeRbIpáayrNbenAq¶ayBIva. RbPBkaM
1962, and this observation heralded an entirely
new branch of astronomy which developed rsIµGiucEdlminmkBIRBHGaTitümundMbUgRtUv)anrkeXIjkñúgGM
rapidly with the availability of satellites in the
1970s. LúgeBlbegðaHr:uEktkñúgqña!M (^@ ehIykarsegáteXIjenHnaM
eGayeKbegItá )ansaxataraviTüafImµ YyeTot EdlrIkcMerIn
ya:grh½sedayGacbegIátCapáayrNbkñgú qña!M (&0.
X-ray crystallography
The use of *X-ray diffraction to determine the
RKIsþaLÚRkabkaMrsIµGiuc
structure of crystals or molecules, such as
nucleic acids. See also *neutron diffraction.
kareRbIDIR)ak;süúgkaMrsIµGciu edIm,IkMnt;TrM g;Rkam b¤ m:eU lKul
dUcCaGasItu nuyekøGiucCaedIm. emIl neutron diffraction.
X-ray diffraction
The diffraction of X-rays by a crystal. The
DIR)ak;süúgkaMrsIµGiuc
wavelengths of X-rays are comparable in size to
the distances between atoms in most crystals,
DIR)ak;süúgkaMrsIµGciu edayRkam. C¿hanrlkkaMrsIµGiucGac
and the repeated pattern of the crystal lattice eRbobeFob)aneTAnwgTMhMcMgayrvagGatUmkñúgRkamCaeRcIn
acts like a diffraction grating for X-rays.
ehIyKMrUdEdl²énbNþajRkammanGMeBIdUcKñanwgRkaFIgDI
R)ak;süúgrbs;kaMrsIGµ ciu Edr.
X-rays
Electromagnetic radiation of shorter
kaMrsIµGiuc
wavelength than ultraviolet radiation produced
by bombardment of atoms by high-quantum-
kaMrsIµeGLicRtUma:ejTicEdlmanC¿hanrlkxIøCagkaMrsIµ
energy particles. The range of wavelengths is sVayG‘ulRtaekIteLIgedayTnøak;RKab;GatUmedaypg;fam BlkgTicx<s;.
10-11m to 10-9m. Atoms of all the elements emit
a characteristic X-ray spectrum when they are kMrwtC¿hanrlkcab;BI 10 meTA10 m .
–11 –9

bombarded by electrons.
RKb;GatUménFatuTaMgGs;beBa©js,iúckaMrsIGµ ciu eBlb:HCa mYyeGLicRtug.
X-ray sources
Sources of X-radiation from outside the solar
RbPBkaMrsIµGiuc
system. Some 100 sources within the Galaxy
have been observed as objects that emit most of
RbPBkaMrsIµGiucecjBIRbB½n§xageRkARBHGaTitü. manRbmaN!00RbPB
their energy in the X-ray region of the enAkñúgháaLak;sIu RtUv)aneKsegáteXIjfa beBa©jfamBlrbs;vaeRcInbMput
electromagnetic spectrum and only a relatively
small proportion of their energy in the visible kñgú tMbn;kaMrsIµGciu éns,iúceGLicRtUma:ejTic ehIymanEtmYyEpñktUcb:ueNÑaH
spectrum. Many of these X-ray sources appear
to be members of a binary system, consisting of énfamBl rbs;vaEdls,iúcGacemIleXIj. RbPBkaMrsIµGiucTaMgenHPaK
one optically visible star and one very compact
object; it is thought that the latter is either a
eRcInTMngCaFatuénRbB½n§)ajNarI¬RbB½n§)ajNarImanpáaymYyGacemIl
*neutron star or (if very massive) a *black hole. eXIjtamRbB½n§GubTic nigvtßútUcmYyeTot¦eRkaymkeToteKKitfavakøayCa
Owing to the absorption of X-rays by the
earth’s atmosphere these X-ray sources are only páayNWRtug b¤ ¬emIma:sFM¦EbøkhUl. karC¿Bak;vak;vni cMeBaHsMrUbkaMrsIµGiuc
visible by X-ray telescopes carried by space
probes and satellites, although some high- edaybriyakasEpndI kaMrsIµGciu TaMgenHGacemIleXIjedayeRbIEkvqøHú
energy X-rays can penetrate the upper
atmosphere and are detectable by X-ray
kaMrsIµGiucEdlP¢ab;eTAnwgyanGavkas b¤ páayrNb kaMrsIµGciu xøHman
telescopes mounted on balloons. famBlx<s;GacRCabcUlRsTab;briyakasxagelI ehIyGaceXIj eday
eRbIEkvqøúHkaMrsIµGciu dak;elI)aLúg.
 255

X-ray tube
A device for generating *X-rays by accelerating
bMBg;kaMrsIµGiuc
electrons to a high energy by an electrostatic
field and making them strike a metal target
]bkrN_sMrab;begIátkaMrsIGµ ciu edaybegIná eGLicRtugeGaydl;famBlx<s;
either in a tube containing a low-pressure gas edayeRbIEdneGLicRtUsþaTic ehIyeFIeV GayvaeTAb:HpÞaMgelah³dak;kñúgbMBg;
or, as in modern tubes, in a high vacuum. The
target is made from a heavy metal, usually ]sµn½ sMBaFTab kñgú bMBg; sm½yTMenIbmandak;sBu aØakaskMrwtx<s.; pÞaMg
tungsten, and is backed by a massive metal
anode to conduct the heat away. The electron elah³eFIVeLIg BIelah³F¶n;¬CaTUeTAeKeRbItg;Esþn¦ ehIymandak;RTab;Ga
beam is produced by heating the cathode by
means of a white-hot tungsten filament. A
NUdelah³xageRkayedIm,IcMlgkMedAecj. )ac;BnWøeGLicRtugekItmkBI
transformer supplies the high voltage, often kMedAkatUdedayeFIVeGaysréshVILam:g;tg; EsþneGayekþAs. Rtg;s½rV ma:T½r
100kV, the tube acting as its own rectifier. On
the half-cycles when the target is negative pþlt; g;süúgRbmaNCa 100KV bMBg;edIrtYrCaGñkEktMrUvedayxønÜ Ég. eBl
nothing happens. When the target becomes
positive, the electrons bombarding it generate )anknøHC¿u pÞagM GviC¢manKµanGIVekIteLIgeT. eBlpÞaMgkøayeTACaviCm¢ anvij
X-rays.
eGLicRtugmkb:HvaehIyekItCakaMrsIµGiuc.
Y

Yagi aerial
A directional aerial array widely used for
Gg;Etnya:hIÁ
television and *radio telescopes. It consists of
one or two dipoles, a parallel reflector, and a
Gg;EtnmanTisedAdalRKb;kEnøgeRbIsMrab;cab;sBIu aØal;TUr TsSn_ nig viTüú.
series of closely spaced directors in front of the Gg;EtnenHmanDIb:lU mYy b¤ BIr erpéøcT½r mYytCaExëg nig DIricT½rtCaes‘rI
dipole. When used for reception this
arrangement focuses the incoming signal on the ya:gekokxagmuxDIb:Ul. eKeFIVrebobenHedIm,Icab;yksIuBaØal;clU BIDIb:Ul.
dipole.
Yard
The former Imperial standard unit of length. In
ya:d
1963 the yard was redefined as 0.9144 metre
exactly.
xñatRbEvgsþgd; aGg;eKøBIGtItkal. kñgú qña!M (^# ya:tesIµ nwg0>(!$$Em:t.
Year
The measure of time on which the calendar is
qñaM
based. It is the time taken for the earth to
complete one orbit of the sun. The calendar
rgVas;eBledayEp¥kelIRbRktiTin. vaCary³eBlEdlEpndI
year consists of an average of 365.25 mean vilC¿uvijRBHGaTitü)anmYyC¿.u qñaMRbRktiTinmanCamFüm
solar days – three successive years of 365 days
followed by one (leap) year of 366 days. 365.25éf¶RBHGaTitümFüm ¬qñaMbIbnÞab;manBIqñaM#^%éf¶ nig

mYyqñaeM Rkayman#^^éf¶¦.
Yield point
See *elasticity.
cMnucEyl
emIl elasticity
Young’ slits
See interference
sIøtyaMug
emIl interference
Z
 256

Zeeman effect
The splitting of the lines in a spectrum when the
plhSIúma:n
source of the spectrum is exposed to a magnetic
field. In the normal Zeeman effect a single line
sréss,iúcEbkCacMerokeBlEdlRbPBs,icú b:HCamYyEdn ma:ejTic.
is split into three if the field is perpendicular to CaFmµtaplhSImú a:nbMEbksréss,icú mYysrés
the light path or two lines if the field is parallel
to the light path. This effect can be explained eTACabIsrésebIEdnEkgeTAnwgKnøgBnWø b¤ EbkeTACaBIrsr
by classical electromagnetic principles in terms
of the speeding up and slowing down of orbital ésebIEdnRsbeTAnwgKnøgBnW.ø RTwsþeI nHGacBnül;edayeRbI
electrons in the source as a result of the applied
field. The anomalous Zeeman effect is a
eKalkarN_eGLicRtUma:ejTickøasiuc edaybegIánel,Ón nig
complicated splitting of the lines into several bnÜyG½rb‘tÍ eGLicRtugkñgú RbPBedayGnuvtþEdn. plhSIú
closely spaced lines, so called because it does
not agree with classical predictions. This effect ma:nTMenIbbMEbksréss,iúcmYyeTACaeRcInsrésCab;²Kña
is explained by quantum mechanics in terms of
electron spin. dUecñHvaxusBIkarTayrbs;kaø siuc. plenHBnül;edayemka nickgTic
edayeRbIsIn< eGLicRtug.
Zener diode
A type of semiconductor diode, consisting of a
düÚthSin½r
p-n junction with high doping concentrations on
either side of the junction. It acts as a rectifier
RbePTdüÚtsWmkI gu DucT½rm:üagEdlmanfñaMgp-nRtYtelIKañ bM
until the applied reverse voltage reaches a putelIEpñkTaMgsgxagfñaMg. vaedIrtYrCaGñkEktMrvU rhUtdl;
certain value, the Zener breakdown voltage,
when the device becomes conducting. This tg;süúgRcaseTAdl;tMélkMnt;mYyvak¾pþac;tg;süúg eBl
effect occurs as a result of electrons being
excited directly from the valence band into the ]bkrN_køayCacMlgGKIÁsnI. plenHekIteLIgedaysar
conduction band (see *energy bands). Zener
diodes are used in voltage-limiting circuits.
eGLicRtugelatBIsm<½nv§ a:Lg;clU eTAsm<½n§cMlg(emIl energy bands).
düÚthSinr½ RtUv)aneKykeTAeRbIkúñgesoKIV Edlmantg;süúgkMnt;.
Zenith
The point on the *celestial sphere that lies
hSinIT
directly above an observer. Compare *nadir. cMnucelIEsV‘esLiesÛìlEdlmanTisxagelIGkë segÝt. eRbobeFob nadir.
Zero-point energy
The energy remaining in a substance at the
famBlcMnucsUnü
*absolute zero of temperature (0K). This is in
accordance with quantum theory, in which a
famBlpÞkú kñúgsarFatuenAsItuNðPaBsUnüdac;xat(0K). tamRTwsþIkgTic
particle oscillating with simple harmonic pg;manlMeyalGam:UnicFmµtaminmanPaB nwgénfamBlsIeu nTicsUnüeT.
motion does not have a stationary state of zero
kinetic energy. Moreover, the *uncertainty m:üagvíjeTot eKalkarN_
principle does not allow such a particle to be at
rest at exactly the centre-point of its el¥ógminGaceGaypg;enHenAes¶ómRtg;cMnucpí©tlMeyal rbs;vaeT.
oscillations.
Zone refining
A technique used to reduce the level of
hSÚnrIhVajnIg
impurities in certain metals, alloys,
semiconductors, and other materials. It is based
viFIEdleKeRbIsMrab;bnßykMrwténPaBminsuT§kgñú elah³ sM elah³
on the observation that the solubility of an sWmIkugDucT½r nig rUbFatud¾éTeTot. vaEp¥kelIkar EdleKsegáteXIjfa
impurity may be different in the liquid and solid
phases of a material. PaBEdlGacrlayrbs;FatuminsuT§ GacxusKñakñúgsNßanGgÁFaturav nig
GgÁFaturwgrbs;rbU Fatu.
Zoom lens
See telephoto lens.
Lg;TIh‘SÚm
emIl telephoto lens