Chapter 7 Quantum Theory I

CMBUkTI7
RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgTMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUm
Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms
rlkBnøW pUtug nigRTwsþI Bohr (Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory)
kñúgCMBUkTI2 eyIg)anBinitüemIlGMBITMrg;mUldæanénGatUm. eTaHbICaya:gNa edIm,Iyl;
BIkarkekItsm<½n§KImI eyIgRtUvdwgGMBITMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUm. RTwsþITMrg;eGLicRtUnicén
GatUm)ancab;epþImCamYykarBnül;BIB’NBnøWEdl)anbegáIteLIgkñúg]sμ½nekþA nigGNþatePøIg.
munnwgeyIg GacBiPakSaGMBIcMNucenH eyIgRtUvBiB’NnaBIFmμCatiénBnøW.
B’NKYr[cab;GarmμN_énkaMRCYc KWGaRs½yeTAnwgcMehHénmsmasFatuelah³. Rsþg;cUm
nIRtat kabUNat b¤s‘ulpat[B’NRkhcas; )arüÚmnIRtat b¤kørY[B’Nébtg nigTg;EdgnIRtat
b¤s‘ulpat[B’Nexovébtg.
KImIviTU)ancab;epþImsikSaB’NGNþatePøIgkñúgstvtSTI18 nigbnÞab;mk)aneRbIGNþatePøIg
edIm,IeFVIkarsakl,g ¬etsþ¦ eTAelIPaBxusKñarvagsmasFatusUdüÚm nigb:UtasüÚm. kareFIV
etsþGNþatePøIgmanPaBgayRsYledIm,IkMNt;GtþsBaØaNrbs;Fatu .
enAeBlsmasFatuelah³eqHkñúgGNþatePøIg vabeBa©jBnøWEcgcaMg (rUb 1 ).
rUb 1 etsþGNþatePøIgénFatuRkum IA nig IIA. BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ GNþatePøIgrbs;lIcUmB’NRkham

sUdüÚmB’NelOg Rsþg;cUmB’NRkhm nigkal;süÚmB’NTwkRkUc.
7-1
eTaHbICaGNþatePøIgB’NRkhménlIcUm nigRsþg;cUmelceLIgRsedogKña BnøWnImYy²

GacEjkBIPaBxusKña)antammeFüa)ayRBIs (prism). enHCadMeNaHRsaygayénFatuBIr
xusKña¬rUb2¦.
rUb 2 karbeBa©js,úicbnÞat;énFatumYycMnYn. bnÞat;TaMgenHRtUvKñaeTAnwgBnøWemIleXIjEdl beBa©j

edayGatUm. CMhanrlkénbnÞat;TaMgenHKWKitCaNaNUEm:Rt .
1 lkçN³rlkBnøW (The wave nature of light)

RbsinebIeyIgTMlak;dMufμmYydMueTAkñúgRtBaMgmYys¶at; ¬Kμanrlk¦ \T§iBlénfμCamYyTwk
cab;epþImeFVIclnaeLIgcuHelIépÞTwk ¬manrlk¦. clnaeLIgcuHenHpøas;TIecjBIkEnøgEdl
7-2
CMBUkTI7
fμFøak;. enHCa]TahrN_RsedogKñamYyénrlk. rlk Cakarpøas;bþÚrdEdl²Cabnþ b¤lMeyal

kñúgrUbFatu b¤kñúgEdnrUb. BnøWk¾dUcCarlkEdr vamanlMeyalkñúgEdnGKÁIsnI nigm:aej:Tic
Edlpøas;TItamlMh. BnøWemIleXIj kaMrsμI X nigrlkviTüú CaRbePTkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic1.
eyIgsMKal;rlkmYyedayCMhanrlk nigeRhVkg;rbs;va. CMhanrlksMKal;edayGkSr
λ (LaMda) CacMgayrvagcMnucdUcKñaebHbiTBIrEdlCab;Kñaénrlk. dUecñHCMhanrlk CacMgay
rvagBic (peak) BIrEdlenACab;Kñaénrlk ¬rUb 3¦. rlkviTüúmanCMhanrlkRbEhlBI 100mm

eTA 200-300m. BnøWemIleXIjmanCMhanrlkxøICagRbEhl 10 m. CMhanrlk -6
énBnøWemIleXIjEtgEtKitCaNaNUEm:Rt (1nm = 10 m). ]TahrN_ BnøWén CMhanrlk 5,55

-9
x 10 m (555nm) CaBnøWelOg-ébtg EdlEPñkmnusSqab;emIleXIjbMput.

-7
eRhVkg;rlk CacMnYnCMhanrlkEdlpøas;TIqøgkat;cMNucCak;lak;mYykñúgmYyÉktaén
ry³eBl (CaTUeTAmYYyvinaTI). ]TahrN_ Gñke)aHyufáaenAkñúgTuktUcmYyelIRtBaMg enAeBldMufμ
RtUv)anTMlak;eTAkñúgTwk. rlkpøas;TIecjBIcMnucenH ehIyqøgkat;TUkrbs;Gñk. cMnYnCMhan
rlkEdlpøas;TIqøgkat;GñkkñúgmYyvinaTI CaeRhVkg;énrlkenaH.
rUb 3>rlkTwk ¬rlkGgáaj;²¦. CMhanrlk ¬ λ ¦ CacMgayrvagBicBIr (two peaks)

eRhVkkg; tagedayGkSrRkic ν (nuy). xñaténeRhVkg;KW /s b¤ s ehIyehAfa EG‘k
-1
(Hz) pgEdr.
CMhan nigeRhVkg;rlkmanTMnak;TMngCamYyKñaeTAvijeTAmk. CaTUeTAcMeBaHrlkén

eRhVkg; ν nigCMhanrlk λ manCMhanrlkesμInwg ν EdlCMhanrlknimYy² esμInwg λ Edlpøas;
TIqøgkat;cMnucCak;lak;mYyral;vinaTI. plKuN νλ CaRbEvgrlksrubEdl)anqøgkat;cMnucenaH
kñúgmYyvinaTI. RbEvgrlkkñúgmYyvinaTIenH Cael,Ónrlk c . dUecñH c = νλ
1
rsμIμeGLicRtUma:ejTic ³ sNæanclnarlkEdlmanEdnGKÁisnIqaø s;nigEdnma:ejTicEdlrt;kñúgel,Ón
elOnx<s;bMput (3 X 10 m/s).
8
7-3
el,ÓnrlkBnøWGaRs½yeTAnwgmCÄdæanEdlvaqøgkat;. kñúgsuBaaØkasel,Ón KW 3,00 x 10 8
m/s ehIyel,Ónkñúgxül;KWmantMéltUcCagenHbnþicEtb:ueNÑaH. cMeBaHkarKNnaenAkñúgEpñkenH
eyIgnwgsnμtfaBnøWpøas;TIkñúgsuBaaØkas.
]TahrN_ 1³ karKNnaCMhanrlkénBnøWBIeRhVkg;rbs;va
etICMhanrlkbeBa©jedaysUdüÚmB’NelOg EdlmaneRhVkg; 5,09 x 10 /s esμInwgb:unμan?
14
cMelIy³ eRhVkg; nigCMhanrlkKWTak;TgeTAnwgrUbmnþ c = νλ . eyIgGacteRmob

rUbmnþenHeLIgvij eyIg)an³ λ = υc Edl c Cael,ÓnBnøW (3,00 x 10 m/s) . 8
3,00 x 10 8 m/s
CMnYstMélva eyIg)an³ λ=
5,09 x 1014/s
b¤ 589 nm
= 5,89 x 10-7m
lMhat; 7>1³ eRhVkg;énbnÞat;RkhmCaMkñúgs,úicénb:UtasüÚmKW 3,91 x 10 /s . etICMhanrlkén

14
BnøWenHesμInwgb:unμan (KitCaNaNUEm:Rt) ?
]TahrN_ 2³ karKNnaeRhVkg;BnøWBI;CMhanrlkrbs;va
etIeRhVkg;BnøWB’NsVayEdlmanCMhanrlk 408nm esμInwgb:unμan ?
cMelIy³ eyIgGacteRmobsmIkareLIgvij EdlTak;TgeTAnwgeRhVkg; nigCMhanrlk eyIg)an³
c
ν=
λ
CMnYs λ = 408nm = 408 x 10 m eyIg)an³
-9
3,00 x 10 8 m/s
ν= -9
= 7,35 x 1014/s
408 x 10 m
lMhat; 2³ FatuessüÚm)anrkeXIjkñúgqñaM1860 edayelak Robert Bunsen nig Gustav
Kirchhoff . Kat;)anrkeXIjBnøWbnÞat;exovBIr kñúgs,úicénsarFatuEdl)anEjkecjBI
TwkxniC. s,úicmYykñúgcMeNams,úicbnÞat;TaMgenHénessüÚmmanCMhanrlk 456nm .

etIeRhVkg;rbs;vaesμInwgb:unμan?
karteRmobéneRhVkg; b¤CMhanrlkénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:TicehAfa s,úiceGLicRtU

m:aej:Tic EdlbgðajkñúgrUb 4. BnøWGacemIleXIjlatsn§wgBIcugB’NsVayéns,úicEdlman
CMhanrlkRbEhl 400nm eTA cugB’NRkhméns,úicEdlmanCMhanrlkticCag 800nm.
kaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:TicEdlmanCMhanrlkFMCagenH minGacemIleXIjedayEPñkmnusSeT.
kaMrsμIGaMgRhVaRkhm (Infrared) manCMhanrlkFMCag 800nm (FMCagCMhanrlkénBnøW
7-4
CMBUkTI7
B’NRkhm) nigkaMrsμIG‘ulRtasVay (Ultraviolet) manCMhanrlkticCag 400nm
(ticCagCMhanrlkénBnøWB’NsVay) .
rUb 4 s,úiceGLicRtUm:aej:Tic.karEckrvagtMbn;Edlmin)ankMNt;c,as;las;.
2 plkg;Tic nigpUtug ( Quantum Effects and Photons)
elak Isaac Newton )ansikSaBIlkçN³BnøWkñúgstvtSTI17. Kat;eCOfaBnøWpSMeLIg
BI)ac;PaKl¥it. eTaHbIya:gNa kñúgqñaM1801 rUbviTUCnCatiGg;eKøs elak Thomas
Young )anbgðajfa Bnøwk¾dUcCarlkEdr vaGaccaMgpøatBnøW. karcaMgpøatBnøW CalkçN³rlk
EdlkñúgenaHrlkrIkraldalenAeBleKb:HCamYyvtßú b¤RbehagtUcRbEhlTMhMénCMhanrlk.
GñkGacGegátkarcaMgpøaténBnøwedaykaremIlRbPBBnøWtamRbehagmYy. ]TahrN_ karemIl
ePøIgcracrN_tamRkLavaMgnn. rUbPaBénePøIgcracrN_RtUveFIVeGayRBiledaycMNaMgpøaténBnøW.
enAedImstvtSTI20enH RTwsþIrlkBnøWmanlkçN³l¥RbesIr. b:uEnþkñúgqñaM1905
rUbviTUGaLWm:g;elak Albert Einstein (1879-1955) )aneTArs;enAshrdæGaemrikkñúgqñaM1933
Kat;GacBnül;BI)atuPUt\T§iBlpUtUeGLicRTicedayesñIfa BnøWmanTaMglkçN³rlk nigPaKl¥it.
elak Einstein sMGagTsSn³enHeTAelIkic©karrbs;rUbviTUGaLWm:g;elak Max Planck (1858-
1947) .
kg;TickmμfamBlrbs;bøg; ( Planck's Quantization of Energy)

kñúgqñaM1900 elak Planck )anrkeXIjrUbmnþRTwsþIEdlBiBNnaya:gCak;lak;BI
2
GaMgtg;sIuetBnøWEdlmaneRhVkg;xus²Kña EdlbeBa©jedayGgÁFaturwgekþAenAsItuNðPaBxus²Kña.
fμI²enHkarrk eXIjepSg² eTottamry³BiesaFnbgðajfa GaMgtg;sIuetBnøWGtibrimaBIGgÁFaturwg
1 elak Planck KWCasa®sþacarürUbviTüaénsaklviTüal½y Berlin enAeBlEdlKat;eFIVkarRsavRCavenH.

Kat;TTYl)anBanrgVan; Nobel kñúgEpñkrUbviEpñkrUbviTüa kñúgqñaM 1918.
7-5
ekþAERbRbYlCak;lak;CamYysItuNðPaB. GgÁFatrwgbeBa©jBnøWRkhmenAsItuNðPaB 750 C o
bnÞab;eTACaBnøWB’NsenAsItuNðPaB 1200 C. enAsItuNðPaBTabCagenH vabeBa©jBnøWRkhm.

o
enAeBlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg BnøWB’NelOg nigBnøWB’NexovEdllayCamYyBnøWB’NRkhm

[CaBnøWB’Ns .
Ep¥ktamelak Planck GatUmGgÁFaturwgeyal b¤j½rmaneRhVkg;kMNt; ν.
lMj½rGatUmGacmanfamBlCak;lak;EtmYyKt; E Edl
E = nhν Edl n = 1, 2, 3,... nig h Ca efr Planck \LÚvehAfa emKuN Planck
= 6,63 x 10 J.s. tMélén n RtUvEt 1 b¤ 2 b¤epSgeTotCacMnYnKt;.

-34
dUecñHfamBlEtmYyKt;EdlGatUmj½rGacmanKW hν, 2hν, 3hν .l. cMnYntageday n

ehAfacMnYnkg;Tic. famBlj½rénGatUmRtUv)aneKehAfa CafamBlkg;Tickmμ. mann½yfa
CafamBlkMNt;sMrab;tMélCak;lak;mYy.
kg;TickmμfamBlhak;dUcCapÞúyeTAnwgkarBiesaFRbcaMéf¶. ]TahrN_ kg;Tickmμénclna
rfynþmann½yfa el,ÓnCak;lak;EtmYyKt;Gacman. rfynþGaceFVIclna enA 10, 20 b¤ 30
m:aykñúgmYyem:ag (mi/h) b:uEnþminEmnenA 12 b¤ 25 mi/h b¤enAel,ÓnmFümepSgeToteT.
cMeBaHfamBlrfynþ enHTMngCaminsmehtupl. b:uEnþcMeBaHGatUm kg;TickmμKWCac,ab;.
plpUtUeGLicRTic (Photoelectric effect)
elak Einstein )anpþl;ehtuplfa ebIGatUmj½reFVI[ERbRbYlfamBlfa ]TahrN_ BI
3
3hν eTA 2hν vaRtUvEtbnßyfamBl hν dg nigfamBlenHRtUvEt)anbeBa©jmYyEpñktUc (b¤
kg;Tic) énfamBlBnøW. dUecñH Kat;esñIfa BnøWpSMeLIgBIkg;ta (\LÚvenHehAfa pUtug) b¤

PaKl¥iténfamBleGLicRtUm:aej:Tic EdlfamBl E smamaRteTAnwgeRhVkg;BnøWenaH³
E = hv
3
elak Albert Einstien TTYl)an Ph.D kñúgqña1M 905. kñúgqñaMenHEdr Kat;)ane)aHBumÖÉksarRsavRCav
sþIBIkarbMEbkPaBedImcMnYnR)aM³ ÉksarmYysþIGMBI\T§iBlpUtUeGLicRTic ¬EdlTak;TgeTAnwgkar)anTTYlBanrgVan;
BiPBelakEpñkrUbviTüakñúgqñaM1921¦ ÉksarmYyeTotelIcMNuHkMedAénGgÁFaturwg ¬eRbIkg;TickmμedIm,IBnül; faetI
ehtuGVIcMNuHkMedAmantMélsUnüenAsUnüdac;xat¦. ÉksarBIreTotelITMnak;TMnges<or nigÉksarmYyeTotelI clna
Brownian ¬EdlnaMeTABiesaFnEdl)aneFIVetsþBIRTwsþIm:UelKul-sIuenTic nig)anbBa©b;karmnÞilEdlenAsl;én
GtßiPaBénGatUm nigm:UelKul¦.
7-6
CMBUkTI7
kñúgqñaM1905 elak Einstein )aneRbIbBaØtiþpUtugedIm,IBnül;BIplpUtUeGLicRTic. plpUtU

eGLicRTic CakarbeBa©jeGLicRtugBIépÞelah³ b¤BIrUbFatuepSgeTot kalNaBnøWcaMgb:Hva
(emIlrUb 5). eTaHbIya:gNa eGLicRtugbeBa©j enAeBleRhVkg;BnøWx<s;CagtMélkMNt;
lkçN³énelah³enaHEtb:ueNaÑH. ]TahrN_ eTaHbIBnøWB’NsVay nwgbNþaleGayelah³

b:UtasüÚmbeBa©jeGLicRtug EtBnøWB’NRkhmbrimaNb:unμan (Edlman eRhVkg;TabCag)
k¾minmanplGIVeTAelIelah³b:UtasüÚmeT .
edIm,IBnül;BIPaBTak;TgénplpUtUeGLicRTicelIeRhVkg; elak Einstein )ansnμtfa
eGLicRtugmYypþac;ecjBIelah³kalNavab:HCamYypUtugmYy. dUecñH pUtugenHRtUvEtman
famBlRKb;RKan;edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugBIkMlaMgTMnajénelah³. minfamanpUtugb:unμanb:HeTA
elIelah³enaHeT RbsinebIKμanpUtugNamYymanfamBl)ankar ¬RKb;RKan;¦ enaHeGLicRtug
minGacpþac;)aneT. pUtugBnøWB’NRkhmmYy manfamBlminRKb;RKan;edIm,IykeGLicRtugecj
BIb:UtasüÚm. b:uEnþ pUtugEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgeRhVkg;x<s;bMputmanfamBlRKb;RKan; nigenAeRhVkg;
x<s;Cag vamanfamBlelIsBIRKb;RKan;. kalNapUtugb:Hnwgelah³famBlrbs;va hνRtUvRsUb
ykedayeGLicRtug. pUtugsßitenACaPaKl¥itgayrgsMrUb.
rUb 5 plpUtUeGLicRTic. BnøWcaMgb:HelIépÞelah³Edlpþac;eGLicRtug. épÞelah³KW)andak;

kñúgbMBg;beBa©jEdlGnuBaaØtþ[eGLicRtugxÞatecjya:grh½skøayeTACabnÞ³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC¢man. enA
eBleRhVkg;RKb;RKan;b:HeTAelIelah³ eGLicRtugesrIRtUv)anbegáIteLIg nigcrnþqøgkat;tambMBg;.
¬crnþenHRtUv)anvas;eday]bkrN_GMEBEm:Rt¦. enAeBlBnøWbiT crnþQb;hUr.
7-7
rUbPaBrlk nigPaKl¥iténBnøWRtUv)ancat;TukCaTidæPaBbEnßménlkçN³rUbdUcKña.
enHehAfaeTVPaBrlk-PaKl¥iténBnøw. smIkar E = hv bgðajBIlkçN³enH Edl E
KWCafamBlénPaKl¥itBnøW b¤pUtug nig v KWCae®hVkg;énrlkEdlRtUvKñaenaH. minGacEt
rlkmYy b¤EtPaKl¥itmYyKWCakarBN’naeBjeljénBnøW luHRtaEtTaMgBIr.
]TahrN_ 3³ karKNnafamBlpUtug
bnÞat;s,úicRkhménlIcUmekIteLIgenA 671nm (6,71 x 10 m) . KNnafamBlpUtug
-7
mYyénBnøWenH ?
cMelIy³ eRhVkg;BnøWenHKW³
c3,00 x10 8 m / s
v= = = 4,47 x 1014/s
λ 6,71x10 m−7
dUecñH famBlpUtugmYyKW³
E = hν = 6.63 x 10-34J.s x 4.47 x 1014/s = 2.96 x 10-19 J
lMhat; 3³ xageRkamenH tagCMhanrlkkñúgtMbn; GaMgRhVaRkhm sVayG‘ulRta nigkaMrsμI X
éns,úiceGLicRtUm:aej:TicerogKñaKW 1,00 x 10 m, 1,00 x 10 m nig 1,00 x 10 m.
-6 -8 -10
KNnafamBlpUtugmYyrbs;kaMrsμInImYy²? etIkaMrsμINamYyEdlmanbrimaNfamBlkñúg
mYypUtugFMCageK nigtUcCageK ?
3 RTwsþI Bohr énGatUmGIuRdUEsn (The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom)

tamKMrUnuyekøEG‘rrbs; Rutherford (Epñk 2>2) GatUmmanéNVy:UEdlmanm:asPaKeRcIn
énGatUm nigbnÞúkviC¢manEdlmaneGLicRtugRKb;RKan;vilCMuvijbnÞúkviC¢manTaMgenaHedIm,IbegáIt
GatUmNWt. b:uEnþKMrUenH)andak;eGayeRbIR)as; nigecaTCabBaðakñúgqñaM1911. kareRbIR)as;
RTwsþIcrnþenaH eKGacbgðajfaPaKl¥itEdlmanbnÞúkGKÁIsnI (dUcCaeGLicRtug) EdlvilCMuvij
mNÐl ¬éNVy:U¦ RtUvEt)at;bg;famBlEdlCakaMrsμIeGLicRtUma:ej:Tic. enAeBlEdl
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUm)at;bg;famBl vaRtUvEtmanclnaCaes<oreTAkñúgéNVy:U (RbEhl 10 s -10
tamRTWsþIenAeBlenaH) . sßirPaBénGatUmenAeBlenaHminGacBnül;)aneLIy .
dMeNaHRsaycMeBaHbBaðaRTwsþIenH)anrkeXIjenAqñaM1913 edayelak Niels Bohr
(1885-1962) rUbviTUCnCati Danish EdlenAeBlenaH Kat;)aneFVIkarCamYyelak Rutherford
(emIlrUb 6). edayEp¥keTAelIkargarrbs; Planck nig Einstein elak Bohr )anykeTA
7-8
CMBUkTI7
GnuvtþedIm,IbegáItRTwsþIfμIeTAelIGatUmgay GIuRdUEsn . munnwgemIlRTwsþI Bohr
eyIgRtUvBinitüemIlbnÞat;s,úicénGatUm.
rUb 6 Niels Bohr . elak
(1885-1962)
Bohr )anGPivDÆn¾RTwsþIkg;TicénGatUmGIuRdUEsnrbs;
Kat;. Kat;eRbITsSn³enHedIm,IBnül;lkçN³xYbén
Fatu. bnÞab;mk enAeBlemkanickg;TicfμIRtUv)an
rkeXIj eday Schrödinger nig Heisenberg elak
Bohr )ancMNayeBlKat;y:ageRcInedIm,IeFVIkarGPivDÆ
mUldæanTsSn³viC¢arbs;Kat;. Kat;)anTTYlBan
rgVan;BiPBelakEpñkrUbviTüaenAqñaM 1922.
s,úicbnÞat;GatUm (Atomic Line Spectra)
dUc)anBiBN’naenAEpñkmun GgÁFaturwgekþAbeBa©jBnøW. srésrtg;EsþnekþAenAkñúgGMBUl
ePøIgCa]TahrN_mYy. eyIgGacBRgIkBnøWecjBIGMBUledayeRbIRBIs edIm,ITTYl)an s,úicCab;
mann½yfa CaBnøWEdlmans,úicRKb;CMhanrlkdUcCa\n§FnU (emIlrUb 7) . eTaHbIya:gNa
BnøW)anbeBa©jedaykMedA]sμ½npþl;plxus²Kña vamanRKb;B’Nén\n§ÚEdlCa s,úicbnÞat; Edl
bgðajB’NBitR)akd b¤CMhanrlkBiessénBnøWEtb:eNÑaH. enAeBlBnøWecjBIbMBg;beBa©j]sμ½n
GIuRdUEsn (EdlkarbBa©úHkMlaMgGKÁIsnIenH)ankMedA]sμ½nGIuRdUEsn) RtUv)anEjkecjeTAkñúgPaK
pSMrbs;vatamry³RBIs vabegáItCas,úicbnÞat;mYyEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgBnøWénCMhanrlkenaH. BnøW
enAkñúgbMBg;enaH RtUv)anbeBa©jedayGatUmGIuRdUEsn. rUb 2 bgðajs,úicbnÞat;énGatUm
GIuRdUEsn Cas,úicbnÞat; dUcCaGatUmdéTeTotEdr.
s,úicbnÞat;énGatUmGIuRdUEsnmanlkçN³samBaØbMput. kñúgtMbn;emIleXIj vaman
bnÞat;EtbYnKt; (Rkhm exov-ébtg exov nigsVay) eTaHbICakarelceLIgepSgeTotkñúg
tMbn;GaMgRhVaRkhm nig G‘ulRtasVay. kñúgqñaM1885 elak Balmer )anbgðajfa CMhanrlk
λ kñúgs,úicemIleXIjénGIuRdUEsn GacRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaysmIkargay³
1 1 1
λ
= 7
1,097 x 10 /m ( -
2 n
)2 2
Edl n mYycMnYnCacMnYnKt; (elxKt;) FMCag 2 . edaykarCMnYs n = 3 Ca]TahrN_ nig

karKNna
7-9
1
λ
nigbnÞab;mk λ krNImYyrkeXIj λ = 6,56 x 10 m b¤ 656nm CaCMhanrlkEdl
-7
RtUvKñaeTAnwgBnøWB’NRkhm. CMhanrlkénbnÞat;epSgeTotkñúgs,úicemIleXIjénGatUm
GIuRdUEsn KW)anmkedaykarCMnYsCabnþbnÞab; n = 4, n = 5 nig n = 6 .
RTwsþI Bohr (Bohr's Postulates)
elak Bohr dak;ecjnUvRTwsþIedIm,IBnül; (1) sßirPaBénGatUmGIuRdUEsn (EdlGatUmman
nigeGLicRtugrbs;vaminGacbnþkarbeBa©jfamBl nigminmanclnaes<óreTAkñúgéNVy:U) nig (2)
bnÞat;s,úicénGatUm.
k> RTwsþIkMritfamBl (Energy Level Postulate)
eGLicRtugGacmantMélfamBlCak;lak;EtmYyKt;kñúgGatUmEdlehAfa kMritfamBl
rbs;va . dUecñH GatUmxøÜnÉgGacmantMélfamBlsrubCak;lak;EtmYyKt;.
elak Bohr )aneRbITsSn³kg;TickmμénfamBlrbs;elak Planck. eTaHbIy:agNa
k¾edayelak Bohr )anbegáItc,ab;mYyeLIgsMrab;kg;TickmμenHEdlGacRtUv)anGnuvtþeTAelI
clnaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUm. tamry³c,ab;enH Kat;begáItrUbmnþdUcxageRkamsMrab;kMritfamBl
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsn.
(sMrab;GatUmGIuRdUEsn)
R
E= H
2
n = 1, 2, 3, ... ∞
n
Edl R Caefr (KitCaxñatfamBl) mantMél 2,180x10 J. tMélfamBleGLicRtug
H
-18
xus²KñaEdlGacmanKW)anmkedaykarCMnYstMélxus²Kñarbs; n EdlGacmantMélEtCacMnYn
Kt;KW 1, 2, 3.l. ¬rhUtdl; ∞ ¦. n KWehAfa cMnYnkg;Ticem. rUb 8 bgðajBIkMritfamBl
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsn.
x>PaBqøgrvagkMritfamBl (transitions between energy levels)
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGacpøas;bþÚrkMritfamBledaykarqøgBIkMritfamBlmYyeTAkMrit
famBlmYyepSgeTotb:ueNÑH. tamry³kareFVIdUecñH eGLicRtugrgnUvPaBqøg.
eyIgBnül;karbeBa©jBnøWedayGatUmedIm,IbegáItCabnÞat;s,úicdUcteTA³ eGLicRtugenA
kMritfamBlx<s;Cag (kMritfamBledIm E ) rgnUvPaBqøgeTAkMritfamBlTabCag (kMritfamBl
i
bBa©b; E ) emIlrUb 8. kñúglMnaMenH eGLicRtug)at;bg;famBlEdl)anbeBa©jCapUtug.

f
müa:geTot famBlbBa©b;éneGLicRtugbUkfamBlpUtugesμInwgfamBledIméneGLicRtug (tam

c,ab;rkSafamBl)³ E − hυ = E
f i
7-10
CMBUkTI7
edaytMerobeLIgvij eyIg)an³
famBlpUtugEdl)anbeBa©j = hυ = E i − E f
rUb 7 karray)a:yénBnøWB’NsedayRBIs. BnøWB’NscUleTAEpñkxageqVgb:HCamYyRBIs EdlbnSay

BnøWeTACa s,úicCab;énCMhanrlk.
rUb8 düaRkamkMritfamBlsMrab;eGLicRtugkñúg GatUm

GIuRdUEsn. famBl)anBRgayelI G½kSQr ¬kñúgpl
KuNRbPaKén R ¦. RBYjtMNag[eGLicRtug
H
kñúgPaBqøg (BiPakSakñúgRTwsþI 2) BIkMrit n = 4

eTAkMrit n = 2 . BnøWénCMhanrlk486nm(exov-
ébtg)KW)anbeBa©j. ¬emIl]TahrN_ 4 sMrab;
karKNnaén CMhanrlkenH ¦.
enAkñúgRTwsþIenH elak Bohr )aneRbIbBaØtþipUtugrbs;elak Einstein edIm,IBnül;BI

s,úicBnøWénGatUm. edaykarCMnYstMélkMritfamBlrbs;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsneTAkñúg
7-11
smIkarxagelI Kat; GacbegáItrUbmnþ Balmer eLIgvij)anya:gCak;lak;. elIsBIenHeTAeTot

Kat;GacTsSn_Tay RKb;bnÞat;enAkñúgs,úicénGatUmGIuRdUEsnrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgbnÞat;s,úicenAkñúgtMbn;
GaMgRhVaRkhm nigG‘ulRtasVay.
edIm,IbgðajfaetIelak Bohr begáItrUbmnþ Balmer y:agdUemþc? cUrsresr n i
sMrab;kg;TiceménkMritfamBledIm nig n sMrab;kg;TiceménkMritfamBlbBa©b;.

f
BI RTwsþI 1 eyIg)an³
E =-
i
R
n
nig
H
2
E =-
R
n
f
H
2
i f
eygC
I MnYstMélTaMgenHeTAkñúgsmIkarmun EdlEcgfafamBlpUtugEdl)anbeBa©j hυ
esμI E - E
i f
RH
hυ = Ei - E f = ( ) - ( RH2 )
ni2 nf
rUb 9 PaBqøgéneGLicRtugkñúgGatUm
GIuRdUEsn. RdaRkambgðajesrI Lyman,
Balmer nig Paschen énPaBqøg
EdlekIteLIgsMrab; n esμI 1, 2 nig 3

f
erogKña .
1 1
Edl hυ = R H (
n 2
)-(
ni2
)
f
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
eday υ = λc eyIg)an³ λ1 = Rhc H ⎜ −
⎜ n2 n2 ⎟
edaykarCMnYs R H = 2,180 x 10-8 J ,
⎝ f i ⎠
h = 6,626 x 10-34Jxs nig c = 2,998 x 108m/s eyIg)an RH

hc
= 1,097 x 107m
7-12
CMBUkTI7
EdlCatMélefr)an[kñúgrUbmnþ Balmer. kñúgrUbmnþ Balmer cMnYnkg;Tic n KW 2 . mann½yfa

f
rUbmnþ Balmer [CMhanrlkEdlekIteLIgkalNaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnrgPaBqøg

BIkMritfamBl n > 2 eTAkMrit n = 2. ebICMnYs n edaycMnYnKt;epSgeTot
i f f
eyIg)anes‘rIepSg²KñaénbnÞat; (b¤CMhanrlk) sMrab;s,úicénGatUmGIuRdUEsn (emIlrUb 9) .

]TahrN_ 4³ karkMNt;CMhanrlkéneRhVkg; b¤eRhVkg;PaBqøgrbs;GatUmGIuRdUEsn
etICMhanrlkénBnøW)anbeBa©jkalNaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnrgPaBqøgBI
kMritfamBl n = 4 eTAkMritfamBl n =2 esμInwgb:unμan?
yuT§sa®sþ³ Gñkcab;epþImedateRbIrUbmnþsMrab;kMritfamBlénGatUmGIuRdUEsn E = - Rn H
2
nigTajrkbNþÚrfamBlPaBqøg. PaBxusKñaénfamBlenHesμInwgfamBlpUtugEdlGñkGac
KNnaeRhVkg; nigbnÞab;mkCMhanrlkénBnøWenaH. (eTaHbIeyIgGacedaHRsaylMhat;enH
edaykarCMnYstMéleTAkñúgsmIkarTaj)an λ1 k¾eday EtviFIsaRsþxageRkamenH
tRmUv[GñkcgcaMrUbmnþKnwø E = - Rn n = 1, 2, 3,… ∞ (sMrab;GatUmGIuRdUEsn).
H
2
cMelIy
BIrUbmnþsMrab;kMritfamBl eyIg)an³
iE =-
R
H
2
4
=-
RH
16
ni g E =-
f
R
2
=-H
2
R
4
H
eyIgdktMélTabBItMélx<s;edIm,ITTYllT§plviC¢man. (famBlpUtugKWviC¢man.
ebIlT§plrbs;GñkGviC¢man mann½yfa eyIg)anKNna E - E CaCag E - E .

f i i f
PaBgayRsYledayRKan;EtRtLb;sBaaØdkedIm,I)anlT§plviC¢man).
edaysarlT§plenHesμInwgfamBlpUtug GñkeFVIva[esμIeTA hυ .
⎛ − RH ⎞ ⎛ − RH ⎞ − 4 RH − 16 R H − RH + 4 RH 3RH
⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟= = = = hυ
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 64 16 16
eRhVkg;BnøWenaHKW³
3R H 3 2,180 x10 −18 J
υ= = x −34
= 6,17 x1014 / s
16h 16 6,63 x10 J .s
edayehtufa λ=
υ
c
3,00 x10 8 m / s
λ=
6,17 10 /
x 14
s
b¤
= 4,86 x10 −7 m 486m
CaB’Nexov-ébtg (emIlrUb 8) .
7-13
lMhat; 4³ KNnaCMhanrlkBnøWEdl)anbeBa©jGatUmGIuRdUEsn kalNaeGLicRtugrg

PaBqøgBIkMrit n = 3 eTAkMrit n =1 . ¬emIllMhat; 33/ 34/ 35/ nig 36¦
tamRTwsþI Bohr karbeBa©jBnøWBIGatUmekIteLIg kalNaeGLicRtugrgPaBqøgBI

kMritfamBlx<s;eTAkMritfamBlTabCag. edIm,IeFVI[karBnül;manlkçN³eBjelj eyIgRtUv
Bnül; faetIeGLicRtugcUleTAkMritx<s;CagmunkarbeBa©jBnøW. CaTUeTAeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdU
EsnmankñúgkMritTabbMputrbs;va b¤kMrit n = 1. edIm,IbBa©ÚleTAkMritfamBlx<s;Cag eGLicRtug
RtUvEtcMeNjfamBl b¤)anlMejac . viFImYyeTotGacekIteLIgKWeTAtamkarTgáicKñaénGatUm
GIuRdUEsnBIr. kñúgeBlTgÁicenH famBlsIuenTicénGatUmmYyGacRtUv)ancMeNjedaysar
eGLicRtugénGatUmdéTeTot EdlCaehtueFVIeGaymankarrujeLIg b¤karlMejaceGLicRtug
BIkMrit n = 1 eTAkMritfamBlx<s;Cag. PaBlMejacénGatUm nigkarbeBa©jBnøwTMenar
ekIteLIgkñúg]sμ½nekþA enAeBlGatUmmanfamBlsIuenTicFM.
RTwsþI Bohr minEmnRKan;EtBnül;BIkarbeBa©jBnøWEtb:ueNÑaHeT b:uEnþk¾Bnül;BIsMrUbBnøW
pgEdr. enAeBleGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnrgPaBqøgBI n = 3 eTA n = 2 pUtugBnøWB’N
RkhmRtUv)anbeBa©j (CMhanrlk 656nm). kalNaBnøWB’NRhmEdlmanCMhanrlk
656nm caMgBnøWeTAelIGatUmGIuRdUEsnkñúgkMrit n = 2 pUtugGacRtUv)anRsUb. ebIpUtug
RtUv)anRsUb famBlRtUv)ancMeNjedayeGLicRtugEdlrgPaBqøgenAkMrit n = 3 .
(enHKWCakarpÞúyeTAnwglMnaMbeBa©jBnøWEdleyIg)anBiPakSa). vtßúFatuEdlmanB’NdUcCa
RkNat;RClk;l½k nigCBaa¢MglabB’NcaMgB’NedaysarEtsMrUbBnøW. ]TahrN_ kalNa
BnøWB’Nsb:HeTAelIsarFatuEdlRsUbBnøWB’NRkhm enaHPaKpSMB’NminRsUbBnøW BnøWB’NelOg
nigB’NexovRtUvcaMgpøatmkvij. sarFatuenaHbgðajB’’Nexov-ébtg.
RTwsþI 1 nig 2 eRbIsMrab;GatUmEdlminEmnCaGatUmGIuRdUEsnpgEdr elIkElgkMrit
famBlminGacKNna)anedayrUbmnþgayen. eTaHbIya:gNak¾eday ebIGñksÁal;CMhan
rlkBnøWEdl)anbeBa©j GñkGacrk υ ehIybnÞab;mkeTot GñkGacrkPaBxusKñakñúgkMrit
famBlGatUm. kMritfamBlkMNt;)anedaykareFVIBiesaFtamviFIenH.
lMhat; 5³ etIPaBxusKñakñúgkMritfamBlénGatUmsUdüÚmesμInwgb:unμan ebIBnøWEdlbeBa©jenaH
manCMhanrlk 589nm ? emIl lMhat;TI 39, 40
7-14
CMBUkTI7
KImIGnuvtþ
BnøWLaEs‘r nigma:sIuncak;sIuDI (Lasers and Compact Disc Players)
LaEs‘rCaRbPBén)ac;BnøWm:UNURkUma:TicEdlPøWEcgcaMg. vaKWCaénr:g;EdlmanCMhanrlktUc
xøaMgNas;. rUb 10 bgðajBIkareRbIR)as;BnøWLaEs‘rkñúgKMeragRsavRCav. BaküLaEs‘renAkñúg
Bakükat;mann½yfakarBRgIk[FMénBnøWedaybegáInkarbeBa©jénkaMrsμI. manRbePTxusKñaeRcIn
énLaEs‘rEdl\LÚvenHman b:uEnþeKalkarN_TUeTAénLaEs‘rGacyl;)anedaykaremIlLaEs‘r
t,ÚgTTwm (Ruby) CaRbePTdMbUgEdl)anbegáIteLIgkñúgqñaM 1960 .
rUb 10 BnøWLaEs‘renAeBlbMElgeTACaBnøWB’Ns. BnøWLaEs‘rB’NRkhmbþÚreTACaB’Ns

bnÞab;mk)anray)a:yCamYyRBIsedIm,IbgðajB’N\nÞFnU.
t,ÚgTTwmCaGaluymIjÚmGuksIutEdlmankMhab;tUcénGIuy:ugRkUm III, Cr cUleTACMnYs
3+
GIuy:ugGaluymIjÚmmYycMnYn. PaBqøgeGLicRtugkñúgLaEs‘rt,ÚgTTwmKWCa Cr kñúg Al O rwg.

3+
2 3
düaRkamkMritfamBlén Cr kñúgt,ÚgTTwmKW)anbgðajkñúgrUb 11 . PaKeRcInén Cr

3+ 3+
KWdMbUgfitenAkñúgkMritfamBlTabbMput (kMrit 1). ebIGñkbBa©aMgBnøWmanCMhanrlk 545nm

elIRkamt,ÚgTTwmKWBnøWenaHRtUv)anRsUb nig Cr rgPaBqøgBIkMrit 1 eTAkMrit 3. GIuy:ugenH
3+
mYycMnYnkñúgkMrit 3 beBa©jRbUtug nigtLb;eTAkMrit 1 b:uEnþPaKeRcInénGIuy:ugTaMgenH rgPaBqøg

EdlKμankaMrsμIeTAkMrit 2 . kñúgPaBqøgTaMgenH GIuy:ug)at;bg;famBlEdlCakMedAeTAelIRkam
t,ÚgTTwmCaCagkarbeBa©jpUtug .
7-15
GIuy:ug Cr kñúgkMrit 2 mindUckMritTabbMputeT vaKμansßirPaB ehIyvanwgrgPaBqøgeTA

3+
kMrit 1 vij. dUecñH GñksgÇwmfa Cr kñúgkMrit 1 edIm,IrgPaBqøgeTAkMrit 1 edaykarbeBa©j

3+
pUtugedayÉkÉg (CMhanrlkénkarbeBa©jenHKW 694nm) .
rUb 11³ kMritfamBlénGIuy:ugRkUm III kñúgt,ÚgTTwm .

eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday karbeBa©jBnøWedayÉkÉgén Cr enHKWmanlkçN³yWt.
3+
ebIGñkbeBa©aMgBnøWciBaa©cenACMhanrlk 545nm dak;elIcgáWHt,ÚgTTwm enaHGIuy:ug Cr 3+
PaKeRcIn)anbBa©b;kñúgkMrit 2 sMrab;ry³eBlRbEhlCamYyPaKmIløIvinaTI (EdlCary³eBlEvg

eRbobeFobCamYyry³eBlGatUmlMejacEdlmanRbmaNCa10 s). RbePTlMejacEbbenHKW
-8
sMxan;Nas;edIm,IdMeNIrkarLaEs‘r. ebIGIuy:uglMejacTaMgenHGacbeBa©jBnøWÉkÉg b¤swgEt

ÉkÉg karbeBa©jBnøWya:gxøaMgkøanwgTTYl)an.
lMnaMenHénkarbeBa©jBnøWKWl¥\tex©aHsMrab;karbeBa©jeGaymanPaBqøg. kalNapUtug
RtUvnwg 694nm b:HTgÁic Cr kñúgkMrit 2 vaeFIVeGayGIuy:ugrgnUvPaBqøgBIkMrit 2 eTA kMrit 1 .
3+
GIuy:ugenaHbeBa©jpUtugEdlmanCMhanrlkdUcKñaebHbiTeTAnwgCMhanrlkénpUtugedIm. kñúg
kEnøgmanpUtugEtmYy \LÚvenHmanpUtugBIr KWpUtugedImmYy nigmYyeTot)anmkedaykarqøg.
plsMrYlenHbegáInGaMgtg;sIueténBnøWenACMhanrlkenH. dUecñH BnøWexSayenA 694nm
GacBRgIkedaykarbeBa©jBnøWént,ÚgTTwmlMejac.
7-16
CMBUkTI7
\LÚvenH eyIgGacBnül;BIdMeNIrkarénLaEs‘rt,ÚgTTwm. rUbLaEs‘r KWbgðajkñúg rUb

12 . vapSMeLIgBIcgáwHt,ÚgTTwmEdlmanGgát;p©itmYysg;TIEm:Rt b¤ticCag nigmanbeNþay 2cm
eTA 10cm . cgáwHt,ÚÚgTTwmKWeRsabedayR)ak;enAcugmçagedIm,I[épÞcaMgpøatTaMgRsug

cMENkcugmçageTotmanépÞcaMgpøatedayEpñk. bMBg;GMBUlePøIgragCaregVlRtUv)andak;BT§½CMuvij
cgáwHt,ÚgTTwmenaH. kalNaGMBUlRtUvbBa©aMg BnøWEcgcaMgRtUv)anbeBa©j
rUb 12³ t,ÚgTTwmLaEs‘r³ GMBUlBnøWeLamBn½§t,ÚgTTwmRTEvg. BnøW 545nm (ébtg)

BIkarbeBa©jBnøW {bUm} eGLicRtugBIkMrit 1 eTA kMrit3bnÞab;mkkMrit2BIsNæan kar beBa©j)anbegáIn
el,ÓncgVak;LaEs‘renA 694nm (Rkhm). begáInel,ÓnkarbeBa©jelat RtLb;eRkaynigeTAmux
rvagépÞcaMgpøatenAcugbBa©b;ént,ÚgTTwmRTEvgbegáIteLIgLaEs‘rcaMgBnøWCab;Kña. EpñkcugbBa©b;manépÞ
caMgpøatedayEpñkedIm,I[BnøWLaEs‘rekItmanBIt,ÚgTTwm (ruby) .
nigBnøWenA 545nm (ébtg) KW)anRsUbedayt,ÚgTTwmenaH. GIuy:ug Cr PaKeRcIn 3+
bBa©b;kñúgkMrit 2. GIuy:ug Cr xøHeTotbeBa©jpUtugÉkÉgRtUveTAnwg 694nm (BnøWB’NRkhm)

3+
nigpUtugTaMgenHeFVIeGayGIuy:ugdéTeTotbeB©ajBnøW. enAeBlEdlpUtugTaMgenHcaMgpøatRtLb;
eTARtLb;mkrvagépÞcaMgpøat GIuy:ugkan;EteRcIneTA²RtUv)aneFIVeGaybeBa©jBnøW ehIyBnøWenaH
begáIn GaMgtg;sIuetya:grh½srhUtdl;vaqøgkat;tamépÞcaMgpøatedayEpñkdUcCakarjak;énBnøW
LaEs‘renA 694nm . BnøWLaEs‘rKWTak;TgKña. mann½yfarlkekIteLIgKWcaMgBnøWén
pasTaMgGs; KWfarlk mankMritGtibrima nigGb,brimaenAcMnucdUcKñakñúglMhr nigeBlevla.
lkçN³énTMnak;TMngBnøWLaEs‘rKW)aneRbIenAkñúgma:sIuncak;sIuDI (compact disc audio player)
(CD). bTePøgKWsresrelIDIskñúgsNæaneFVI[xUg b¤sñameBocenAelIsñames<ór. kalNa
DIs)andMeNIrkarBnøWLaEs‘rtUcftGkSrcUleTAkñúgm:asIun rYcvacaMgRtlb;vijtamry³]bkrN_
7-17
esIubrk (detector) . )ac;BnøWEdl)ancaMgRtLb;BIsñameBocKWeRkApasCamYyBnøW)ancaMgRtLb;

BIépÞem nigeRCotCamYyva (rUb 13) .
rUb 13³ karGankUtelIDIsbRgÜb (CD) . BnøWLaEs‘rtUcravrkbRcMerogelIDIs ehIyKWcaMg RtLb;

eRkayeTA]bkrN_esIubrk. kareRCoténrlk)anCHRtLb;vijKW)aneRbIsMrab;emIl snøak;xUg
enAelIépÞcaMgRtLb;énDIsEdlsresr nigftsemøg.
edaysarkareRCotenHBNøWEdlCHRtLb;vijKW)anbnßyRbBlPaB nig)anbnßy
sBaaØ]bkrN_esIubrk. karERbRbYlsBaaØKWbnÞab;mk)anbþÚreTACasemøg.
lkçN³epSgeToténBnøWLaEs‘rKW)aneRbIkñúgkarGnuvtþxus²Kña. lT§PaBedIm,IRbsBV
RbBlPaBBnøWelIsñamKW)aneRbIenAkñúgkarEktRmUvBBUneLIgénkarpþac;ecj BIRsTab;xageRkay
énRbRsIEPñkEdlmanPaBrsenAkñúgEPñk. kñúgRbsiT§PaB BnøWcaMgLaEs‘rKW)aneRbIedIm,ITegVI
"cMnucpSar" énRsTab;xageRkayénRbRsIEPñkEdlmanPaBrs. LaEs‘rm:asIune)aHBumÖdUcKñaeTA
nigeKalkarénma:sIunftcMlg b:uEnþeRbIkMuBüÚT½redIm,IP¢ab;edaypÞal;eTAnigBnøWLaEs‘rkñúgKMrUén
cMnuceTACasNæanrUbPaB. kñúgkarRsavRCavKImI cMNaMgBnøWLaEs‘rpþl;RbBlPaBBnøW
m:UNURkUm:aTic (monochromatic) edIm,ItaMgTIkMritfamBlkñúgm:UelKuledIm,IsikSaplitpl
rbs;RbtikmμKImIy:agelOn nigedIm,IvIPaKPaKsMNak sMrab;brimantictYcénsarFatuTaMgLay.
7-18
CMBUkTI7
emkanickg;Tic nigcMnYnkg;Tic (Quantum mechanics and Quantum numbers)

RTwsþI Bohr )ansgát;F¶n;eTAelIkarbegáItbBaaØtþiénkMritfamBlGatUm. eTaHbICaya:g
Nak¾eday vamin)aneCaKC½ykñúgkarBnül;lMGiténTMrg;GatUm nigkarTsSn_TaykMritfamBl
sMrab;GatUmeRkABIGatUmGIuRdUEsn. karyl;dwgbEnßmBITMrg;GatUmRtUvkarkarGPivDÆRTwsþIepSg
eTot.
4 emkanickg;Tic (Quantum Mechanics)

TsSn³GMBITMrg;GatUmGaRs½yeTAelIeKalkarN_emkanickg;Tic CaRTwsþIEdlGnuvtþeTA
elIPaKl¥itmIRkUsáúbtUc (tUcNas;) énrUbFatudUcCaeGLicRtug. sBaØNdMbUgEdlnaMeTArk
karGPivDÆRTwsþIenHKwTMnak;TMng Broglie .
TMnak;TMng de Broglie (de Broglie Relation)
tam Einstein BnøWminRtwmEtmanlkçN³rlk EdleyIgsMKal;edayeRhVkg; nigCMhan
rlkb:ueNÑaHeT b:uEnþvamanlkçN³PaKl¥itpgEdr. ]TahrN_ PaKl¥iténBnøWpUtugmanfamBl
kMNt; E = hυ . eKGacbgðajpgEdrfapUtugmanm:Um:g ¬m:Um:g;énPaKl¥itCa plKuNénm:as
nigel,Ónrbs;va¦. m:Um:g;enHKW mc KWTak;TgeTAnwgCMhanrlkénBnøW mc = λh b¤ λ = mch .
kñúgqñaM 1923 rUbviTUCnCati)araMg Louis de Broglie )anpþl;ehtuplfa ebIBnøW
(cat;TukfadUcrlk) bgðajlkçN³CaPaKl¥it enaHRbEhlPaKl¥iténrUbFatubgðajlkçN³rlk
EteRkamkaleTs³smrmü. dUecñH Kat;)anesñIfa PaKl¥iténrUbFatumanm:as m nigel,Ón υ

EdlmanCMhanrlkmYyenaHKW³
h
λ=
mc
smIkar λ = mch ehAfa TMnak;TMng Broglie .
ebIrUbFatumanlkçN³rlk ehtuGVI)anCavaminRtUv)ansegát? karKNnaedayeRbITMnak;
TMng Broglie bgðajfa )al; Baseball (0,145kg) eFVIclnaRbmaN 60mi/h (27m/s)
EdlmanCMhanrlkRbEhl 10 m tMélenHtUcxøaMgNas;swgminKYreCOEdlrlkEbbenHmin
-34
Gaccab;)an. müa:gvijeTottamBiesaFeGLicRtugeFVIclnaenAel,ÓnEdlmanCMhanrlk
BIrbIryBIkUEm:Rt (picometers) (1pm = 10 m) . kñúgkaleTs³smrmülkçN³rlk
-12
éneGLicRtugGacGegát)an.
7-19
lkμN³rlkéneGLicRtug)anbgðajdMbUgkñúgqñaM 1927 eday C. DAVISON nig L.H

GERMER enAshrdæGaemric nigeday GEORGE PAGET THOMSOM (kUnRbusrbs; J.J
THOMSON) enARbeTsGg;eKøs . eK)anbgðajfa)ac;BnøWéneGLicRtugdUcKñaeTAnigkaMrsμI X
Edr GaccaMgpøat)anedayRkam (crystal). rUbviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;elak ERNST

RUSKA)aneRbIlkçN³rlkenHedIm,IbegáItmIRkUsáúbeGLicRtugdMbUgkñúgqñaM1933. Kat;TTYl)an
BanrgVan;BiPBelakEpñkrUbviTüasMrab;kargarenHkñúgqñaM 1986 . rUb 14 )anbgðaj]bkrN_ .
rUb 14 kareFVIviPaKmIRkUsáúbeGLicRtug. mIRkUsáúbenH)anBRgIkfamBlrhUtdl;300,000dg. kEnøgkarI

(operator) PaKsMNaksßitenAxagkñúgbnÞb;EpñkxageqVg nigkaremIleXIjrUbPaBenAelI pÞaMgvIedGU
sßitenAcMkNþal.
famBlEdlGaceRbI)an b¤lT§PaBbgðajc,as;las;énmIRkUsáúbEdleRbIrlkKWGaRs½y
elICMhanrlkrbs;va. edIm,ITTYl)anCMhanrlkrab;ryBIkUEm:Rt eyIgRtUvkarCMhanrlkenA
cenøaHenaH. kaMrsμI X manCMhanrlkkñúgcenøaHenH b:uEnþknøgmkKμanmeFüa)anGnuvtþNamYy
RtUv)anrkeXIjelIcMnucenHeT. mü:ageToteGLicRtugGKÁIsnInigEdnm:aej:Tic. rUb 15 bgðaj
rUbftEdl)anftedayeRbImIRkUsáúbeGLicRtug.vaGacbgðajrUbPaBlMGitCamYy]bkrN_enH .
7-20
CMBUkTI7
rUb 15 karviPaKrUbPaBmIRkUsáúbeGLicRtug. rUbPaBenHbgðajfabMENképÞénPaB

KμansñamEdkEfb. rUbPaBenHKW 100 x 100 μ m .
]TahrN_ 5³ karGnuvtþeTAelITMnak;TMng DE BROGLIE

k¦ KNnaCMhanrlkKitCaEm:RténrlkEdlmanm:as1,00Kg eFVIclnaenA 1Km/h .
x) etICMhanrlk (KitCaBIkUEm:Rt) éneGLicRtmYyEdlmanm:as 9,11 x 10 Kg -31
nigpøas;TIenAel,Ón 4,19x10 m/s b:unμan? (el,ÓnenHGacTTYl)anedaybegáInel,Ón

6
eGLicRtugrvagbnÞHBIrEdlmanbnÞúkxus²Kña 50 v:ul,kMlaMgGKÁIsnIKitCaKILÚv:ul)aneRbIkñúg
mIRkUsáúbeGLicRtug).
cMelIy³
k) el,Ón υ kñúg 1km/hesμI³
km 1h 10 3 m
1,00 x x = 0,278m / s
h 3600s 1km
edaykarCMnYsbrimaNTaMgGs;RKb;RbBn§½xñat SI eyIg)an³
h 6,63x10 −34 J .s
λ= = = 2,38 x10 −33 m
mv 1kgx0,278m / s
6,63x10 −34 J .s
x)λ =
h
= −31
mv 9,11x10 kgx4,19 x10 m / s
=6
1,74 x 10-10m = 174pm
lMhat; 6³ KNnaCMhanrlk (KitCaBIkUEm:Rt) éneGLicRtugmYypøas;TIenAel,Ón 2,19 x
10 m/s .
6
7-21
GnuKmn_rlk (Wave Functions)

TMnak;TMng De Broglies GnuvtþCabrimaNEteTAelIPaKl¥itkñúgbrisßankMlaMg-esrI.
dUecñH vaminGacGnuvtþedaypÞal;eTAelIeGLicRtugkñúgGatUm EdleGLicRtugTTYlrgkMlaMg
TMnajénéNVy:U. b:uEnþkñúgqñaM1926 elak Erwin Schrödinger )anbegáItRTwsþImYy
4
EdlGaceRbIedIm,IrklkçN³rlkéneGLicRtugkñúgGatUm nigm:UelKul edayEp¥kelIkic©kar

rbs;elak De Broglies. saxaénrUbviTüaEdlBiB’NnatamKNitviTüaBIlkçN³rlkén
PaKl¥itmIRkUsáúbtUc²ehAfa emkanickg;Tic b¤ emkanicrlk.
eBlenHedayKμankareRbIR)as;KNitviTüaénemkanickg;Tic eyIgnwgBiPakSaeTAelIkar
sniñdæand¾mansar³sMxan;mYycMnYnénRTwsþIenH. kñúgEpñkenH emkanickg;Ticpøas;bþÚrBIrebobEdl
eyIgKitGMBIclnaénPaKl¥it. bBaØtiénclna)anmkBIGVIEdleyIg)aneXIjkñúgBiPBelakral;
éf¶. ]bmafa eyIgGaceXIg)al;EdleyIg)ane)aH. Knøg)al;KW)an[edayTItaMg nigel,Ón
rbs;vaenAry³eBlxus²Kña. dUecñH eyIgmanlkçxNçsMrab;KitkñúgbribTcMeBaHKnøgCab;én
vtßúmanclna. kñúgRTwsþIrbs;elak Bohr eGLicRtug)aneFVIclnavilCMuvijéNVy:UdUcEpn
dIvilCMuvijRBHGaTitü. emkanickg;Ticpøas;bþÚrTidæPaBénclnaenHya:gxøaMg. eyIgminGacKitfa
eGLicRtugvilCMvijGatUmCargVg;eToteT. edIm,IBiBN’naBIKnøgEbbenH eyIgRtUvdwgBITItaMg
Cak;lak;éneGLicRtugenAry³eBlxus²Kña nigfaetIvaRtUveRbIry³eBlCak;lak;b:unñan edIm,IeFVI
dMeNIreTACitTItaMgkñúgKnøgenaH. mann½yfa eyIgRtUvdwgminEmnRKan;EtTItaMgBitR)akdén
eGLicRtugeT b:uEnþeyIgk¾RtUvdwgpgEdrBIm:Um:g; ¬ma:s ry³eBl Nigel,Ón¦éneGLicRtug.
kñúgqñaM1927 elak Werner Heisenberg )anbgðajBIemkanickg;TicEdlfa
5
vaminGacdwgBIkarekIteLIgdMNalKñaCamYyPaBd¾Cak;lak;TaMgTItaMg nigel,ÓnénPaKl¥itdUcCa
eGLicRtug)aneT. eKalkarN_PaBminCak;lak rbs; HEISENBERG KWCaTMnak;TMngEdl
4
elak Schrödinger TTYl)anBanrgVan;NUEblEpñkrUbviTüakñúgqñaM1933 sMrab;rUbmnþrlkénemkanic
kg;Ticrbs;Kat;.
5
elak Heisenberg QñHrgVan;rgVan;NUEblkñúgqñaM1927 sMrab;rUbmnþma:RTIs-BiCKNiténemkanic
kg;Ticrbs;Kat;. rUbmnþTaMgBIrpþl;lT§pldUcKñaebHbiT.
7-22
CMBUkTI7
faplKUNénPaBminCak;lak;kñúgTItaMg nigPaBminCak;lak;kñúgclna (m:as ry³eBl

Nigel,Ón) énPaKl’i¥tGacmintUcCag ¬RtUvFMCag b¤esμI¦emKuN Planck Ecl[ 4 π eT.
dUecñHtag Δx KWCaPaBminCak;lak;kñúgkUG½redaen x énPaKl¥it nig ∆υx KWCaPaBmin
Cak;lak;kñúgel,ÓnkñúgTisedA x eyIg)an³
h
(∆x) (m∆υx) ≥
4π
manTMnak;TMngRsedogKñakñúgTisedA y nig z. eKalkarN_PaBminCak;lak;Ecgfa
ebiGñkdwgBITItaMg ¬ Δx Δy nig Δz kan;EttUc¦kan;EtCak;lak; enaHGñkdwgBIm:Um:g;énPaKl¥it
¬ Δp Δp nig Δp kan;EtFM¦kan;EtminsUvc,as;. müa:geTot ebIsinCaGñkdwgBITItaMgPaKl¥it
x y z
kan;Etc,s; enaHGñkminGacdwgfavakMBugpøas;TIeTANaeT.
emkanickg;TicminGaceGayeyIgBiB’NnaBIeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsn)aneTenAeBl
vakMBugmanclnakñúgKnøgrbs;va. GIVEdleyIgGaceFIV)anKWkarTsSn_TaytamEbbsßitiGMBITItaMg
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUm. ]TahrN_ eyIgGacTTYl)anRbU)ab‘ÍlIeténkarrkeXIjeGLicRtugenA
cMNucCak;lak;mYykñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsn. eTaHbICaeyIgminGacdwgfa eGLicRtugnwgenATItaMgNa
Cak;lak;enAry³eBlNamYy EteyIgGacdwgfa eGLicRtugTMngCa ¬b¤minTMngCa¦ enAkEnøg
enH.
B½t’manBIPaKl¥itkñúgkMritfamBlNamYy ¬dUcCa eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmmYy¦ KWman
kenSam b¤GnuKmn_KNitviTüamYy EdleKehAfa GnuKmn_rlk nigsMKal;edayGkSrRkicpSúI ψ .
GnuKmn_rlkTTYl)anedaykaredaHRsaysmIkaremkanickg;Tic ¬smIkar Schrödinger¦.
kaer:rbs; va ψ pþl;RbU)ab‘ÍeténkarrkeXIjPaKl¥itenAkñúgtMbn;énlMh.
2
GnuKmn_rlk nigkaer:rbs;va ψ mantMélsMrab;RKb;TItaMgenAEk,r ¬CMuvij¦ éNVy:U.

2
rUb 16 bgðajtMél ψ sMrab;eGLicRtugkñúgkMritfamBlTabbMputénGatUmGIuRdUEsntam

2
bnÞat;mYycab;epþImBIéNVy:U. cUrcgcaMfa ψ mantMélFMenAEk,réNVy:U (r = 0)

2
EdlbgðajfaeGLicRtugKWPaKeRcInTMngCaRtUvrkeXIjkñúgtMbn;enH. tMél ψ fycuHy:ag

2
qab;rh½senAeBlcMgayBIéNVy:UekIneLIg b:uEnþ ψ minEdlfyrhUtdl;tMélsUnüeT eTaHbICa

2
RbU)a:b‘ÍlIetmantMéltUcxøaMgenAtMbn;q¶ayBIéNVy:U. krNIenHmann½yfa GatUmminmanRBMEdn

Cak;lak;eT EdlmindUceTAnwgKMrU BohrénGatUm.
7-23
rUb 16 ExSekagén ψ sMrab;kMritfamBl

2
TabbMputénGatUmGIuRdUEsn. kaer:énGnuKmn_rlkKW
CaExSekagRcaseTAnwgcMgay r BIéNVy:U.
KImIGnuvtþn¾³ viFIsaRsþeRbI]bkrN_
]bkrN_ftrUbmIRkUsáúb ( Scanning Tunneling Microscopy)
kñúgqñaM 1986 BanrgVan;NUEblEpñkrUbviTüaRtUv)anpþl;eGayrUbviTUbInak;sMrab;kargar
rbs;BYk eKkñúgkarGPivDÆmIRkUsáúbsMrab;emIlvtßúd¾tUcéRkElg. rgVan;Bak;kNþal)aneTAelI
elak Ernst Ruska sMrab;karGPivDÆmIRkUsáúbeGLicRtug Edl)anBiB’NnaknøgmkenH.
rgVan;Bak;kNþaleTot)anpþl;eTAeGayelak Gerd Binnig nig Heinrich Rohrer
enAkEnøgmnÞIrRsavRCav IBM kñúg Zurich RbeTs Switzerland sMrab;karbegáIt]bkrN_
ftrUbmIRkUsáúbkñúgqñaM 1981. ]bkrN_enHGacemIleXIjGatUm nigm:UelKulelIépÞGgÁFaturav
(rUb 17) .
]bkrN_ftrUbmIRkUsáúbKWEp¥keTAelIbBaØtiénftrUbemkanickg;Tic EdlvaGaRs½yeTAelI
karbkERbCaRbU)ab‘ÍlIeténemkanickg;Tic. karbgðajGatUmGIuRdUEsnmaneGLicRtugmYyenA
Ek,rRbUtugmYy (ehAfa A) nigrUbPaBRbUtugepSgeTot (ehAfa B) EdlenAXaøtBITI1.
rUb 17 rUbPaBén]bkrN_ftrUbmIRkUsáúbrbs;
m:UelKul bg;EsnelIépÞelah³. m:UelKul
bg;Esn C H )anteRmobenAkñúglMdab;eTog
6 6
Tat;elIépÞelah³r:UdüÚm.
7-24
CMBUkTI7
müa:geTot RbsinebIeyIgRtUvpøas;TIeGLicRtugBItMbn;RbUtug A eTAtMbn;RbUtug B

enaHfamBlRtUvEtpþl;edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugBIEdnTMnajénRbUtug A . eTaHbIya:gNa emkanic
kg;Tic R)ab;eyIgBIrUbPaBxusKña. RbU)ab‘ÍlIeténGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlenATItaMgq¶ay BIRbUtug A
b:uEnþEk,rRbUtug B KWvamantMéltUcNas; b:uEnþminesμIsUnüeT. mann½yfa eGLic
RtugEdlCaTUeTACarbs;RbUtug A GacrkeXIjvaenACitRbUtug B edayKμanfamBlbEnßmRtUv)an
pþl;eGayvaeT. eGLicRtugenHqøgBIGatUmmYyeTAGatUmmYyepSgeTot.
]bkrN_ftrUbmIRkUsáúbpSMeLIgedaym¢úlelah³tg;EsþnEdlmancMnucd¾qμar ¬Rbdab;
sÞg;¦ Edl)andak;CiteTAnwgPaKsMNakEdlRtUvemIl (rUb 18) .
ebIRbdab;sÞg;dak;CitsmlμmeTAnwgPaKsMNak enaHeGLicRtugGacqøgBIRbdab;sÞg;eTA
PaKsMNak. RbU)ab‘ÍlIetkñúgkrNIenHGacRtUvbegáInedayeRbIkMlaMgGKÁIsnItUcrvag]bkrN_
nigPaKsMNak. eGLicRtugEdlqøgBI]bkrN_eTAPaKsMNak eFVI[mankarekIneLIgnUvrgVas
crnþGKÁIsnI. TMhMcrnþenHGaRs½yeTAelIcMgayrvagRbdab;sÞg; nigPaKsMNak (dUcCa enAelI
GnuKmn_rlkénGatUmkñúgPaKsMNakEdr). edaykartRmUvcm¶ayenH crnþGacRtUv)anrkSatMél
Cak;lak;. enAeBlRbdab;sÞg;ftrUbPaKsMNak varMkilmkCit b¤eTAq¶ayBIPaKsMNakrkSacrnþ
eGayenACal;lak; EdlGaceGayRbdab;sÞg;eFVItamrUbragÁénPaKsMNak.
rUb 18 ]bkrN_ftrUbmIRkUsáúb. lMhUrcrnþrvagRbdab;sÞg; nigPaKsMNak enAeBlman

kMlaMgGKÁIsnItUcrvagRbdab;sÞg; nigPaKsMNak. esoKVIEdlpþl;kMlaMgGKÁIsnIenH TTYl crnþenH
nigeFIVeGayERbRbYlkMlaMgGKÁIsnIelIcgáwHBIsUeGLicRTic (z-drive) edIm,IrkSacMgayeGay enAefrrvag
Rbdab;sÞg; nigPaKsMNak. kMuBüÚT½rRtUv)anbegáItkmμviFIedIm,Ipþl;kMlaMgGKÁIsnIeTA x-drive nig y-
drive edIm,IeGayRbdab;sÞg;manclnaenAelIépÞPaKsMNak.
7-25
Rbdab;sÞg;RtUvEtrMkilcm¶aytUchYsnisS½y ehIykarenHGacRbRBwtþeTA)an eday

emkanicd¾biunRbsBV. GgÁFaturwgRkamBIsUeGLicRTic (piezoelectric crystals) begáItCa
karkMlaMgGKÁIsnI enAeBlRbEvgrbs;va)anERbRbYl (kalNam¢úlm:asIuneRcogenABIelIcg¥Úrft
sMelg). karRcasmkvijkk¾ekItmanpgEdr. bMErbMrYlkMlaMgGKÁIsnItUceTAelIcgáwHBIsU
eGLicRTic GacbegáItCabMErbMrYlRbEvgEdlRtUvKñarbs;vatictYc. kñúgmIRkUsáúbenH bERmbRmYl
kMlaMgGKÁIsnIKW)anGnuvtþn¾eTAelIcgáwHBIsUeGLicRTicsMrab;eFVIva[xøI b¤eFVI[Evg. BIeRBaHRbdab;
sÞg;RtUv)anRbTajeTAelIcgáwHenaHRbdab;sÞg;enH)anrMkileq<aHmkCit b¤eTAq¶ayBIPaKsMNak.
kñúgviFIenH cm¶ayrvagRbdab;sÞg;eTAnwgPaKsMNakRtUv)antRmUvedaykMlaMgGKÁIsnI edIm,I
rkSacrnþcMlgeGayenAefrenA eBl]bkrN_ft rUbPaKsMNak.
rUb 17 bgðajBI]bkrN_mIRkUsáúbftrUbPaBrbs;m:UelKulbg;EsnelIépÞelah³r:UdüÚm.
(rUbmnþTMrg; nigKMrUm:UelKulénbg;Esn C H 6 )anbgðajkñúgrUb 19). rUbPaBTaMgenH
6
GaRs½yeTAelIGnuKmn_rlkénrUbFatuEdlRtUvsikSa nigdUecñH vaRtUvEtbkERbedayRbugRbyt½ñ

b:uEnþbec©keTsenH )anpþl;CaeRscnUvB’tmand¾mansar³sMxan;enAelIépÞGgÁFaturwg.
rUb A rUb B
rUb 19 bg;Esn (A) rUbbnþTMrg; . GatUmkabUnbegáItCavg;CamYyGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdl
P¢ab;eTAnwgGatUmkabUnnImYy². rUb (B) kareRbIR)as;kMBüÚT½rsMrab;emIlKMrUm:UelKul
bg;Esn.
7-26
CMBUkTI7
5 cMnYnkg;Tic nigG½rb‘Ítal;GatUm
Ep¥ktamemkanicgkg;Tic eGLicRtugnImYy²kñúgGatUmRtUvB’NnaedaycMnYnkg;TicbYn
xusKña EdlbI (n, l nig m ) sMKal;[GnuKmn_rlkEdlpþl;RbU)ab‘ÍlIetsMrab;karrkeXIj
l
eGLicRtugenAcMnucxus²kñúglMhr. GnuKmn_rlksMrab;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmehAfa G½rb‘Ítal

GatUm. G½rb‘Ital;GatUmpþl;rUbPaBCabrmaN edaykarB’NnaBItMbn;énlMhEdlman
RbU)ab‘ÍlIetx<s;sMrab;rkeXIjeGLicRtug. G½rb‘Ítal;GatUmCarUbPaBEdlmanRTg;RTaykMNt;.
cMnYnkg;TicTI4 ( m ) tag[lkçN³m:aej:TicéneGLicRtugehAfa s<In (spin). kñúgCMBUkenH
s
dMbUgeyIgnwg sikSaBIcMnYnkg;Tic bnÞab;mkBIG½rb‘Ítal;GatUm .

cMnYnkg;Tic (Quantum Number)
tMélEdlGacman nigGtßn½yCaTUeTAéncMnYnkg;TicTaMgbYnrbs;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmman
dUcteTA³
1 cMnYnkg;Ticem n ( Principle Quantum Number)
cMnYnkg;Ticem CaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIkMritfamBlenAelIRsTab;eGLicRtugNamYy. vaGacman
tMélviC¢man³ 1, 2, 3 .l. famBleGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGaRs½yeTAelItMél n . tMél n
kan;EttUcenaHfamBlkan;EtTab. kñúgkrNIGatUmGIuRdUEsn b¤ GIuy:ugGatUmmaneGLicRtug
EtmYydUcCa Li b¤ He enaH n KWCacMnYnkg;EtmYyKt;EdlkMNt;BIfamBl (Edl
2+ +
pþl;[edayrUbmnþ Bohr )anBiPakSakñúgEpñk 7>3). cMeBaHGatUmepSgeTotfamBlk¾GaRs½y

eTAelIcMnYnkg;Tic l pgEdr.
TMhMénG½rb‘Ítal;k¾GaRs½ypgEdreTAelItMél n . tMél n kan;EtFM enaHG½rb‘Ítal;kan;EtFM.
G½rb‘Ítal;Edlmankg;Tic n dUcKña enaHmann½yfa vamanRsTab;dUcKña. RsTab;CYnkal
RtUv)ankMNt;edayGkSdUcteTA³
GkSr K L M N...
n 1 2 3 4...
2 cMnYnkg;Ticrg l ( l CacMnYnRsTab;rg )(Angular momentum quantum no.)
cMnYnkg;Ticrg bBa¢ak;BITMrg;xusKñaénGrb‘Ítal; n NamYy. tMélrbs; l GaRs½yeTA
nwgtMélrbs;cMnYnkg;Ticem (n). cMeBaHtMél n NamYy l GacmantMélcMnYnKt;BI 0 eTA (n-1) .
]TahrN_ ebI n = 1 => l = [0] <=> l = 0 (l man 1 tMél )
n = 2 => l = [0, 1] <=> l = 0, l = 1 (l man 2 tMél )
7-27
man 3 tMél )
n = 3 => l = [0, 2] <=> l = 0, l = 1, l = 2 (l
n = 4 => l = [0, 3] <=> l = 0, l = 1, l = 2, l = 3 (l man 4 tMél )
tMélrbs; l CaTUeTAtagedayGkSr s, p, d, …
dUcxageRkam³
l 0 1 2 3 4 5
eQμaH Grb‘Ítal; s p d f g h
edIm,IkMNt;sMKal;RsTab;rgmYykñúgRsTab;NamYy eyIgsresrtMéléncMnYnkg;Tic n
sMrab;RsTab;enaH nigP¢ab;eTAedayGkSrEdltageGayRsTab;rgenaH. ]TahrN_ 2p
tageGayRsTab;rgmYyEdlmancMnYnkg;Tic n = 2 nig l = 1.
tarag 1 tMélEdlGacmanéncMnYnkg;TicsMrab;G½rb‘Ítal;GatUm
rUb 20 famBlG½rb‘Ítal;énGatUmGIuRdUEsn. bnÞat;sMrab;RsTab;nImYy²bgðaj BIcMnYn G½rb‘Ítal;

xusKñaénRsTab;rgenH.
7-28
CMBUkTI7
3 cMnYnkg;Ticma:ej:Tic ml ( m CacMnYnfteGLicRtug )(Magnetic q.n.)

l
cMnYnkg;Ticma:ej:Tic CaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIG½rb‘Ítal;éntMél n nig l NamYy mann½yfa

famBlnigTMrg;NamYydUcKña b:uEnþmankaredATisxusKñakñúglMh Edl m = [-l, + l].
l
]TahrN_ ebI l = 0 => m = 0 ¬man 1 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg s man 1 ft

l
l = 1 => m = {-1, 0, 1} ¬man 3 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg p man 3 ft

l
l = 2 => m = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2} ¬man 5 tMél¦ => RsTab;rg d man 5 ft

l
l = 3 => m = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}¬man 7 tMél¦=>RsTab;rg f man7 ft

l
G½rb‘Ítal;manTMrg;dUcKña b:uEnþkaredATisxusKñakñúglMh. elIsBIenHeTAeTot G½rb‘Ítal;nimYy²én

RsTab;rgNamYymanfamBlesμIKña. cMNaMfa man 2l + 1G½rb‘Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rgéncMnYnkg;Tic
l.
4 cMnYnkg;Tics<In ms (Spin q.n.)

cMnYnkg;Tics<InCaTMhMbBa¢ak;BIsV½yvilrbs;eGLicRtugCMuvijG½kSrbs;vakñúgftnImYy².
edayftnImYy² manBIreGLicRtugviltamTisedApÞúyKña ÈÇ dUecñHcMnYnkg;Tics<In s rbs;va
mantMélEtBIrb:ueNÑaHKW S = ±½. tarag 1 raycMnYnkg;TicEdlGacmansMrab;RKb;
G½rb‘Ítal;rhUtdlRsTab;; n = 4. tMélTaMgenHeKarBtamc,ab;EdleTIbnwgsikSa.
famBlsMrab;G½rb‘Ítal;TaMgenH)anbgðajkñúgrUb 20 sMrab;GatUmGIuRdUEsn. cMNaMfa
RKb;G½rb‘Ítal;EdlmancMnYnkg;Ticem n dUcKña KWmanfamBldUcKña. eTaHbIya:gNa cMeBaHGatUm
EdlmaneGLicRtugeRcInCagmYyKWmanEtG½rb‘Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rgdUcKñab:ueNÑaH (sMKal; eday n
nig l ) EdlmanfamBldUcKña.
]TahrN_ 6 : kareRbIR)as;c,ab;cMnYnkg;Tic
cUrbBa¢ak;faetIcMnYnkg;TicnImYy²xageRkamenHKWGacekItman
¬RtwmRtUv¦sMrab;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmEdrb¤eT? RbsinebIminGacekItman cUrBnül;faehtuGVI?
1
(a) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, m s = +
2
1
(b) n = 3, l = 1, ml = −2, m s = −
2
1
(c) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, m s = +
2
7-29
(d) n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = 1
cMelIy
(a) minGacekItman. cMnYnkg;Tic l esμIeTAnig n . vaRtUvEtticCag n .
(b) minGacekItman. TMhM ¬tMéldac;xat¦ éncMnYnkg;Tic m (KWfatMél m minKitsBaaØ

l l
rbs;va) KWvaminGacFMCag l .
(c) GacekItman.
1 1
(d) minGacekItman. cMnYnkg;Tic m Gacman + nig − b:ueNÑaH.
s
2 2
lMhat; 7>7
cUrBnül;fa ehtuGVIcMnYnkg;TicnImYy²xageRkamKWminGacekItmancMeBaHG½rb‘Ítal;.
1
(a) n = 0, l = 1, ml = 0, m s = +
2
1
(b) n = 2, l = 3, ml = 0, m s = −
2
1
(c) n = 3, l = 2, ml = 3, m s = +
2
(d) n = 3, l = 2, ml = 2, ms = 0
TMrg;G½rb‘Ítal;GatUm ( Atomic Orbital Shapes)

G½rb‘Ítal; s manTMrg;EsVr eTaHbICar)ayRbU)ab‘ÍlIetKWGaRs½yeTAelI n . rUb 21
bgðajBIr)ayRbU)ab‘ÍlIetsMrab;G½rb‘Ítal; 1s nig 2s . RsemalB’Nc,as; CakEnøgEdl
eGLicRtugkrRtUv)anrkeXIj. kñúgkrNIenH G½rb‘Ítal; 1s (rUb 21 elI) eGLicRtug
RtUv)anrkeXIjenACitéNVy:U. RsemalB’NminsUvc,as;énKMlatBIéNVy:UekIneLIg bgðajfa
eGLicRtugRtUv)anrkeXijtictYcenATIenaH.
G½rb‘Ítal;min)anbBa©b;enAcMgaykMNt;c,as;las;BIéNVy:UeT. dUecñH GatUmmanKMlat
minkMNt; b¤"TMhM " . eyIgGacvas; " TMhM " énG½rb‘Ítal;edayviFIKMnUsvg;dac;² (contour) 99%
(EsVr)anbgðajedayKMnUsbnÞat;dac;² ) .
G½rb‘Ítal; 2s xusBIG½rb‘Ítal; 1s . dUcbgðajkñúgrUb 21 xagsþaM eGLicRtugkñúg G½rb‘Ítal;

2s KWTMngCaRtUv)anrkeXIjkñúgtMbn;BIr mYyCitéNVy:U nig mYyeTotenAkñúg
RsTab;EsVrCitéNVy:U (eGLicRtugKWTMngCaenATIenH). KMnUsCargVg;dac;² 99% bgðajfa
G½rb‘Ítal; 2s KWFMCagG½rb‘Ítal; 1s .
7-30
CMBUkTI7
düaRkamenHminGacbgðajCaRTg;RTayvimaRtbIénG½rb‘Ítal;GatUm 1s nig 2s )aneT.

rUb 22 bgðajKMnUscMNitEdlmanlkç<N³RbesIrCagkñúgkarbgðajBIRTg;RTayvimaRtbIenH .
rUb 21 bgðajtMbn;kat;ExVgKñatMNag
[r)ayRbU)ab‘ÍlIetsMrab;G½rb‘Ítal; s . kñúg
G½rb‘Ítal; 1s r)ayRbU)ab‘ÍlIetKWFMbMputCit
eTAnigéNVy:U. kñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2s KWeRcIn
bMputkñúgRsTab;EsVrCiteTAnigéNVy:U.
sMKal;{TMh}eFobénG½rb‘Ítal;)anbgðajeda
y KMnUsnUsCargVg;dac;² 99%.
rUb 22 KMnUscMNitEdlbgðajBI
TMrgEsVrénG½rb‘Ítal; s . kñúgKMnUsTaMg
BIrenHG½rb‘Ítal;nimYy² mYycMENk
RtUv)ankat;edIm,ibgðajBIr)ayeGLicR
tugénG½rb‘Ítal;.
7-31
manG½rb‘Ítal; p kñúgRsTab;rg p nImYy² . RKb;G½rb‘Ítal; p manRTg;RTayRKwHdUc²Kña

(EpñkBkmUlTaMgBIr)anteRmobtambnÞat;Rtg;CamYynigéNVy:UrvagEpñkBkmUlTaMgBIr) b:uEnþ
xusKñakñúgkaredATiskñúglMhrbs;va. edaysarEtG½tb‘Ítal;TaMgbIfitenAelImMuCab;KñaeTAvij
eTAmk eyIgGacbgðajG½rb‘Ítal;nImYy²Edl)anedATistamkUG½redayenxusKñaénG½kS (rUb 23) .
eyIgsMKal;G½rb‘Ítal;TaMgenHeday 2 p ,2 p nig 2 p . G½rb‘Ítal; 2 p manRbU)ab‘Í
x y z x
lIeteGLicRtugrbs;vaFMbMputtambeNþayG½kS x G½rb‘Ítal; 2 p tambeNþayG½kS y nig

y
G½rb‘Ítal; 2 p tambeNþayG½kS z . G½rb‘Ítal; p epSgeTotdUcCa 3 p CaTUeTAman

z
RTg;RTaydUcKñaenH EdlmanPaBxusKñalMGitEdlGaRs½yelItMél n . eyIgnwgBiPakSa

RTg;RTayG½rb‘Ítal; s nig p mþgeTotkñúgCMBUkTI10EdlTak;Tgnwgsm<½n§KImI.
manG½rb‘Ítal; d cMnYnR)aM EdlmanRTg;RTaysaMujaMuCagG½rb‘Ítal; s nig p .
G½rb‘Ítal;TaMg enH)anbgðajkñúgrUb 23 .
rUb 23 G½rb‘Ítal ; 2p. (A) r)ayeGLicRtugkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2p . kt;sMKal;favaman

x
EpñkBkmUlTaMgBIrenAtambnÞat;Rtg;G½kS x. (B) karedATisénG½rb‘Ítal; 2p TaMgbI. KMnUs

TaMgenHEtgEt)aneRbIedIm,IB’NnaTMrg;TUeTA nigkaredATisénG½rb‘Ítal;TaMgenH b:uEnþeKmin)an
BiB’NnalMGitGMBIr)ayeGLicRtugdUc)anbgðajkñúgrUb (A) .
7-32
CMBUkTI7
rUb 24 G½rb‘Ítal; 3d TaMgR)aM. G½rb‘Ítal;TaMgenH)antagedaysnÞsSn_dUcCaenAkñúg dxy

EdlGFib,ayBIlkçN³KNitviTüarbs;va.
*****************************************
KImIGnuvtþ FatuEdlmansarsMxan
GIuRdUEsn³ \nÞn³énstvtSTI 21 b¤ ?
dUceyIg)andwgehIy GatUmGIuRdUEsn)ankøayCaKMrUsMrab;TMrg;énGatUm. eTaHbICaya:g
Nak¾eday GIuRdUEsnCasarFatuEdlmantYnaTId¾sMxan;dUcFatudéTeTotkñúgmuxviC¢aKImI. CaTUeTA
GIuRdUEsnCa]s½μnKμanB’N Kμankøin EdlpSMeLIgBIm:UelKulGIuRdUEsn H . RbEhl 40%
2
énGIuRdUEsnEdlpliteLIgCalkçN³BaNiC¢kmμRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IplitGam:Ujak; nigbrimaN
RbEhlKñaenHRtUv)aneRbIkñúgbnSúT§eRbgkat. b:uEnþkñúgeBlGnaKt GIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneRbICa
\nÞn³.
GIuRdUEsnrav H RtUv)aneKeBjniymeRbICa\nÞn³kñúgkaMRCYc (rocket) (rUb 7.25) .
2
kareqHkñúgmYyRkamrbs;va begáItkMedA)aneRcInCagcMehH\nÞn³epSg²eTot. kñúgsNæanCa]s½μn

rbs;va GIuRdUEsnGackøayCa\nÞn³EdleBjniymsMrab;stvtSTI21enH. enAeBlGIuRdUEsn
eqHkñúgxül; vabegáIt)anCaTwk. dUecñH kardutGIuRdUEsnCMnYs\nÞn³pUsIul déTeTot (]s½μnFmμ
Cati eRbgkat nigFüÚg) manplRbeyaCn_d¾sMxan;.
7-33
cMehH\nÞn³pUsIulKWCaRbPBénkarbMBulbrisßan. ePøÓgGasIut Edl)anbgámhnþraydl;

brisßan RtUv)aneKeCOfaKWCalT§plEdlTak;TgeTAnwgcMehHFüÚg nigeRbgkat. \nÞn³TaMgenH
pÞúksmasFatus<an;F½rEdleqH[plCas<an;F½rDIGuksIut EdlmanRbtikmμkñúgxül;esImbgá
CaGasIuts‘ulpYric EdlCaPaKpSMcMbgénePøógGasIut. kabUnDIGuksIutEdlCaplitpl
d¾sMxan;kñúgcMehH\nÞn³pUsIul k¾GacCaRbPBcMbgénFatubMBul. PaKryénkabUnDIGuksIutkñúg
briyakasmankarekIneLIgCalMdab; cab;taMgBIkardut\nÞn³pUsIulya:geRcIn)ancab;epþImenAcug
stvtSTI19. Gakas FatuviTUeCOCak;fakMeNInkabUnDIGuksIutkñúgbriyakasKWbgá\T§iBlpÞH
ébtg (greenhouse effect) .kMeNInkMhab;énkabUnDIGuksIutmanlkçN³dUcCakBa©k;elIpÞH
ébtgEdlrkSafamBlkMedA edaysMrUb nigkarbeBa©jkaMrsμIGaMgRhVaRkhmRtLb;eTAépÞEpndI
nigRbEhlCakarCH\T§iBly:agxøaMgkøaeTAelIGakasFatu.
rUb 25 FugpÞúkGIuRdUEsnrav . GIuRdUEsnravRtUv)aneRbICa\nÞn³kaMRCYc

karRtYtBinitükarbeBa©jkabUnDIGuksIuteTAkñgú briyakasKWCakargard¾lM)ak b:uEnþcMelIy
gayeT KwfaeyIgRtUvbEgVreTAeRbIfamBlGatUmGIuRdUEsnCMnYsvij. Kñúgesdækic©GIuRdUEsn
GIuRdUEsnnwgkøayCaRbPBfamBleRbIR)as;d¾sMxan;. ]TahrN_ yanynþGacRtUv)anEkERb
edIm,IeRbIGIuRdUEsnCMnYsvij. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday GIuRdUEsnmin EmnCaRbPBfamBledImeT.
vamanlkçN³smrmü nigminbMBulbrisßan b:uEnþvanwgRtUvEtcMraj;BI RbPBfamBlepSg²eTot.
7-34
CMBUkTI7
GIuRdUkabYnigTwk\LÚvenHCaRbPBcMbgénGIuRdUEsn. kñúglMnaMbgácMhayTwkeLIgvij
cMhayTwk nigGIuRdUkabY)anmkBI]sμ½nFmμCati nigeRbgkatmanGMeBICamYyKñaenAsItuNðPaB nig
sMBaFx<s;cMeBaHmuxkatalIkrnIEkl[plCakabUnm:UNUGuksIut nigGIuRdUEsn .
]TahrN_
Ni
C 3 H 8 (g) + 3 H 2O 3CO(g) + 7 H 2 (g)
GIuRdUkabUnpþl;famBlsMrab;karplitGIuRdUEsn. GIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneKplitBIFüÚg
pgEdredayRbtikmμ Twk-]sμ½n EdlminRtUv)aneKeRbICalkçN³BaNiC¢kmμeToteT b:uEnþvaman
lkçN³sMxan;eLIgvij enAeBl]sμ½nFmμCati nigeRbgkateqAeLIgéfø. kñúgRbtikmμenH
cMhayTwkRtUv)aneKdak;eGayqøgkat;FüÚgEdlkMBugeqHekþAeLIgRkhm.
C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)
RbtikmμeGayplCal,ay]sμ½nGIuRdUEsnCamYykabUnm:UNUGuksIut.
L,ayEbbenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IplitsmasFatusrIragÁepSg² b:uEnþedIm,ITTYl)anGIuRdUEsnsuT§
eKRtUvEtpþac;kabUnm:UNUGuksIutecj. TI1 kabUnm:UNUGuksIutmanRbtikmμCamYycMhayTwkkñúg
vttmankatalIkredIm,IeGayplCakabUnDIGuksIut nigGIuRdUEsnbEnßmeTot.
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
bnÞab;mk kabUnDIGuksIutRtUv)anpþac;ecjedaykarrMlayvakñúgsUluysüúg)as.
kalNadutkMedA sUluysüúgenH beBa©jkabUnDIGuksIutekIteLIg Edlbc©úb,nñenH kabUn
DIGuksIutRtUv)aneKeyabk b¤beBa©jeTAkñúgbriyakal. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday ebIeragcRk
GIuRdUEsnmanTItaMgEk,rsmuRT enaHkabUnDIGuksIutGacRtUv)anbBa©Úly:ageRCAeTAkñúgTwksmuRT.
GIuRdUEsnGacTTYl)anedaypÞal;edaykarbMEbkBITwkedayeRbIfamBl. ]TahrN_
crnþGKÁIsnIBIeragcRkfamBlnuyekøEG‘r b¤BIfamBlEdlTTYl)anBIBnøWRBHGaTitüRtUv)aneRbI
R)as;CaRbPBfamBledIm,IbMEbkTwkedayviFIGKÁIsnIviPaK (rUb 26) . eGLicRtUlIRtdUcCa
GasIuts‘ulpYric b¤b:UtasüÚmGIuRdUksIutEdl)anbEnßmeTAelITwkedIm,IeFVICaGgÁFatucMlg
nigeGLicRtUtRtUv)anRClk;eTAkñúgTwk ]sμ½nGuksIuEsnRtg ¬RbmUl¦ ykenAeGLicRtUgviC¢man
nig]sμ½nGIuRdUEsnRtgykenAeGLicRtUtGviC¢man . smIkarsarubKW³
2 H 2 O (l) ' 2H2(g) + O2(g)
GñkRsavRCavk¾)anBinitüemIlBIRbtikmμpUtUKImI (RbtikmμTak;TgnwgBnøW) EdleRbIfamBl
RBHGaTitü edIm,IbMElgTwkedaypÞal;eTACaGuksIuEsn nigGIuRdUEsn. CakarBit eK)anrkeXIj
lMnaMenHEdleRbIBnøWRBHGaTitümanRbsiT§PaBCageragcRkGKÁIsnI ( green plant) EdlbMElg
7-35
famBlRBHGaTitüeTACafamBlKImI. eTaHbICaya:gNak¾eday karbegáItGIuRdUEsnedayeRbIBnøW

RBHGaTitüenAmankarRbkYtRbECgtMél.
sMNYrsMrab;karsikSa
1> ehtuGVI)anCaGIuRdUEsnmansar³sMxan;sMrab;eRbICa\nÞn³kñúgkaMRCYc? etIvamanplRbeyaCn_GVI
cMeBaH brisßankalNaeKeRbIGIuRdUEsnCa\nÞn³?
2>etIGIVeTACaePøógGasIut ?etIkardut\nÞn³pUsIulbgáePøóggasIuty:agdUemþc?
3>GIVeTACa\T§iBl Greenhouse (pÞHeFVIBIkBa©k;ébtg) ? ehtuGIV)anCaGakasFatuviTUKitfakar
dut\nÞn³pUsIulbgá[man\T§iBl Greenhouse ?
4>etIBaküesdækic©GIuRdUEsnmann½yy:agdUemþc?
5>KImIviTU Cavendish CnCatiGg;eKøs)anrkeXIjGIuRdUEsnkñúgqñaM1799. Kat;TegVIvaeday
Rbtikmμelah³epSg²CamYyGasIutTaMgLay. sresrsmIkarKImIsMrab;TegVIGIuRdUEsnBIelah³
sgá½sICamYyGasIutkørIRDic.
6>GIuRdUEsn)anerobcMeLIgBI]sμ½nFmμCatiedayRbtikmμvaCamYycMhayTwk (karbegáItcMhay
TwkeLIgvij) . ]sμ½nFmμCatisMxan;KWemtan. sresrRbtikmμKImIsMrab;TegVIGIuRdUEsnBIcMhay

TwkCamYyemtan.
7>cUrBnül;ehtudUemþc)anCaGIuRdUEsnsuT§RtUv)anTegVIeLIgBIFüÚgGus (FüÚg) . sresrsmIkar
KImItagRbtikmμenH.
8>etIfamBlRBHGaTitü)anbMElgeTACaGIuRdUEsny:agdUemþc ?
7-36
CMBUkTI7
rUb 26 GKÁIsnIviPaKTwk. kt;sMKal;fa maDGIuEdUEsnEdl)anbeBa©jenAeGLicRtUtGviC¢man

manBIrdgeRcInCagmaDGuksIuEsnEdl)anbeBa©jenAeGLicRtUtviC¢manEdlRtUveTAnwg
rUbmnþ H O . 2
*************************************
TMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUm ( Electronic structure of Atoms)
kñúgCMBUkenH eyIgrkeXIjfa eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmmancMnYnkg;TicbYnKW n, l , m nig l
m cUlrYmCamYyva. cMnYnkg;TicbIdMbUgmanlkçN³G½rb‘Ítal;EdlBiB’NnaBIdMbn;niglMhEdl
s
eGLicRtugKWPaKeRcInTMngCaRtUv)anrkeXIj eyIgeBalfaeGLicRtug " taMgTI " G½rb‘Ítal;enH.

cMnYnkg;Tics<In m BiB’NnaBIkartMrg;Tiss<IneGLicRtug. eyIgnwgBiPakSafa
s
eGLicRtug )anEbgEckcMeNamG½rb‘Ítal;GacRbRBwtþeTAy:agdUemþc ?
6 s<IneGLIcRtugnigeKalkarN¾dac;edayELk PAULI
Otto Stern nig Walther Gerlach CaGñk)anGegátelIkdMbUgeTAelIs<IneGLicRtug
manlkçN³emEdkkñúgqñaM 1921. eK[BnøWcaMg cUlGatUmR)ak;edaypÞal;eTAkñúgEdnénbøg;

emEdkBiess. BiesaFn¾dUcKñaGaceFVI)an CamYy GatUmGIuRdUEsn. BnøWénGatUmGIuRdUEsnKW)an
7-37
bMEbkeTACaBIredayEdnm:aejTic Bak;kNþal énGatUmKW ekagkñúgTisedAmYynigBak;kNþal

eTotekagkñúgTisedAmYyepSgeTot (emIlrUb 27). CakarBitEdlGatUm)anCH\T§iBleday
emEdkkñúgTIBiesaFn¾bgðajfa xøÜnrbs;eKGMeBIdUcemEdk.
BnøWénGatUmGIuRdUEsnKWbMEbkeTACaBIr BIeRBaHeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmRbRBwtþeTAdUcCa
kMeTcemEdkCamYykarTMrg;TisEdlGacmanEtBIrKt;. kñúgGnuvtþn¾eGLicRtugGMeBIdUcCa
vaCa)al;éns<InEdlmanbnÞúk (rUb 28) nig dUcbnÞúkcrnþGKÁIsnI vanigbegáItEdnm:aejTic.
eTaHbICas<IneGLicRtugKWCaeKalbMNgsMrab;kMNt;eTAelIkar tMrg;TisEdlGacRbRBwtþeTA)an
énG½kSs<In. lT§plénkartMrg;Tiséns<Inm:aejTicTTYlrab;rgeTAelIcMnYnkg;Tic s<In
1 1
m = + nig m = − .
s s
2 2
rUb 27 karBiesaFrbs; Stern-Gerlach . düaRkambgðajkarBiesaFedayeRbIGatUmGIuRdUEsn

(gayRsYlkñúgkarbkRsaytamRTwsþI) eTaHbICaBiesaFn¾dMbUg)aneRbIGatUmR)ak;. BnøWénGatUm
GIuRdUEsn (bgðajB’Nexov) KWbMEbkeTACaBIredayEdnm:aejTicmindUcKña. BnøWmYymanpÞúk

GatUmnImYy²CamYyeGLicRtug man m = + 12 cMENkepSgeTotmanpÞúkGatUmEdlman
s
eGLicRtugCamYy m = - 12 .
s
rUbsNæaneGLicRtugnigdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;
(Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams)
rUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUmKWCakarEbgEckedayEpñkcMeNaméneGLicRtugEdlGac
manRsTab;rg. KW)anGFib,ayedaykarkMNt; Edl)aneFVICataragnimitþsBaaØRsTab;rgmYy
bnÞab; BIRsTab;rgepSgeTot. nimitþsBaaØnImYy² manniTsSnÞn¾enAelIEpñkxageqVgR)ab;BIcMnYn
eGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;rg. ]TahrN¾ rUbsNæanénGatUm lIcUm (cMnYnGatUmesμI 3) Edlman
7-38
CMBUkTI7
eGLicRtugBIrkñúgRsTab;rg 1s nigmYyeGLicRtugeTotkñúgRsTab;rg 2s KWRtUv)ansresrCa

1s 2 s .
2 1
karsMKal;sMrab;rUbsNæanR)ab;eyIgBIcMnYneGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;rgnImYy² b:uEnþeyIg
eRbIdüaRkamedIm,I bgðajetIG½rb‘Ítal;énRsTab;rgtaMgTIedayeGLicRtugy:agdUcemþc?enHehAfa
düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal; . dUcCakñúg düaRkam G½rb‘Ítal;)antagedayrgVg;. RkumnIimYy² énG½rb‘Ítal;
kñúgRsTab;rg KW)ansMKal;edaykarkMNt;RsTab;rgrbs;va. eGLicRtugkñúg G½rb‘Ítal;)an
bgðajedayRBYj cMnucRBYjeq<aHeTAelIkalNa m = + 12 nigcuH eRkam kalNa m = - 12 .
s s

1s 2s 2p
G½rb‘Ítal;düaRkambgðajBITMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUmEdlkñúgenaHmaneGLicRtugBIr
kúñúgRsTab;rg 1s b¤G½rb‘Ítal;
1 1
( eGLicRtugmYyCamYy m = + ÉmYyeTotCamYy m = - )eGLicRtugBIrkñúgRsTab;rg
s s
2 2
1
2s ( ms = + ,
2
1 1
ms = - )
2
ehIyeGLicRtugmYyeTotkñúgRsTab;rg 2p ( m s =+ )
2
. rUbsNæaneGLicRtugKW
1s 2 2s 2 p .
2 1
rUb 28 tMNag[s<IneGLicRtug. s<InBIrGacTMrg;TisKW)anbgðajedayKMrU . tamry³karbMElg

TisedAs<In KWpþl;[dUcbgðajedayRBYjFMelIG½kSs<In. eGLicRtugRbRBwtþeTAdUcdMuemEdktUc²
dUcbgðajkñúgrUb.
7-39
eKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli ( Pauli Exclusion Principle)

minEmnRKb;karteRmobGacbegáIt)anéneGLicRtugcMeNamG½rb‘Ítal;énGatUmGacCaPa
BrUb. eKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli Edl)aneFVIkarGegátBiesaFn¾ KWCac,ab;EføgfaKμan
eGLicRtugBIrenAkñúgGatUm EtmYyGacmancMnYnkg;TicbYndUcKña. ebIeGLicRtugmYykñúgGatUm
mancMnYnkg;Tic n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 nig m = + 12
l s
KμaneGLicRtugepSgeTotGacmancMnYnkg;TicbYndUcKña. eKGacniyaym:üageTotfa GñkminGac

CMnYseGLicRtugBIrCamYynigtMéldUcKñaén m kñúgmYyG½rb‘Ítal; 1s .
s
G½rb‘Ítal;düaRkammintMNag[lT§PaBén karteRmobeGLicRtug.

1s
BIeRBaHmanEttMélBIrEdlGacsMrab;
m nigG½rb‘Ítal;minGacTTYlykeGLicRtugeRcInCagBIr ehIy bnÞab;mkRbsinebImanEt
s
eGLicRtugBIrmancMnYns<Inkg;TicxusKña. kñúgdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal; G½rb‘Ítal;CamYyeGLic

RtugBIrRtUv)ansresrCamYycMnucRBYjkñúgTisedApÞúyKña. eGLicRtugBIrmans<InpÞúyKña.
GñkGaceXIjfaRsTab;rgnImYy²TTYlGtibrimaBIreGLicRtugeRBaHfa cMnYn
eGLicRtugeRcInGaRs½yeTAelIcMnYnG½rb‘Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rg. dUecñHRsTab;rg 2p Edlman
G½rb‘Ítal;bI (CamYy m = −1 nig +1) GacTTYlGtibrimaR)aMmYyeGLicRtug. cMnYnGtibrima
l
éneGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;rgepSgKñanwgbgðajkñúgtaragxageRkam³
RsTab;rg cMnYnG½rb‘Ítal; cMnYnGtibrimaéneGLicRtug
s (l = 0) 1 2
p (l = 1) 3 6
d (l = 2) 5 10
f (l = 3) 7 14
]TahrN¾ 7³ Gnuvtþn¾eTAelIeKalkarN¾dac;edayElkrbs; Pauli
etIG½rb‘Ítal;düaRkam b¤ rUbsNæaneGLicRtugNaxøHEdlGacman nig
minGacmantameKal karN¾dac;edayElkrbs; Pauli? cUrBnül;?
(a)
1s 2s 2p
(b)
1s 2s 2p
7-40
CMBUkTI7
(c)
1s 2s 2p
3 1
(d) 1s 2 s
(e) 1s 2 2s 1 2 p 7
(f) 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 8 4 s 2
cMelIy³
(a) düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;Gacman
(b) düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;minGacman maneGLicRtugbIkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2s
(c) düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;minGacman maneGLicRtugBIrkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2p
CamYys<IndUcKña
(d) minGacmanrUbsNæaneGLicRtug maneGLicRtugbIkñúgRsTab;rg 1s
(G½rb‘Ítal;mYy)
(e) minGacmanrUbsNæaneGLicRtug maneGLicRtugR)aMBIrkñúgRsTab;rg

2p(EdlGacTTYl ykeGLicRtug)anEtR)aMmYy)
(f) Gacman kt;sMKal;faRsTab;rg 3d

GacTTYlykeGLicRtugGtibrimarhUtdl;db;
lMhat;TI 8 cUremIldüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal; nigrUbsNæaneGLicRtugdUcteTA. etINaxøHEdl
GacmannigNaxøHminGacmanGnuvtþn¾tameKalkarN¾dac;edayElkrbs; Pauli ? cUrBnül;?
(a)
1s 2s 2p
(b)
1s 2s 2p
(c)
(d) 1s 2s 2 2 p 4
(e) 1s 2s 4 2 p 2
(f) 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 10 3d 10
******************************************************
7-41
KImIGnuvtþn¾³
viFIedayeRbI]bkrN¾ (Instrumental Methods)
er:sUNg;nuyekøEG‘rm:aejTic (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance NMR)
GñkeTIbEt)aneXIjfaeGLicRtugmans<InehIyEdlCalT§plRbRBwtþeTAdUcdMuemEdk. RbUtug
nig NWRtugRbhak;RbEhlKñamans<In. dUecñH GaRs½yeTAelIkarteRmobénRbUtug nig NWRtug
éNVy:UKYrEtmans<In. éNVy:UCamYys<InnwgmanskmμPaBdUcCabnÞHemEdk Rbhak;RbEhlKña
eTAnigeGLicRtug eTaHCavamanTMhMtUc CageRcIndgk¾eday. ]TahrN¾ éNVy:UCamYy nig
s<InKWGIuRdUEsn-1 (RbUtug) kabUn-13 (b:uEnþ kabUn-12sMbUr kñúgéNVy:U énkabUn Kμans<In) nig
PøúyGrY-19 .
eTaHbICa nuyekøEG‘rm:aejTicKWtUcCageGLicRtug CamYynigkareRbI]bkrN¾RtwmRtUv
KWgayeXIjehIykñúgTMrg;BitKWcamUldæanéner:sUNg;nuyekøEG‘rm:aejTic (NMR) s,icRtUsáúbBI
KWCaviFIsaRsþmYyd¾mansar³sMxan;sMrab;kMNt;TMrg;m:UelKul. vaGacbegáItCamUldæa én]bkrN¾
kñúgevC¢saRssMrab;kMNt;eraKvinicä½yénrUb PaBer:sUNg;m:aejTic b¤ NMR GacemIleXIj
RbsinebIGñkbBaa¢k;BIRbUtug. dUceGLicRtugEdrRbUtugmansNæans<InBIr. enAcMeBaHmux
Ednm:aejTicsNæans<InTaMgenHmanfamBldUcKña b:uEnþkñúgEdnm:aejTicxøaMg (Edn xageRkA)
vamanfamBlxusKña .
sNæan EdlkñúgenaHRbUtugEdlmanlkçN³emEdk )antMrg;CaCYrCamYyEdnxageRkA
dUecñHb:Ulxagt,ÚgénemEdkRbUtugEbrQmmuxCamYyb:UlxageCIgénemEdkxageRkA nwgman
famBlTabCag. sNæanEdlkñúg enaHemEdkRbUtug)anRtLb;mk 180 CamYyb:Ulxag o
t,ÚgRbQmmuxCamYyb:Ulxagt,Úgrbs;vaénemEdkxageRkA nwgmanfamBlx<s;Cag. \LÚvebI

RbUtugkñúgsNæans<InTabCagKW)anbBaa©MgBnøWCamYyrlkeGLicRtUm:aejTic EdlmaneRhVkg;
smRsb(kñúgenaHRbUtugmanfamBlesμIeTAnigPaBxusKñakñúgfamBlkñúgsNæans<In) RbUtugnwg
eFVI[ERbRbYleTAelIsNæans<Inx<s;Cag. eRhVkg;RtUv)anRsUbedayRbUtugGaRs½yeTAelITMhMén
Ednm:aejTic. cMeBaHemEdk)neRbIkñúg]bkrN¾enH BnøWlatsn§wgenAkñúglMdab;eRhVkg;rlk.
eRhVkg;EdlniymeRbIKW 60MHz nig 100MHz EdlsßitkñúgeRhVkg;tMbn;eRhVkg;Gacman
rhUtdl; 600MHz .
7-42
CMBUkTI7
rUb 29 rUbPaBer:sUNg;m:aejTic. kñúgk,alGñkCm¶WKWRtUv)anCMnYsedayemEdkFMCag ehIy)anBinitü

GegátedayviTüúCIbcr. karcMlgs<InRbUtugbegáIneTAkarbnSayrlkviTüúEdlGac eday]bkrN¾
eGLicRtUnic nig bMElgedaykMBüÚT½reTATMhMrUb PaB BIrénkMBs;épÞPaKrbs;xYrk,al.
rUb 30 bgðajBIs<ic NMR samBaØ. vaekIteLIgBIPaKsMNakkñúgEdnénemEdk

GKÁIsnIERbRbYlehIyCitkak;BIrmYyrlkviTüúCa]bkrN¾bBa¢Ún nig mYyeTotCakak;bBaÄr
Ca]bkrN¾TTYleTAelIkak;]bkrN¾bBa¢Ún (GaRs½ydUecñH ]bkrN¾TTYlnwgmincab;yk
sBaaØBI]bkrN¾bBa¢Ún). ]bmafa rlkkaMrsμIbBa¢Ún 100MHz. ebIPaKsMNak RsUbrlk
viTüúTaMgenH RbUtugnwgrgkarbBa¢ÚnBIsNæans<InTabeTAsNæans<Inx<s;Cag. kalNaRbUtug
sßitkñúgsNæanfamBlx<s;Cag vamanTMenar)at;bg;famBl eFVIdMeNIrRtLb;eTAsNæans<In
TabCag ehIycaMgBnøWCMhanrlkviTüú100-MHz. dUecñH PaKsMNakmanGMeBIdUc
Ca]bkrN¾bBa¢Ún b:uEnþmYyCamYykak;kñúgTisedAepSg²Kña dUecñHsBaaØGacemIleXIj)an
eday]bkrN¾kak;TTYl.
7-43
rUb 30 karBiesaFn¾eTAelIer:sUNg;nuyekøEGrm:aejTic . PaKsMNak)andak;cUleTAkñúgEdn

m:aejTicEdlGacpøas;bþÚr)anedaycrnþGKÁIsnIepSg²Kñakñúgkak;emEdk. kalNafamBl xusKña
énsNæans<InnuyekøEG‘rFanaeTAelIeRhVkg;bBa¢ÚnCMhanrlkEdl)anRsUb. kalNas<In
nuyekøEG‘reFVIdMeNIrRtLb;eTAnigPaBedImrlkviTüú)anbeBa©jkñúgTisedAxusKña ehIymYycMnYn
GacemIleXIjeday]bkrN¾kak;TTYl. BIeRBaH]bkrN¾kak;TTYlKWkat;EkgeTA nig]bkrN¾
kak;TTYl vaminGacemIleXIjsBaaØTTYl b:uEnþGaceXIjBIPaKsMNak.
CaTUeTA PaKsMNaknwgminRsUbenAÉeRhVkg;)aneRCIserIs. b:uEnþ GñkGacbþÚrfa
mBlxus²Kñarvag sNæans<In ehiIyGaRs½ydUecñH eRhVkg; Edl)anRsUbedayPaKsMNak
eFVI[mankMeNIn b¤tMhyTMhMénEdnm:a ejTicxageRkAedayeRbIkak;tUcCagenAelIRTg;RTay
b:UlemEdk. eFVIdUecñH GñkGac kñúgRbsiT§PaB " sUr " PaKsMNak b¤ "er:sUNg;" CamYyeRhVkg;
bBa¢Ún. (PaBqøas;Kña ]bkrN¾TMenIbCaeRcIn xusKñaeRhVkg;bBa¢ÚnedIm,I TTYl)aner:sUNg;) .
edaysarRbUtugnImYy²kñúgsarFatuKWBT½§CMuvijedayeGLicRtugEdlmanEdnm:aejTic
pÞal;rbs;eK m:aejTicCMuvijénRbUtugGaRs½ybnþicbnþÜceTAelIetIGatUmGVIcgsm<n½§eTAelIva.
Ednm:aejTicxageRkARtUvkaredIm,I naMs<InRbUtugeTAer:sUNg;CamYykarbeBa©jBnøW 100-MHz
nwgmanRbePTsm<½n§KImIxusKña².
rUb 31 bgðajdMeNaHRsays,ic NMRTab éneGtaNul EdlmanTMrg;m:UelKul³
H H
H O C C H
H H
7-44
CMBUkTI7
kt;sMKal;fa RbUtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsncgsm<n½§eTAnigGuksIuEsn (H-O-) RsUbenA

Ednm:aejTicTabCagGatUmGIuRdUEsncgsm<½n§CamYyGatUmkabUnTaMgenaH. müa:geTot manPaB
xusKñatictYcrvagma:ejTic CMuvijGMBIéNVy:UGIuRdUEsnelIRkum -CH - ehIynigRkum -CH .
2 3
cugbBa©b;tMbn;eRkamBic (peak) sMrUbnImYy²KWsmamaRteTAnigcMnYnGatUmGIuRdUEsn énRbePT

enaH. dUecñH dMbn;TTYlbnÞúksMrab;Bicén HO , CH nig CH enAkñúgsmamaRt 1:2:3 .
2 3
enHCaEpñkmYyénB’tmanEdlGacRbmUl)anBIs,ic NMRénsaFatu . b:uEnþvaminRKb;RKan; edIm,I

bgðajBIkareRbIR)as; NMR enAkñúgkarkMNt;TMrg;.
rUb 31 s,ic NMR éneGtaNul CH CH OH (dMeNaHRsayTab). kt;sMKal;faBic sMrab;RbUtugkñú

3 2
PaBxusKñaénkarcgsm<½n§KImICMuvij. dMbn;eRkamBicnImYy²smamaRteTAnigcMnYnRbUtugkñúgsm<½n§ CMuvij

nImYy². enAdMeNaHRsayx<s;CagEdlGacmanCamYynig]bkrN¾TMenIb BickNþalnigBicxagsþaMéd
bMEbkeTACaBiceRcInedaysarEtkarRbTajKñarvags<InRbUtug.karbMEbkTaMgenHpþl;[ nUvB’tman
eRcInGMBITMrg;m:UelKul.
7 karbegáIteKalkarN¾nigtaragxYb (Building-up Principle and Periodic Table)

RKb;GatUmmancMnYnminkMNt;énrUbsNæaneGLicRtugEdlGacman. rUbsNæanTak;Tg
CamYykMritfamBlTabénGatUmEdlFanaeTAelIsNæancln³karkg;TicehAfa PaBedIm
(ground state). rUbsNæanepSgeTotFanaeTAelI PaBlMejac (excited state) Tak;Tgnig
kMritfamBlepSgeTotEdlmanlkçN³TabbMput. ]Ta . sNæannwgénGatUmsUdüÚm KW)ansÁal;
7-45
BIkarBiesaFEdlmanrUbsNæaneGLicRtug 1s 2s 2 p 3s . rUbsNæaneGLicRtugtMNag
2 2 6 1
CaPaBlMejacénGatUmsUdüÚm.
lkçN³KImIénGatUmKWTak;TgCadMbUgeTAnwgrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénPaBedImrbs;va.
tarag1.raynam karkMNt;edayBiesaFn¾nUvrUbsNæaneGLicRtugPaBedIménGatUm Z =1 eTA Z
= 36 .
eKalkarN¾karkekIt (Building-up Principle) ( eKalkarN¾ Aufbau )

rUbsNæanPaKeRcInkñúgtarag 2 GacRtUv)anBnül;edayeKalkarN¾karkekIt (b¤
Aufbau Principle) CaKMerag)aneRbIedIm,IbegáItrUbsNæaneGLicRtug énPaBedIménGatUm
edaykarbMeBjRsTab;rgCabnþbnÞab;CamYy eGLicRtugkñúgkarteRmobCak;lak; (lMdab;én

karbegáIteLIg). GnuelamtameKalkarN¾enHGñkTTYl)anrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUm
edaykarbMeBjRsTab;rgCabnþbnÞab;kñúglMdab;dUcteTA (lMdab;énkarbegáIteLIg) :
1s,2 s,2 p,3s,3 p,4 s,3d ,4 p,5s,4d ,5 p,6s,4 f ,5d ,6 p,7 s,5 f . enHCalMdab;begáIteLIgvij
rUbsNæaneGLicRtugkMNt;)antamBiesaFn¾ (mankrNIelIkElgmYycMnYn EdleyIgnwg

BiPakSabnÞab;).
tarag 2 rUbsNæaneGLicRtugPaBedIménGatUm Z = 1 = 36*
7-46
CMBUkTI7
GñkmincaM)ac;eFVIkarcgcaMkarteRmobenH. dUcGñknwgeXIjGñkGacnwg TTYl)anTMrg;va

BItaragxYb. munnigeyIgGFib,ay etIRtUveFVIdUcenHy:agdUemþceyIgRtUvkar BiPakSa
lMdab;énkarbegáIteLIg nig eXIjfaetIrUbeGLicRtugxusKñadUc EdleyIgkMBugeFVItam taragxYb.
lMdab;énkarbegáIteLIgFanasMrab;EpñkCaeRcInedIm,IbegáInfamBlénRsTab;rg. Gñk
GacnwgcUlrYmCamYyva. edaykarbMeBjG½rb‘Ítal;énfamBlTabbMputdMbUg GñkEtgEtTTYl
famBlsarubTabbMput (PaBedim) énGatUm. ehACafμIfamBlénG½rb‘Ítal;GaRs½yEtmYyKt;
elIcMnYnkg;Tic n nig l . (famBlrbs;GatUmGIuRdUEsndUecñHGaRs½yEteTAelI n ).
G½rb‘Ítal;EdlmancMnYn n nig l dUcKñab:uEnþman m xusKñaenaHmanG½rb‘Ítal;xusKñaénRsTab;rg
l
dUcKñaenaHmanfamBldUcKña. famBlGaRs½yCacMbgeTAelI n CamYynigkMeNIttMél rbs;va.

dUecñH G½rb‘Ítal; 3s manfamBlFMCagG½rb‘Ítal; 2s edaysartMél n FMCag. elIkElgGatUm
GIuRdUEsnfamBlG½rb‘Ítal;CamYycMnYn n ekIneLIgdUcKñaRtUvKñanigcMnYnkg;Tic l . G½rb‘Ítal;
3 p manfamBltictYcCagbI dgénG½rb‘Ítal; 3s eRBaH l mantMélFMCag. G½rb‘Ítal; Edlman
famBlTabbMputKW 1s bnÞab;mkx<s;CagmþgKW 2s nig 2 p bnÞab;mk 2s nig 3 p . lMdab;

énRsTab;rgTaMgenHtamry³famBl BI 1s eTA 3 p eTAtamkarbegáIt eLIgtamlMdab;dUc
Edl)ankt;RtakñúgtaragxagelI.
kalNaRsTab;rgmanfamBlCitdUcKña enaHlMdab;énkarbegáIteLIgRtUv)ankMNt;Rtwm
RtUvtamlMdab;énfamBlrbs;eK. rUbsNæanPaBedImEdleyIgeFVIkarsakl,gedIm,ITayTuk
lMdab;énkarbegáIteLIgKWRtUv)an kMNt;eLIgedayfamBlsarubénGatUm. famBlsarub
énGatUmminRKan;EtminGaRs½yelIfamBlénRsTab;rgb:ueNÑaHeT EfmTaMgminGaRs½yelI
famBl éncMeNamGnþrkmμénPaBxusKñarbs;RsTab;rgénGatUmenaHEdr. dUecñHsMrab;Fatu
TaMgGs;Edlman Z= 21 b¤ FMCag famBlénRsTab;rg 3d KWTabCagfamBlénRsTab;rg 4s
(emIlrUb32)EdlpÞúyKñaeTAniglMdab;énkarbegáIteLIg. enHKWCalMdab;énkarbegáIteLIgEdlGñk
RtUvkarteRmob edIm,ITayTukrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénPaBedImrbs;GatUm.
\LÚvenHGñkGaceXIjfaetIRtUvbegáIteLIgvijnUvrUbsNæaneGLicRtugkñúgtarag 2 y:ag
dUemþcedayeRbIeKalkarN¾begáIteLIg. cgcaMfa cMnYneGLicRtugkñúgGatUmNWtesμIeTAnigelx
lMdab; Z (bnÞúkéNVy:UKW +Z) . kñúgkrNIGatUmgaybMput GIuRdUEsn (Z=1) GñkTTYl)anPaBedIm
edayCMnYseGLicRtugEtmYyeTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 1s pþl;[rUbsNæan 1s (GanfamYyeGsmYy).
1
\LÚvenHemIleTAeGlüÚm He (Z=2). eGLicRtugdMbUgeFVIdMeNIr eTAG½rb‘Ítal; 1s dUckñúgkrNI

7-47
GIuRdUEsnRbRBwtþeTAeGLicRtugTIBIr BIeRBaHG½rb‘Ítal;nImYy²GacTTYleGLicRtugBIr. rUbsNæan

1s . karbMeBjRsTab; n = 1 begáIteLIgrUbsNæany:agmansßirPaB ehIydUcCalT§pl
2
TTYl)aneFVI[ekIneTAelIGatUmmanlkçN³KImIGskmμ.
rUb 32 famBlG½rb‘Ítal;sMrab;GatUmesándüÚm (Z=21). kt;sMKal;fakñúgGatUmesándüÚm mindUcCa

GatUmGIuRdUEsn RsTab;rgsMrab; n )anBRgIkenAq¶ayBIKñakñúgfamBl. dUecñH famBl 2 p KWxagelI
2s . RsedogKña RsTab;rg n = 3 KW)anBRgIk[eTAtamlMdab; 3s〈3 p〈3d .
famBlRsTab;rg 3d KW\LÚvenHenAeRkam 4s . (tMélTUelx enH)anKNnaBIRTwsþIeday Charlotte
F. Fischer, Vanderbilt University) .
GñkbnþviFIenHtameGLicRtugTaMgLayenAeBleFVI[ Z ekIneLIgmYyehIyeday
karbEnßmeGLicRtugepSgeTot. GñkTTYl)anrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUmBITMrg;kar
eGLicRtugedaykarbEnßmeGLicRtugmYyeTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal;bnÞab; EdlGacmaneTAtamlMdab;
begáIt[maneLIg. krNIlIcUm (Z=3) eGLicRtugBIrdMbUg[rUbsNæan 1s dUeceGlüÚm 1
b:uEnþeGLicRtugTIbIeFVIdMeNIreTAG½rb‘Ítal;x<s;CagbnÞab;kñúglMdab;begáIt[maneLIg BIeRBaH
G½rb‘Ítal; 1s \LÚvenHKW)anbMeBj. kic©karenH[rUbsNæan 1s 2s . krNI ebrIl:üÚm (Z=4)
2 1
eGLicRtug TI 4 bMeBjG½rb‘Ítal; 2s [rUbsNæan 1s 2s .

2 2
ebIIGñkeRbIkarsresrkat; [He] sMrab; 1s rUbsNæanKW ³

2
7-48
CMBUkTI7
Z=3 lIcUm 1s 2s b¤ [He] 2s

2 1 1
Z = 4 ebrIlüÚm 1s 2 s b¤ [He] 2s
2 2 2
cMeBaHb½r ( Z = 5) eGLicRtugcab;epþImbMeBjRsTab;rg 2 p GñkTTYl³

Z = 5 b½r 2 2
1s 2 s 2 p b¤ [He] 2s 2 p
1 2 1
Z = 6 kabUn 2 2
1s 2s 2 p b¤ [He] 2s 2 p
2 2 2
.
.
.
eNGug 1s 2s 2 p b¤ [He] 2s 2 p
Z = 10 2 2 6 2 6
RsTab;rg 2 p RtUv)anbMeBj GñkGacrkeXIjCafμInUvrUbsNæansßirPaBedayEpñk.

eNGug CaFatuKImI Gskmμ.
cMeBaHsUdüÚm ( Z =11) G½rb‘Ítal; 3s cab;epþImbMeBj. sresrbMRBYj [Ne] sMrab;
1s 2s 2 p Gñk)an³
2 2 6
Z = 11 sUdüÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s b¤ [Ne] 3s
2 2 6 1 1
Z = 12 m:aejsüÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s b¤ [Ne] 3s
2 2 6 2 2
bnÞab;mkRsTab;rg 3 p cab;epþImbMeBj .
Z =13 GaluymIjÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p b¤ [Ne] 3s 3 p
2 2 6 2 1 2 1
.
.
.
Z = 18 Gakug 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p b¤ [Ne] 3s 3 p
2 2 6 2 6 2 6
CamYyRsTab;rg 3 p RtUv)anbMeBj rUbsNæansßirPaB)anseRmc.

GakugCaFatuGskmμ .
\LÚvG½rb‘Ítal; 4s cam;epþImedIm,IbMeBj. GñkTTYl[Ar] 4s sMrab;b:UtasüÚm 1
( Z = 19) nig [Ar] 4s sMrab;kal;süÚm ( [Ar] = 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p ) . enAcMnucenH

2 2 2 6 2 6
RsTab;rg 3d cab;epþImedIm,IbMeBj. GñkTTYl [Ar] 3d 4s sMrab;esándüÚm ( Z = 21) , [Ar]

1 2
3d 4s sMrab;TItan (Z = 22)ehIynig [Ar] 3d 4s sMrab;v:aNadüÚm (Z = 23). kt;sMKal;fa

2 2 3 2
eyIg)ansresrrUbsNæanCamYyRsTab;rg)antMerobkñúglMdab;edayRsTab;. enHCakarCMnYs
CaTUeTAsMrab;RsTab;rgkñúglMdab;edayfamBlnigdak;RsTab;rg EdlminTak;TgkñúgRbtikmμKImI
enAq¶ayBIsþaM.
7-49
Tuk[eyIgrMlgeTAdl;s½gásI ( Z = 30). RsTab;rg 3d )anbMeBj. rUbsNæanKW [Ar]

3d 4 s . \LÚvRsTab;rg 4 p cab;epþImedIm,IbMeBj karcab;epþImCamYykal;lüÚm ( Z = 31)
10 2
rUbsNæanKW [Ar] 3d 4s 4 p nigbBa©b;CamYy RKIbtug ( Z = 36) rUbsNæanKW

10 2 1
[Ar] 3d 4s 4 p .
10 2 6
rUbsNæaneGLicRtugnigtaragxYb (Electron Configurations and Periodic

Table)
enAeBlenHGñkGaceXIjKMrUGPivDÆn¾cMeNamrUbsNæaneGLicRtugPaBedIménGatUm.
GñkGaceXIjfa KMrUenHBnül;BItaragxYbeday)anBiB’NnaedaysegçbkñúgCMBYkTI2.4. BinitüeTA
elI enGug Gakug nig RKIbtug CaFatuEdlenAkñúgRkum VIIIA éntaragxYb. enGug Gakug nig
RKIbtugmanrUbsNæankñúgRsTab;rg p EdleTIb )anbMeBj (eGlüÚm)anbMeBjRsTab;rg
1s KμanrsTab;rg 1 p EdlGacman) .
eGlüÚm 1s 2
enGug 1s 2s 2 p2 2 6
Gakug 2 2
1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 6 2 6
RKIbtug 2 2 6 2
1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 3d 4s 4 p 6 10 2 6
FatuTaMgenHCasmaCIkdMbUgénRkumrbs;FatuehAfa ]sμ½nkMr (noble gases) edaysar

EtTMnak;TMngGskmμrbs;BYkeK.
\LÚvRkeLkemIlrUbsNæanénebrüÚm m:aejsüÚm nig kal;süÚm CasmaCIkénRkum
elah³Gal;kaLaMgdI (alkaline earth metals) Rkum IIA EdlmanlkçN³RsedogKñaFatu
RbtikrmFüm.
ebrüÚm 1s 2 s 2 2
b¤ [He] 2s 2
m:aejsüÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s 2 2 6
b¤ [Ne] 3s
2 2
kal;süÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 4s b¤ [Ar] 4s
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
rUbsNæanTaMgenHnImYy²ekIteLIgén ]sμ½nkMrRKwH KWfa CaRsTab;niclrUbsNæanTTYl

rab;rgeTAelI]sμ½nkMrmYy bEnßmeGLicRtugxageRkABIr RtUvnigrUbsNæan ns . 2
7-50
CMBUkTI7
rUb 33 taragxYb taragenHbgðajBIrUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg;énFatu
7-51
Fatub½r GalumIjÚm nig kal;lüÚm (Rkum I I I A) k¾manlkçN³RsedogKñaEdr.

rUbsNæanrbs;eKKW ³
b½r 1s 2s 2 p 2 2 1
b¤ [He] 2s 2 p 2 1
GaluymIjÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p b¤ [Ne] 3s 3 p
2 2 6 2 1 2 1
kallüÚm 1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 3d 4s 4 p b¤ [Ar] 3d 4s 4 p
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1 10 2 1
b½r nig GaluymIjÚmmanmanRKwH]sμ½nkMrbEnßmeGLicRtugbICamYyrUbsNæan ns np . 2 1
kal;lüÚm)anbEnßmRsTab;rg 3d . ]sμ½nkMrRKwHcUlrYmKñaCamYyeGLicRtug( n − 1 ) d 10
KWCYnkalsMedAeTAelImNÐldUc]sμ½nkMrRKwH (Pseudo-noble-gas-core) BIeRBaHeGLicRtugTaMg

enHEtgEtminTak;TgeTAkñúgRbtikmμKImIeT.
eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmxageRkA]sμ½nkMr b¤ taMgxøÚÜndUcCamNÐl]sμ½nkMr KWehAfa
eGLicRtugv:aLg;. KWdUcCaeGLicRtugEdlTak;TgCabzmeTAkñúgRbtikmμKImI ehIyRsedogKña
EdrkñúgcMeNamrUbsNæanéneGLicRtugv:aLg; (rUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg;) CYbRbTHsMrab;PaB
RsedogKñaénlkçN³KImIkñúgcMeNamRkuménFatuTaMLay.
rUb 33 bgðajBItaragxYbCamYyrUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg;RtUv)anrab;bBa©Úl. kt;sMKal;fa
PaBRsedogKña kñúgrUbsNæaneGLicRtugxagkñúgRkumnImYy² (bnÞat;Qr) énFatu.
karBnül;RsedogKñaenHetIKImIviTUrtaMgEtBI Mendeleev )ansÁal;BIlkçN³énFatukñúgRkum
nImYy² KWRsedogKñaBIGVI.
Rkumem(b¤tMNag[) FatuTaMgGs;manrUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg; ns np CamYyCMerIsa b
mYycMnYnén a nig b ( b KYrEtesμI 0). kñúgn½yepSgeTot RsTab;Tab;rgxageRkA s b¤

p KWRtUv)ancab;epþImbMeBj. Rbhak;RbEhlKñaEdrFatuqøgbøúk d (CYnkalehA[gayFatuqøg).
RsTab;rg d KWcab;epþImbMeBj. kñúgFatuqøgbøúk f (b¤ Fatuqøgnicl) RsTab;rg

f KWcab;epþImbMeBj. (emIlrUb 31 b¤ ]bsm<n½§ D sMrab;rUbsNæanénFatuTaMgenH) .
krNIelIkElgeTAelIeKalkarN¾begáIt[maneLIg
(Exceptions to the Building-up Principle)
dUcGñk)anniyayehIy eKalkarN¾begáIt[maneLIgbegáIteLIgvijPaKeRcInrUb
sNæanPaBedImy:agRtwmRtUv. GaRs½yehtuenHmankrNIelIkElgmYycMnYn ehIyRkUm (Z =
24) EdlCafatudMbUgEdleyIgCYb. eKalkarN¾begáIt[maneLIgTayTukBIrUbsNæan [Ar]
3d 4s KitfavaRtwmRtUvmYyKWrkeXIjtamkarBiesaF eTACa [Ar] 3d 4s . rUbsNæan

4 2 5 1
7-52
CMBUkTI7
TaMgBIrenHKWBitCaenACitfamBlsarubedaysarEtPaBCitbMputkñúgfamBlén G½rb‘Ítal; 3d nig

4 s (emIlrUb 7eLIgvij) . cMeBaHbBaaðenH RbsiT§PaBtictYcGacCH\T§iBleTAelIrUbsNæanBIr KW
famBlTabCagBit. Tg;Edg ( Z = 29) KWCakrNIelIkElgepSgeTotelIeKalkarN¾begáIt

[maneLIg EdlTayTukBIrUbsNæan [Ar] 3d 4s eTaHbIBiesaFn¾bgðajPaBedImeTAnig
9 2
rUbsNæan [Ar] 3d 4s .
10 1
eyIgminRtUvkarN¾ BwgBak;eTAelIkrNIelIkElgTaMgenHrYcputBIkarsMKal;EdlekItman.
cMnucEdlKYr cgcaMKWfarUbsNæanRtUv)anTayTukedayeKalkarN¾begáIt[maneLIg KWCitbMput
eTAkñúgfamBledIm,IrUbsNæan RKwH (RbsinebIvaminmanPaBedIm). lkçN³snñidæanPaKeRcIn
EdlRtUvykcitþTukdak;eTAelIKImIénFatuKWminEmn vtßúFatu)anCH\T§iBledaykarCECkBIrUb
sNæan)an[edayeKalkarN¾begáIt[maneLIg.
KImIGnuvtþn_³
viFIeRbIR)as;]bkrN¾ (Instrumental Methods)
kaMrsμI x cMnYnGatUm nig TMrg;G½rb‘Ítal; (s,icRtUsáÚBI pUtUeGLicRtug)
kñúgqñaM 1913 Henry G.J.Moseley CanisSitrbs; Rutherford )aneRbIR)as;bec©keTs
kamrsμI x s,icRtUsáÚBI (eTIbEt)anrkeXIjeday Max von Laue) edIm,IkMNt;cMnYnGatUménFatu.
kaMrsμI x RtUv)anbegáIteLIgkñúgbMBg;kaMrsμIkatUtenAeBl EdlBnøWeGLicRtug (kaMrsμIkatUt)
Føak;eTAelIvg;mUlénelah³. karBnül;sMrab;plitpl énkaMrsμI x enHKWmandUcteTA ³
kalNaeGLicRtugkñúgkaMrsμIkatUtb:HGatUmelah³kñúgvg;mUl
vaGac(RbsinebIvamanfamBlRKb;RKan;) TgÁiceGLicRtugBIRsTab;niclrbs;GatUm. GIuy:ug
elah³RtUv)an begáIteLIgCamYyeGLicRtugEdl)at;bg;BIG½rb‘Ítal;nicl. rUbsNæan
eGLicRtugrbs;vaKWgsßirPaB ehIynigeGLicRtugBIG½rb‘Ítal;énfamBlx<s;CagFøak;cuHeTAkñúg
Bak;kNþalénG½rb‘Ítal;EdlRtUv)anbMeBj nigpUtug)anbeBa©j. pUtugTTYlr:ab;rgeTAelIkaMrsμI
eGLicRtUm:aejTickñúgdMbn;kaMrsμI x .
famBlrbs;G½rb‘Ítal;niclénGatUm ehIynigbNþÚrfamBlrvagBYkeKGaRs½yeTAelI
bnÞúknuyekøEG‘r +Z. dUecñHfamBlpUtug hυ nigeRhVkg; υ énkarbeBa©jkaMrsμI x GaRs½yeTA
elIcMnYnGatUm ZénGatUm elah³enAkñúgvg;mUl. rUb 34 bgðajs,ickaMrsμI x TTYl)antamry³
7-53
Moseley CamYyvg;elah³epSg²Kña. PaBedaypÞal;cMNuHeTAelIs,ickaMrsμI x elIcMnYnGatUm

mann½yfamYymanviFIc,as;las;énkarsMerccitþfaetIsarFatuenHKWCaFatusuT§ b¤ minsuT§.
rUb 34 s,ickaMrsμI x BIFatukal;süÚmdl;sgá½sI TTYl)aneday Moseley.

lT§plénbnÞat;nImYy²BIkarbeBa©jénCMhanrlk)an[. edaysarEtPaBpøas;bþÚrén
sgá½sI Moseley )aneRbIsMelah³Tg;Edg(sMelah³ Tg;Edg-sgá½sI) sMrab;GegáteTAelIs,ic
énsgá½sI. sMKal;fa bnÞat;Tg;EdgkñúgsMelah³Tg;Edg. kt;sMKal;pgEdrfa etIbnÞat;man
PaBcMerIneTAxagsþaM (bgðajBIkMeNInCMhanrlk b¤ tMhyfamBlxus²Kña) CamYytMhy
cMnYnGatUm.
bec©keTsEdlCab;Tak;Tgs,icRtUsáÚBIpUtUeGLicRtugkaMrsμI x RtUv)anbBaa¢keday
BiesaFn¾tamTsSn³RTwsþIrbs;eyIgénTMrg;G½rb‘Ítal;rbs;GatUm. CMnYskarcaMgBnøWPaKsMNak
CamYyviTüúsBaaØeGLicRtugnigkarviPaKeRhVgk;énkaMrsμI x )anbeBa©jGñkbBaa©MgBnøWeTAelIPaK
sMNakCamYykaMrsμI x nigviPaKfamBlsIuenTicén eGLicRtugEdl)anbBa©Úl. eKGacniyayfa
GñkGegátplpUtUeGLicRTiceLIPaKsMNak (emIlEpñk 2) .
]TahrN¾ s,icRtUsáúbBIpUtUeGLicRTicbgðajPaKsMNakén]s½nμ eNGug (GatUm
enGug). ]bmafaPaKsMNakKWRtUvdak;[RtUvBnøWCamYykaMrsμI x énCMhanrlkFMlμmCak;lak;
edIm,IykeGLicRtug 1s ecjBIGatUm enGug. EpñkfamBlrbs;pUtugkaMrsμI X, hυ
KW)aneRbIedIm,IykecjeGLicRtugecjBIGatUm (enHCafamBlGIuy:ugkmμ I.E sMrab;eGLicRtug
enH). famBlenAsl;ekIteLIgdUcfamBlsIuenTic E éneGLicRtug Edl)anbBa©Úl.
k
BIc,ab;rkSafamBl eyIgGacsresr ³
E = hυ - I.E
k
BIeRBaH hυ KW)ankMNt; E 1nwgGaRs½yeTAelIbnÞat; I.E énfamBlGIuy:ugkmμ.

k
7-54
CMBUkTI7
RbsinebIGñkeMilÉeGLicRtugEdl)anbBa©ÚlBIenGug GñkrkeXIjfa BYkeKmanfamBl

sIuenTic Tak;TgeTAnigfamBlGIuy:ugkmμBIRKb;G½rb‘Ítal;EdlGacman ( 1s,2s nig 2 p )
kñúgGatUm. dUecñH kalNaGñkesánfamBl sIuenTicepSg²KñaéneGLicRtug)anbBa©Úl
GñkeXIjs,icCamYy nigBik (peak) TTYlrab;rgeTAnigG½rb‘Ítal;Edl)antaMgTIxusKña² (emIlrUb
35A). famBl GIuy:ugkmμTaMgenHKWRbEhlCaesμIeTAnigtMélviC¢manébfamBlG½rb‘Ítal; (rUb
35B) dUecñHs,ic
pþl;[karRtYtBinitüBiesaFn¾edaypÞal;énkMritfamBldac;²BIKñaTak;TgCamYynig eGLicRtug
énGatUm.
rUb 35 kaMrsμI x s,icpUtUeGLicRtugénenGug. (A) BiknImYy²bgðajBIfamBléneGLicRtug

Edl)anbBa©Úl. famBlénkaMrsμIpUtugnImYy²KW 200,9 × 10 J. (B) düaRkamkMritfamBl
−18
sMrab;enGug. PaBqøgEdlekIteLIgkñúgs,icpUtUeGLicRtugKWrhUtdl; n = ∞ EdlfamBlesμI 0 .

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
8 karsresrrUmsNæaneGLicRtugedayeRbItaragxYb
Writing Electron Configurations using the Periodic Table
kñúglMdab;lMedayedIm,IBiPakSaeTAelIkarcgsm<n½ § nig KImIénFatuEdlTak;TgKña GñkRtUv
EtmanlT§PaBbegáIteLIgvijBIrUbsNæan énGatUmCamYyPaBgayRsYlGnuvtþn¾tameKalkar
begáIt[maneLIg. RKb;tRmUvkarrbs;GñkKWmYycMnYnmanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarnwkeXIjBIlMdab;
énkarbegáIteLIvvijénRsTab;rg.
kic©karmYyedIm,IxiteTArkKWkarnwkeXIjeLIgvijBITMrg; éntaragxYb. BIeRBaHTMrg;enH
CamUldæanvaR)ab;GñknUvviFIRtwmRtUvedIm,IcgcaMBIlMdab; énkarbegáIt[maneLIg. manKMrUkMNt;
7-55
edIm,ItMerobkarbMeBjénRsTab;rg dUcEdlGñk)anGnuvtþn¾tamFatukñúgtaragxYb ehIytamviFIenH

GñkGacsresrlMdab; énkarbegáIteLIg. rUb 36 bgðajBItaragxYbbBaa¢k;BIKMrUenH.
]TahrN¾ kñúgdMbn;B’Nexov RsTab;rg ns KW)ancab;epþImbMeBj. kñúgdMbn; B’Nébtg
RsTab;rg np KW)ancab; epþImbMeBj. tMél n KW)anmkBIelxxYb
(CYredk).kñúgdMbn;B’NébtgRsTab;rg (n − 1)d KW)ancab;epþImbMeBj.
GñkGan[cb;BIlMdab; énkarbegáIteLIgedaycab;epþImCamYyxYbTI1EdlRsTab;rg
1s KW)ancab;epþIm bMeBj. kñúgxYbTI2 eyIgman 2 s (dMbn;B’Nexov) bnÞab;mksßitenAkñúgxYbdUcKña
b:uEnþelatqøgkat; Gñkman 2 p (dMbn;B’Nébtg) . kñúgxYbTI3 Gñkman 3s nig 3 p . kñúgxYbTI4

4 s (dMbn;B’Nexov) , 3d (dMbn;B’NelOg) ehIybnÞab;mk 4 p (dMbn;B’Nébtg) .
KMrUenHKYrEtmanlkçN³c,as;las;RKb;RKan;edIm,IemIl[c,as;CamYy taragxYbEdlmin)an dak;
pøakCamYyRsTab;rg.
rUb 36 taragxYbbgðajlMdab;énkarbegIát[maeLIg. dMbn;FatuRtUv)andak;B’NbgðajBIPaB

xusKña énRsTab;rg EdlkMBugbMeBjCamYyeGLicRtugTaMgenaH.
]TahrN¾ 8 cUrkMNt;rUbsNæanrbs;GatUmedayeRbIR)as;eKalkarN¾énkarbegáIt[maneLIg ³
eRbIeKalkarN¾énkarbegáIt[maneLIgedIm,ITTYl)anrUbsNæansMrab;PaBedImsMrab;Ga
tUmkal;lüÚm ( Z =31) . cUr[rUbsNæanénTMrg;eBjelj (minRtUvsresrkat;TMrg;mUldæan) .
etIGVIeTACarUbsNæanRsTab; v:aLg; ?
cMelIy ³ emIleTAtaragxYb (EpñkxagmuxTMB½rxagkñúgénesovePAenH). cab;epþImBIGIuRdUEsn
ehIy emIlkñúgtaragxYbTagmUlsresrRsTab;rgEdl)ancab;epþImbMeBj bBaÄb;Rtg;kal;lüÚm.
GñknwgTTYl)ankarteRmob dUc teTA³
7-56
CMBUkTI7
1s 2s 2 p 3s3 p 4s3d 4 p
xYb TI1 TI2 TI3 TI4
\LÚvenHGñkbMeBjeGLicRtugCamYyRsTab;rg cgcaMfaGñkmaneGLicRtugsarub 31
edIm,Ipþl;[. eyIgTTYl)an³
1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4 p 1
b¤ RbsinebIGñktMerobeLIgvijRsTab;rgedayRsTab; eyIgGacsresr³
1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4 p 1
rUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg;KW ³ 4s 4 p 2 1
lMhat;TI 9 ³ eRbIeKalkarN¾énkarbegáIt[maneLIgedIm,ITTYl)anrUbsNæansMrab;PaB
RKwHsMrab;GatUmm:g;kaENs ( Z =25) .
kñúgkrNICaeRcIn GñkRtUvkarrUbsNæaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;EtmYyKt;. GñkGac
kMNt;vaBITI taMg énFatukñúgtaragxYb. nwkeXIjfa rUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg;énFatukñúgRkumemKW
ns np Edl n CaeKalkaN¾cMnYnkg;Ticrbs;RsTab;eRkA EdlesμIpgEdreTAnwgelxxYbsMrab;
a b
Fatu. cMnYnsarubéneGLicRtugv:aLg; EdlesμI eTAnig a + b Gac)anmkBIelxRkum. ]TahrN¾

kal;lüÚmsßitkñúgxYbTI 4 dUecñH n = 4 . vasßitkñúgRkumTI IIIA dUecñH cMnYneGLicRtugv:aLg;KW 3 .
krNIenH[rUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg; 4s 4 p . rUbsNæanénRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;énFatuqøgKW
2 1
TTYl)ankñúgrebobRbhak;RbEhlKña.
]TahrN¾ 9 cUrkMNt;rUbsNæanénGatUmedayeRbItaragxYbnigelxRkum
etIGVIeTACarUbsNæansMrab;RsTab;eRkAbg¥s;én (a) etlüÚm Z = 52 nig (b) nIEkl Z =28 ?
dMeNaHRsay³
(a)GñkrkTItaMgetlüÚmkñúgtaragxYbKWvasßitenAkñúgxYbTI 5 RkumTI VIA . dUecñH
vaCaFatukñúgRkumem ehIyRsTab;rgeRkAbg¥s;KW 5s nig 5 p . RsTab;rgTaMgenHman 6

eGLicRtug BIeRBaHRkumrbs;vaKW VIA. rUbsNæan RsTab;v:aLg;KW 5s 5 p . 2 4
(b) nIEklCaFatuqøgkñúgxYbTI4 EdlTMrg;CaTUeTAénrUbsNæanRsTab;eRKAbg¥s;KW 3d 4s . a− 2 2
edIm,I kMNt; a GñkeXIjfavaesμIeTAnigelxr:UmaMugéncMnYnRkumrhUtdl;Edk (8) . bnÞab;mk

Gñkrab; Co fa 9 nig Ni fa 10 . dUecñH rUbsNæanRsTab;eRkAbg¥s;KW 3d 4s . 8 2
lMhat; 10.eRbItaragxYbenAKMrbBIxagmux cUrsresrrUbsNæanRsTab;eGLicRtugv:aLg;rbs;

Gaesnic(As) .
7-57
lMhat; 11. GatUmsMNmanrUbsNæanPaBedIm [Xe] 4 f 5d 6s 6 p . cUrrkxYbnigRkumsMrab;

14 10 2 2
FatuenH. BITItaMg rbs;vakñúgtaragxYb cUrGñkcat;fñak;sMNCaRkumem Fatuqøg b¤ Fatuqøgnicl ?

9 düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;énGatUm viFan HUND
kñúgkarBiPakSaBIPaBedImrbs;GatUm
eyIgminTan;)anBiB’NnaetIeGLicRtug)antMerobkñúgRsTa;rgnImYy²y:agdUemþc. RbEhlCaman
rebobxusKñamYycMnYnénkartMerobeGLicRtugkñúgrUb sNæanedayEpñk. cUrbgðajBIGatUmkabUn
( Z = 6) CamYyPaBedIm 1s 2s 2 p . kartMerob manbIEdlGacmantamdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;dUc
2 2 2
teTA ³
düaRkam 1 :
1s 2s 2p
düaRkam 2:
1s 2s 2p
düaRkam 3:
1s 2s 2p
düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;TaMgenHbgðajsNæanxusKñaénGatUmkabUn. sNæannImYy²man
famBlxusKña ehIyGñknigeXIjBIlkçN³TicxusKña .
viFan Hund
RbEhlCakñúgqñaM 1927 Friedrich Hund )anrkeXIjviFangaykMNt;kartMerob
famBlTabbMputéneGLicRtugkñúgkúñgRsTab;rg. viFan Hund EføgfakartMerobfamBlTab
bMputéneGLicRtugkñúgRsTab;rgKWTTYl)anedaykardak;eGLicRtugeTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal edayELk
BIKñaénRsTab;rgCamYys<IndUcKñamunnigeFVIkarpÁÚreGLicRtug. Tuk[eyIgbgðajfa etIkarenHKYr
EtGnuvtþn¾dUemþceTAelIkrNIGatUmkabUnEdlrUbsNæanRKwHKW 1s 2s 2 p . eGLicRtugbYndMbUg
2 2 2
eFVIdMeNIreTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 1s nig 2s .

1s 2s 2p
eGLicRtugBIrbnÞab;eToteFVIdMeNIreTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2p edayELkBIKña CamYyeGLicRtug
TaMgBIrmans<IndUc Kña. tamc,ab; Hund eyIg)an ³

1s 2s 2p
7-58
CMBUkTI7
dUecñH düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;TTYlrab;rgeTAelIfamBlTabbMputKWCadüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;mYy
EdlBImuneyIg dak;eQμaHCadüaRkam 1 .
edIm,IGnuvtþn¾viFan Hund eTAelIGatUmGuksIuEsn EdlrUbsNæanPaBedImKW
1s 2s 2 p eyIgCMnYs eGLicRtug 7 dMbUgdUcteTA ³
2 2 4

1s 2s 2p
eGLicRtugcugeRkayKWCaKUr CamYyeGLicRtugmYyCaeGLicRtug 2p edIm,I[G½rb‘Ítal;
eTV)antaMgTI. G½rb‘Ítal;düaRkamsMrab;PaBedIménGatUmGuksIuEsnKW ³

1s 2s 2p
kñúg]TahrN¾bnÞab;viFan Hund KW)aneRbIsMrab;düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIm
énGatUmEdlmanlkçN³saMjaMú. düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménFatu 10 dMbUg)anbgðaj
kñúgtarag 3.
]TahrN¾ 10. Gnuvtþn¾eTAelIviFan Hund
cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘tal;sMrab;PaBedIménGatUmEdk.
dMeNaHRsay
BIeKalkarN¾karbegáIt[maneLIg GñkkMNt;farUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUmEdkKW
1s 2s 2 p 3s 3 p 3d 4s . RKb;RsTab;rg elIkElgEt 3d KW)anbMeBj. kñúgkarCMnYs
2 2 6 2 6 6 2
eGLicRtug 6 kñúgRsTab;rg 3d GñkeXIjfaeGLicRtug 5 dMbUgcUleTAkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 3d eday

ELkBIKñaCamYyRBYjs<Inrbs;eKkñúgTisedAdUcKña. eGLicRtugTI6 RtUvEttaMgTIeTVenAG½rb‘Ítal;
3d . düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;KW³

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
GñkGacsresrdüaRkamenHkñúgTMrg;bMRBYjedayeRbI [Ar] sMrab;GatUmEdkKW³
[Ar]
3d 4s
lMhat; 12. sresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménGatUmpUs½Vr (Z =15) .
sresrRKb;G½rb‘Ítal;
7-59
lkçN³m:aejTicrbs;GatUm (Magnetic Properties of Atoms)

lkçN³m:aejTicénsaFatuGacbgðaj[eXIjBt’manBitGMBIkarteRmobeGLicRtugkñúg
GatUm (b¤m:UelKul). eTaHbICaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmmanlkçN³dUcemEdkd¾tUckarRbTaj
m:aejTicBIeGLicRtugBIrKWmans<In pÞúyKñaeTAvijeTAmk. dUc)anbgðaj GatUmEdlman
G½rb‘Ítal;EtBIr)antaMgTIKμanbNþajs<InEdlmanlkçN³emEdk. dUecñH GatUmEdlkñúgenaHman
eGLicRtugmindak;eTVtaeGLicRtugrYmKWfa kñúgenaHmanRbePTs<InmYyelIsEdleFVIkarbgðaj
BIbNþajm:aejTic.
lkçN³m:aejTicénGatUmGacRtUv)anGegát. viFIedaypÞal;KWedIm,IkMNt;fa etIsarFatu
énGatUmKWRtUv)anRbTajeTAelIEdnénm:aejTicxøaMg. sarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic KWWCasarFatu
Edl)anRbTajexSayedayEdnm:aejTic ehIykarRbTajenHCaTUeTA KWCalT§plén
eGLicRtugmindak;rYm. ]TahrN¾ cMhaysUdüÚmRtUv)anrkeXIjtamkarBiesaFn¾ Edlman
lkçN³)a;r:am:aejTic. karBnül;enHKWfa cMhaymanCabzmnUvGatUmsUdüÚmehIyGatUmsUdüÚm
nImYy²maneGLicRtugmindak;eTVtarYm(rUbsNæanKW [Ne] 3s ). sarFatudüam:aejTic KwCa
1
sarFatuEdlminRbTaj rwRcantictYcbMputedayEdnm:aejTic. lkçN³enHCaTUeTAmann½yfa

CasarFatuEdlmanEteGLicRtugdak;KUr. ]TahrN¾ eKrkeXIjtamBiesaFn¾cMhay)art
Cadüam:aejTic. eyIgGacsnμt;fa cMhay)artmanEtGatUm)art EdlmanTMrg;eGLicRtug
[Xe]4f ,5d ,6s decñH manEteGLicRtugdak;KUr.
14 10 2
tarag 3. düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménGatUmBI Z = 1 dl; Z = 10
7-60
CMBUkTI7
BaküsMxan; (Important Terms)

cMnYnkg;Ticrg ( l ) angular momentum quantum number 7-27
G½rb‘Ítal;GatUm atomic orbital 7-27
eKalkarN¾karkekIt(Aufbau) building-up (Aufbau) principle 7-46
s,úicCab; continuous spectrum 7-9
TMnak;TMng deBroglie de Broglie relation 7-19
sarFatudüam:aejTic diamagnetic substance 7-60
s,úiceGLicRtUm:aejTic electromagnetic spectrum 7-4
rUbsNæaneGLicRtug electron configuration 7-38
kMritfamBl energy levels 7-10
eRhVkg; (υ ) frequency ( υ ) 7-3
viFan Hund Hund's rule 7-58
s,úicbnÞat; line spectrum 7-9
cMnYnkg;Ticm:aejTic (m )
l magnetic quantum number 7-29
]sμ½nkMrRKwH noble gas core 7-50
düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal; orbital diagram 7-39
sarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic paramagnetic substance 7-60
eKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli Pauli exclusion principle 7-40
plpUtUeGLicRTic photoelectric effect 7-7
pUtug photon 7-6
efr Planck Plank's constant 7-6
cMnYnkg;Ticem (n) principal quantum number 7-27
dUc]sμ½nkMrRKwH pseudo-noble gas core 7-52
emkanickg;Tic(rlk) quantum (wave) mechanics 7-22
cMnYnkg;Tics<In ( m )
s
spin quantum number 7-29
eKalkarN_PaBminCak;lak uncertainty principle 7-22
eGLicRtugv:aLg; valence electron 7-52
7-61
CMhanrlk ( λ ) wavelength ( λ ) 7-3
smIkarKnøwH ( KEY EQUATIONS)
c = υλ famBlpUtugEdl)anbeBa©j = hυ = E − E
i f
h
E = hυ λ=
mυ
E=−
RH
n2
n = 1,2,3....∞ ( cMeBaHGatUmGIuRdUEsn)
segçbehtukarN_ nigbBaØti ( Summary of Facts and Concepts)

viFImYyedIm,IsikSaTMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUmKWRtUvviPaKkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTicEdl)an
beBa©jBIBIGatUm. kaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTicKW)ansMKal;edayCMhanrlk λ nigeRbkg; υ
rbs;va ehIybrimaNTaMgenHKWTak;TgeTAnwgel,ÓnénBnøW c (c = υλ ) .
elak EINSTEIN )anbgðajfa BnøWpSMeLIgBIPaKl¥it (pUtug) EdlnimYy²manfamBl
E = hλ Edl h Caefr Planck . tamRTwsþI Bohr eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmmankMritfamBl
ehIyenAeBleGLicRtugkñúgkMritfamBlx<s;Føak;cuH (b¤TTYlrgPaBqøg) eTAkMritfamBlTab

Cag enaHpUtugmYyRtUv)anbeBa©j. famBlpUtugesμInwgpldkrvagkMritTaMgBIrenaH.
eGLicRtug nigPaKl¥iténrUbFatuepSgeTotmanTaMglkçN³PaKl¥it niglkçN³rlk.
cMeBaHPaKl¥itEdlmanm:as m nigel,Ón υ CMhanrlkKWTak;TgeTAnigm:Um:g; mυ tamTMnak;
TMng de Broglie: λ = mhυ . lkçN³rlkénPaKl¥itKW)anbBa¢ak;edayGnuKmn_rlk EdleyIg
GacTTYl)anRbU)ab‘ÍlIeténkarrkeXIjPaKl¥itkñúgtMbn;xus³Kña²énlMh.
eGLicRtugnImYy²kñúgGatUmKW)ansMKal;edaycMnYnkg;Ticxus²KñaTaMgbYn. r)ay
eGLicRtugkñúglMhEdlehAfaG½rb‘Ítal;GatUmrbs;va KwRtUvsMKal;edaycMnYnkg;TicbIkñúg
cMeNamcMnYnkg;TicTaMgenHKW³ cMnYnkg;Ticem cMnYnkg;Ticrg nigcMnYnkg;Ticm:aejTic. cMnYn
kg;TicTIbYn (cMnYnkg;Tics<In) Bnül;BIlkçN³ma:ej:Tic éneGLicRtug.
sRmab;yl;dwgGMBIPaBRsedogKñarbs;FatuKñúgRkumFatu eyIgRtUvEtdwgGMBIkartMerob
eGLicRtugCMuvijéNVy:UénGatUm kñúgPaBedImrbs;va. bu:Enþman tMerobeGLicRtug
EdleKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli GnuBaØat[)an Etb:ueNÑaH. PaBedImrbs;GatUmmYyKWCa
tMerobeGLicRtugEdlmanfmaBlsrubTabCageK. eyIgGacbegáIt tMerobeGLicRtugenH
7-62
CMBUkTI7
edayeRbIeKalkarN¾kekIt (eKalkarN¾ Aufbau) EdleGayeyIgdak;eGLicRtug

tamlMdab;kekItKñúgRsTab;eGLicRtugeGayeBj RBmtameKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli.
tMerobeGLicRtugKñúgRsTab;eGLicRtugmineBj KwCakMNt;edayviFan Hund.
bMNinRbtibtþi (Operational Skills)
1> eFVITMnak;TMngrevogrlk nigeRhVkg;énBnøW
eKeGayeRhVkg;énBnøW cUrKNnarlk b¤Rcasmkvij (]TahrN_ 1 nig 2) .

2> KNnafamBlénputug
eKeGayeRhVkg; b¤CMhanrlkénBnøW cUrKNnafamBlkñúgmYypUtug (]TahrN_ 3) .

3> kMNt;CMhanrlk b¤eRhVkg;énPaBqøgrbs;GatUmGIuRdUEsn
eKeGaycMnYnkg;TiceménPaBedIm nigbBa©b;sMrab;PaBqøgeGLicRtugénGatUmGIuRdUEsn
cUrKNnaeRhVkg; b¤CMhanrlkénBnøWEdl)anbeBa©j (]TahrN_ 4) . eyIgRtUvkartMél R . H
4> GnuvtþTMnak;TMng de Broglie
eKeGaym:as nigel,ÓnénPaKl¥it cUrKNnaCMhanrlkEdlTak;Tgnigrlk

(]TahrN_ 5) .
5> eRbIc,ab;cMnYnkg;Tic
eKeGaycMnYnkg;Tic n, l, m nig m cUrbBa¢ak;faetIcMnYnkg;TicnimYy²enHGacman

l s
tMéldUcemþc cMeBaHeGLicRtugNamYy (]TahrN_ 6) .

6> GnuvtþeKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli
7. kMNt;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugrbs;GatUmmYyedayeRbIeKalkarN¾karkekIt(Aufbau)
8. GnuvtþviFan Hund
sMnYrrMlwk
RTwsþIkg;Tic
1. cUrBiB’NnasegçbBIrlkBnøW. etIlkçN³BIry:agénrlkBnøWKWGVIxøH ?
2. etIGVIeTACaTMnak;TMngKNitviTüakñúgcMeNamlkçN³xusKñaénrlkBnøW? cUrBnül;n½yén
BakünimYy²kñúgsmIkar.
7-63
3. cUrBiB’NnasegçbBIeGLicRtUma:ejTics,úic edaycab;epþImBICMhanrlkxøIbMput nigeTA

CMhanrlkEvgbMput .
4. TsSn³rbs; Planck EcgfafamBlGacRtUvrgkg;Tickmμ etIBakürgkg;Tickmμmann½y
y:agdUemþc? etIelak Planck kMBugBüayamedIm,IBnül;BIGIV EdlnaMeGayKat;TTYl)anbBaØtién

famBlkg;Tickmμ? cUrsresrrUmbnþEdlKat;Taj)an nigBnül;Gtßn½yénBakünimYy²kñúg
rUbmnþenH .
5. eRbIBaküpÞal;xøÜnrbs;Gñk cUrBnül;BIplpUtUeGLicRTic. etIbBaØtipUtugBnül;plenH
y;agdUemþc?
6. Bnül;BIrlkEdlCarUbPaBPaKl¥iténBnøW .
7. cUrsresrsmIkarEdlTak;TglkçN³PaKl¥iténBnøW. Bnül;BIGtßn½yénnimitþsBaaØnImYy²
kñúgsmIkar.
8. RTwsþIrUbkñúgsm½ykal Rotherford )anesñIeLIgnUvKMrUnuyekøEG‘rénGatUmrbs;Kat; min
Tan;GacBnül;)anfaetIKMrUenHGaceFIV[GatUmmansßirPaBdUcemþceT. cUrBnül;BIkarlM)akenH .
9. Bnül;BIlkçN³Biessrbs;RTwsþI Bohr. etIlkçN³BiessTaMgenHedaHRsaykar
lM)akkñúgsMnYr 8 )anb¤eT ?
10. Bnül;BIlMnaMbeBa©jBnøWedayGatUm.
11. Bnül;BIlMnaMsMrUbénBnøWedayGatUm.
12. etIGVIeTACaPsþ½útagénrlkeGLicRtug ? cUreGaylMhat;sMrab;Gnuvtþ.
13. etIGnuKmn_rlk)anpþl;B½t’manGVIGMBIeGLicRtugkñúgGatUm ?
14. GatUmCYnkaleKfavamanlkçN³RsedogKñaeTAnigRbBn§½BiPBd¾tUcéRkElgEdlmaneGLic-
RtugvilCMuvijéNVy:U. etIeKalkarN_PaBminCak;lak;B’Nnaya:gNaGMBITsSn³énGatUm enH?

15. elak Bohr )anBnül;GMBIGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlmaneGLicRtugmYyvilCMuvijéNVy:U GIuRdUEsn.
eTaHbIRTwsþIenHenAEteRbI)an ¬mansuBlPaB¦ EtRTwsþIrbs;Kat;Gnuvtþ)anEtkñúgkrNI GatUm

GIuRdUEsnb:ueNÑaH. etIemkanickg;Ticpøas;bþÚrrUbPaBedIménGatUmGIuRdUEsnrbs; Bohr dUcemþc ?
16. cUr[tMélEdlGacmanén (a) cMnYnkg;Ticem (b) cMnYnkg;Ticrg (c) cMnYnkg;Ticm:aejTic nig
(d) cMnYnkg;Tics<In .
17. etIGVIeTAEdlCakarkt;sMKal; ¬kartag¦ sMrab;RsTab;rg Edl n = 4 nig l = 3 ?
etImanG½rb‘Ítal;b:unμanenAkñúgRsTab;rgenH ?
7-64
CMBUkTI7
18. etIG½rb‘Ítal; s nigG½rb‘Ítal; p manTMrg;TUeTAEbbNa?

TMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUm
19. tamBiesaFn¾rbs; Stern nwg Gerlach etIeKBnül;lT§plsRmab;GatUmGIuRdUEsn dUcemþc?
20. BiBN’naKMrU s<IneGLicRtug EdlmankñúgCMBk Y enH. etIKMrUenHkMNt;s<IneGLicRtugGVI.

21. etIeKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli kMNt;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugrbs;GatUmmYyyagNa?
22. etIcMnYnGtibrmaNéneGLicRtug EdlGactaMgTIenARsTab;rgeGLicRtug g (l = 4)?
23. cUreFVIbBa¢IénGrb‘Ítal;tamlMdab;kMritfampl rhUtdlGrb‘Ítal;3p?
24. kMNt;Gtßny½rbs; ]sμ½nkMrRKwH dUc]sμ½nkMrRKwH eGLicRtugv:aLg;.
25. cUr[düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;BIrsRmab;rUbsNæaneGLicRtug 1s , 2s , 2p rbs;GatUmGuksIuEsn.

2 2 4
düaRkammYyRtUv)anbgðajPaBedIm.
26. kMNt;Gtßny½rbsBakü sarFatudüam:aejTic sarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic. etIPaBedImrbs;
GatUmGuksIuEsn KwCa düam:aejTic rw )a:ra:m:aejTic? cUrBnül;.

lMhat;Gnuvtþ
rlkeGLicRtUm:aejTic
27. rlkviTüúkñúgtMbn; AM maneRhVkg;cab;BI 550 eTA 1600 KILÚsIuk (kilocycles) kñúgmYyvinaTI
(550 eTA 1600KHz). KNnaCMhanrlkEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgrlkviTüúEdlman eRhVkg;
1,225 × 10 /s (KW 1225KHz) .

6
28. mIRkUrlkmaneRhVkg;cenøaHBI 10 eTA 10 /s (sIukkñúgmYyvinaTI) smmUleTAnwgrvagBI

9 12
1CIhÁahWts_ (gigahertz) nig 1etrahWts_ (terahertz). etICMhanrlkénkaMrsμImIRkUrlk
EdlmaneRhVkg; 1,145 × 10 / s enHesμIb:unμan ?

10
29. BnøWmYymanCMhanrlk 465nm caMgkñúgtMbn;B’Nexovéns,úicemIleXIj. KNna
eRhVkg;énBnøWenH ?
30. KNnaeRhVkg;BnøWEdlmanCMhanrlk 656nm? (tMélenHRtUvKñaeTAnwgCMhanrlkmYy
énBnøWEdl)anbeBa©jedayGatUmGIuRdUEsn) .
31 BIPBGgÁar_mkEpndImancMgay 56 lanKILÚEm:Rt. etIeKRtUvcMNayry³eBlb:unμan
edIm,IepJIrsarviTüúBIkarGegátkñúglMhrénPBGgÁar¾eTAPBEpndIenAeBlPBTaMgBIrmancMgayenHBI
Kña?
7-65
32 GñkRsavRCavGvkasmuneKbg¥s;elx (Pioneer) 11 )ancuHctenAéf¶TI 5 Ex emsa qñaM1973

ehIyeTAdl;PBpáayRBhs,t×( Jupiter) kñúgEx FñÚ qñaM1974 EdleFVIdMeNIrcMgay 998
lanKILÚEm:Rt. etIeKRtUveRbIry³eBlb:unμanedIm,InaMyksBaaØ (signal) eGLicRtUm:aejTicmk
kan;EpndIBI Pioneer 11 enAeBlEdlvaenACitpáayRBhs,t× ?
33 Rbdab;sÞg;)ankMNt;kñúgqñaM 1963 EdlCaRbEvgmYyesμIeTAnig 1650763,73 CMhanrlk
énkaMrsμIB’NTwkRkUc-Rkhm Edl)anbeBa©jedayGatUmRKIbtug-86. etICMhanrlkénkar

bBa¢ÚnenHesμIb:unμan ? etIeRhVkg;enHesμIb:unμan ?
34. vinaTIRtUv)ankMNt;Cary³eBlEdlesñInwg 9192631770 CMhanrlkénkarbBa¢Ún
rbs;GatUmessüÚm-133 edIm,Iqøgkat;cMnucCak;lak;mYy. etIeRhVkg;énkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTic
enHesμIb:unμan ? etICMhanrlkenHesμIb:unμan ?
pUtug (Photon)
35. etIfamBlpUtugEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgrlkviTüúEdlmaneRhVkg; 1,255 x 10 /s esμIb:unμan ?

6
36. etIfamBlputugEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgkaMrsμImIRkUrlkEdlmaneRhVkg; 1,14 x 10 /s esμIb:unμan ?

10
37. bnÞat;B’Nébtgkñúgs,úicGatUmtal;lüÚm (Thallium) manCMhanrlk 535nm. KNna
famBlpUtugénBnøWenH ?
38. smasFatuGIudüÚm (Indium) etsþGNþatePøIg[B’NsVay-exov . karbeBa©jBnøWén
GatUmEdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgB’NsVay-exovmanCMhanrlk 451nm. KNnafamBlénpUtugEtmYy

énCMhanrlkenH.
39. PaBqøgrbs;GatUmruyb‘ÍdüÚm (Rubidium) beBa©jBnøWEdleRhVkg; 3,84 x 10 Hz . (Hz
14
CaGkSrkat;sMrab;EG‘k EdlsmmUleTAnigÉkta /s b¤ s ) . etIBnøWenHfitkñúgtMbn;s,úic

−1
emIleXIjb¤ ? RbsinebIBitEmn etIB’NBnøWenHKWCaB’NGVI? emIlrUb 4 .

40. GatUm)ar:üÚmmanPaBqøgEdlbeBa©jBnøWmaneRhVkg; 5,41 × 10 Hz. etIBnøWenHfitkñúg
14
tMbn;s,úicemIleXIjb¤? RbsinebIBitEmn etIB’NénBnøWenHKWCaB’NGVI? emIlrUb 7>4 .

RTwsþIb½r (Bohr theory)
41. KNnaeRhVkg;énkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTic)anbeBa©jedayGatUmGIuRdUEsnkñúgeGLicRtug
qøg BI n = 4 eTA n = 3 .
7-66
CMBUkTI7
42. eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnkñúgkMrit n = 5 rgnUvPaBqøgeTAkMrit n = 3 . etIeRhVkg;

rsμIEdl)anbeBa©jenHesμIb:unμan?
43. bnÞat;TI 1 énes‘rI Lyman énkarbeBa©jBnøWrbs;GatUmGIuRdUEsnekIteLIgBIPaBqøgkMrit
n = 2 eTAkMrit n = 1 . etICMhanrlkénpUtugEdl)anbeBa©jenHesμIb:unμan? edayeRbIrUb 7>4
cUrB’NnaBItMbn;éns,úiceGLicRtUm:aejTicrbs;BnøWenH.
44. etICMhanrlkénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTicEdl)anbeBa©jBIGatUmGIuRdUEsnenAeBleGLic
RtugrgnUvPaBqøgBI n = 5 eTA n = 4 esμInwgb:unμan? etIkñúgtMbn;GVIEdls,úicbnÞat;enHekIteLIg ?

emIlrUb 4
45. KNnaCMhanrlkEvgbMputénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTic Edl)anbeBa©jedayGatUm
GIuRdUEsnkñúgkarrgnUvPaBqøgBIkMrit n = 6 ?
46. KNnaCMhanrlkxøIbMputénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aejTicEdl)anbeBa©jedayGatUmGIuRdUEsn
kñúgkarrgnUvPaBqøgBIkMrit n = 6 ?
47. etIPaBxusKñarvagkMritfamBlBIr EdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgbnÞat;beBa©jkaMrsμIG‘ulRtavIy:Uelén
GatUmm:aejsüÚmenACMhanrlk 285,2nm esμInwgb:unμan?

48. etIPaBxusKñarvagkMritfamBlBIr EdlRtUvKñaeTAnwgbnÞat;beBa©jkaMrsμIB’NsVayénGatUm
kal;süÚmenACMhanrlk 422,7nm esμInwgb:unμan?

rlk de Broglie
49. etICMhanrlkénNWRtugEdlpøas;TIenAel,Ón 3,90km/s esμInwgb:unμan?
50. etICMhanrlkénNWRtugEdlpøas;TIenAel,Ón 5,80km/s esμInwgb:unμan?
51. etIeGLicRtugRtUvEtpøas;TIenAel,Ónb:unμan edIm,IeGaymanCMhanrlk 10,0pm ?
52. etINWRtugRtUvEtpøas;TIenAel,Ónb:unμan edIm,IeGaymanCMhanrlk 10,0pm ?
53. etICMhanrlk de Broglie én Baseball mYyTm¶n; 145g pøas;TIenAel,Ón 20,0m/s
(44,7mph) esμInwgb:unμan? etICMhanrlkenHtUcCagxøaMg b¤FMCagxøaMgeFobnwgGgát;p©iténGatUm
(elIlMdab;100pm)?
54. etICMhanrlk de Broglie énm:UelKul O Edlpøas;TIenAel,Ón 479m/s esμInwgb:unμan?

2
etICMhanrlkenHtUcCagxøaMg b¤FMCagxøaMgeFobnwgGgát;p©iténGatUm (elIlMdab;100pm)?
7-67
G½rb‘Ítal;GatUm ( Atomic Orbitals)

55. ebIcMnYnkg;Tic n énG½rb‘Ítal;GatUmKW 4. etItMélEdlGacmancMeBaH l esμIb:unμan ?
ebIcMnYnkg;Tic l = 3 etItMélEdlGacmansMrab; m esμIb:unμan ?

l
56. cMnYnkg;Tic n énG½rb‘Ítal;GatUmKW 5 . etItMélEdlGacmancMeBaH l esμIb:unμan ? etIcMnYn
EdlGacmansMrab; m esμIb:unμan ebIcMnYnkg;Tic l = 4.

l
57. etImanRsTab;rgb:unμan kñúgRsTab; M ? etImanG½rb‘Ítal;b:unμan kñúgRsTab;rg f ?
58. etImanRsTab;rgb:unμan kñúgRsTab; N ? etImanG½rb‘Ítal;b:unμan kñúgRsTab;rg g ?
59. cUrsresrkMNt;sMKal; ¬kartag¦ (kareRbIGkSrkMNt;sMrab; l) sMrab;RsTab;rg
sMrab;cMnYnkg;TicdUcteTA³
(a) n = 3, l = 1 (b) n = 4, l = 2
(c) n = 4, l = 0 (d) n = 5, l = 3
60. cUrsresrkMNt;sMKal; ¬kartag¦ (kareRbIGkSrkMNt;sMrab; l) sMrab;RsTab;rg
sMrab;cMnYnkg;TicdUcteTA³
(a) n = 6, l = 2 (b) n = 5, l = 4
(c) n = 4, l = 3 (d) n = 6, l = 1
61. etitMélcMnYnkg;TicNaxøH Edl[EdlGacman nigminGacman cMeBaHeGLicRtugkñúg
GatUmdUcteTA³
1
(a) n = 0, l = 1, ml = 0, m s = +
2
1
(b) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, m s = +
2
1
(c) n = 2, l = 1, ml = −2, m s = +
2
1
(d) n = 2, l = 1, ml = −1, m s = +
2
62. cUrBnül;faehtuGIV)anCacMnYnkg;TicnimYy²xageRkam minGacmancMeBaHeGLicRtugeT
edayEp¥keTAtamc,ab;sMrab;cMnYmkg;Tic³
(a) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1
(b) n = 1, l = 3, ml = +3, ms = +1/2
(c) n = 3, l = 2, ml = +3, ms = -1/2
(d) n = 0, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2
(e) n = 2, l = 1, ml = -1, ms = +3/2
7-68
CMBUkTI7
eKalkarN¾dac;edayELk Pauli
63. düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;mYyNa EdlbgðajeRkamenH GaceFVI)anedayeKalkarN¾dac;eday
ELk Pauli . cUrBnül;. sresr;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugsRmab;krNI EdlGaceFVI)an.

(a) (b)
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
(c) (d)

1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
64. düaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;mYyNa EdlbgðajeRkamenH GaceFVI)anedayeKalkarN¾dac;eday
ELk Pauli . cUrBnül;. sresr;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugsRmab;krNI EdlGaceFVI)an.
(a) (b)
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
(c) (d)
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
65. cUrBnül; rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxageRkammYyNa EdlGacman)an. cUrBnül;ehtuGVIxøH
minGacman)aneT.
(a) 1s2, 2s3, 2p6 (b) 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
(c) 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 3d (d) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1, 3d9
2 2 8 2 6 7
66. eRCIerIsrUbsNæaneGLicRtugxageRkam EdlGacman)an. cUrBnül;ehtuGVI xøHepSgeFot

minGacman)aneT.
(a) 1s2, 2s1, 2p7 (b) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1, 3d6
(c) 1s2, 2s2, 2p8 (d) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3d12
67. cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;TaMgGs;sRmab;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxag 1s , 2p (man6) 2 1
68. cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;TaMgGs;sRmab;rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxag 1s , 2p (man12) 1 1
eKalkarN¾karkekIt nwgviFan HUND

69. cUr[rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxagEnPaBedImrbs; pUsVr (P) edayeRbIeKalkarN¾karkekIt.
70. edayeRbIeKalkarN¾karkekIt cUr[rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxagEnPaBedImrbs; kørY.
71. edayeRbIeKalkarN¾karkekIt cUr[rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxagEnPaBedImrbs; v:aNadüÚm.
72. cUr[rUbsNæaneGLicRtugxagEnPaBedImrbs; edayeRbIeKalkarN¾karkekIt.
73. RbU‘m KwCaFatukñúgRkum VIIA xYbTI 4 EntaragxYb. etIGVIeTACarUbsNæanRsTab; v:aLg; ?
7-69
74. b‘Ísμút(Bi)KwCaFatukñúgRkumVA xYbTI 6 EntaragxYb. etIGVIeTACarUbsNæanRsTab; v:aLg; ?

75. esokUj:Úm(Zr)KwCaFatukñúgRkum IVB xYbTI 5 . etIGVIeTACarUbsNæanRsTab; v:aLg; ?
76. m:g;kaENs(Mn)KwCaFatukñúgRkum VIIB xYbTI 4 . etIGVIeTACarUbsNæanRsTab; v:aLg; ?
77. PaBedImEnrUbsNæaneGLicRtugrbs; talü:Úm(Tl) Kw [Xe]4f , 5d , 6s , 6p .

14 10 2 1
cUr[elkRkumnwgxYbrbs;va. etIvaFatukñúgRkumem rw Fatuqøgbøk; d rw f .

78. PaBedImEnrUbsNæaneGLicRtugrbs; GIurIdüÚ:m(Ir) Kw [Xe]4f , 5d , 6s14 7 2
.
cUr[ elkRkumnwgxYbrbs;va. etIvaFatukñúgRkumem rw Fatuqøgbøk; d rw f .
79 cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;EnPaBedImrbs; nIEkl (Ni) EdlmanrUbsNæaneGLicRtug
[Ar] 3d , 4s .
8 2
80. cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;EnPaBedImrbs; ETbüÚm (Tb) EdlmanrUbsNæan eGLicRtug
[Xe] 4f , 6s .
9 2
81. cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;EnPaBedImrbs;GatUm b:UtasüÚm. etIvasarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic rw
sarFatudüam:aejTic.
82. cUrsresrdüaRkamG½rb‘Ítal;EnPaBedImrbs;GatUm s½gásI. etIvasarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic rw
sarFatudüam:aejTic.
lMhat;TUeTA ( Unclassified Problems )
83. bnÞat;BN’exovénkarbeBa©jBnøWrbs;GatUmRsþg;cUmmanCMhanrlk 461nm. KNna
eRhVkg;énBnøWenH? etIfamBleRhVkg;énBnøWenHesμIb:unμan?
84. GatUm)arü:ÚmbeBa©jBnøWEdlmanCMhanrlk 554nm (B’Nébtg). KNnaeRhVkg;énBnøW
nigfamBlpUtugénBnøWenH?
85. famBlpUtugKW 4,10 × 10 J. etICMhanrlkénBnøWenHesμIb:unμan? etIBnøWenHmanB’NGVI?
−19
86. famBlpUtugKW 3,34 × 10 . etICMhanrlkénBnøWenHesμIb:unμan? etIBnøWenHmanB’NGVI?

−19
87. GnuKmn_kmμnþpUtUeGLicRTicénelah³ KWCafamBlGb,brmaEdlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;

eGLicRtugedaykarbBa©aMgBnøWeTAelIelah³. ]TahrN_ kal;süÚmmanGnuKmn_kmμnþesμInig
4,34 × 10 J. etIeRhVkg;Gb,brmaénBnøWcMeBaHplpUtUeGLicRTickñúgkal;süÚmesμIb:unμan?
−19
7-70
CMBUkTI7
88. GnuKmn_kmμnþpUtUeGLicRTicénm:aej:süÚmKW 5,90 × 10 J. ¬GnuKmn_kmμnþ KWCa

−19
famBlGb,brmaEdlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugBIelah³edaykarbBa©aMgBnøWeTAelIelah³¦.
KNnae®hVkg;Gb,brmaénBnøWEdlRtUvkaredIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugBIm:aej:süÚm?
89. BnøWEdlmanCMhanrlk 345nm caMgeelIdMuelah³kal;süÚm. etIel,ÓnénkarbeBa©j
eGLicRtugesμIb:unμan? (famBlBnøWFMCagGnuKmn_kmμnþkal;süÚmbegáIt)anCafamBlsIuenTicén
eGLicRtugenaH. emIllMhat; 87. sMrab;karkMNt;énGnuKmn_kmμnþ nigtMélrbs;vasMrab;
kal;süÚm).
90. BnøWEdlmanCMhanrlk 285nm caMgelIdMuelah³m:aejsüÚm. etIel,ÓnénkarbeBa©j
eGLicRtugesμIb:unμan? (famBlBnøWFMCagGnuKmn_kmμnþm:aejsüÚm begáIt)anCafamBlsIuenTic

éneGLicRtugenaH. emIllMhat; 88. sMrab;karkMNt;énGnuKmn_kmμnþ nigtMélrbs;vasMrab;
m:aejsüÚm).
91. KNnaCMhanrlkénbnÞat; Balmer rbs;s,úicGIuRdUEsnkñúgcMnYnkg;TicedIm n = 5 nig
cMnYnkg;TicbBa©b; n = 2.
92. KNnaCMhanrlkénbnÞat; Balmer rbs;s,úicGIuRdUEsnkñúgcMnYnkg;TicedIm n = 3 nig
cMnYnkg;TicbBa©b; n = 2.
93. bnÞat;mYyénes‘rI Balmer rbs;s,úicGatUmGIuRdUEsnenA 397nm Edl)an
mkBIPaBqøgBIkMritfamBlx<s;eTAkMrit n = 2. etIcMnYnkg;TiceménkMritfamBlx<s;esμIb:unμan?
94. bnÞat;énes‘rI Lyman rbs;s,úicGatUmGIuRdUEsnmanCMhanrlk 9,50 × 10 m Edl)an
−8
mkBIPaBqøgBIkMritfamBlx<s;eTAkMrit n = 1. etIcMnYnkg;TiceménkMritfamBlx<s;esμIb:unμan?
95. GIuy:ugGatUmdUcGIuRdUEsnmYymanéNVy:UEdlmanbnÞúk +Ze nigmaneGLicRtugEtmYy
enAxageRkAéNVy:UenaH. kMritfamBlénGIuy:ugTaMgenHKW –Z R /n ¬Edl Z = elxGatUm¦.

2
H
2
KNnaPaBqøgBI n = 3 eTA n = 2 cMeBaH He ¬EdlCaGIuy:ugdUcGIuRdUEsn¦. etIkarbBa©j

+
BnøWenHfitkñúgtMbn;s,úicGVI?
96. Li dUcCaGIuRdUEsnEdr manéNVy:UEdlmanbnÞúk +Ze nigmaneGLicRtugEtmYyenAxag
2+
eRkAéNVy:UenH. kMritfamBlénGIuy:ugTaMgenHKW –Z R /n ¬Edl Z = elxGatUm¦.

2
H
2
etICMhanrlkénPaBqøgBI n = 4 eTA n = 3 cMeBaH Li esμInwgb:unμan? etIkarbeBa©jenH

2+
ekIteLIgkñúgtMbn;s,úicGIV?
7-71
97. mIRkUsáúbeGLicRtugeRbI)ac;eGLicRtugedIm,ITTYl)anrUbPaBénvtßúmYy. etIfamBlGIVEdl

pþl;eGayeGLicRtugnimYy²én)ac;BnøWedIm,ITTYl)anCMhanrlk 10.0pm? KNnafamBlKitCa
eGLicRtugv:ul (eV) ¬1eV = 1,602 x 10 J¦. -19
98. NWRtugRtUv)aneRbIedIm,ITTYl)anrUbPaBénGatUmGIuRdUEsnkñúgm:UelKul. etIfamBlGIV

Edl)anpþl;eGayNWRtugnimYy²kñúg)ac;NWRtugedIm,ITTYl)anCmhanrlk 10,0pm? KNna
famBlKitCaeGLicRtugv:ul (eV) ¬1eV = 1,602 x 10 J¦. -19
99. etIcMnYnG½rb‘‘Ítal;xus²KñaesμInwgb:unμan kñúgRsTab;rgnimYy²xageRkamenH³

(a) 3d (b) 4f (c) 4p (d) 4s
100. etIcMnYnG½rb‘‘Ítal;xus²KñaesμInwgb:unμan kñúgRsTab;rgnimYy²xageRkamenH³

(a) 4f (b) 5g (c) 6s (d) 5p
101. cUreGayRsTab;rgEdlGacmansMrab;RsTab; n = 6.
102. cUreGayRsTab;rgEdlGacmansMrab;RsTab; n = 7.
cMelIylMhat;kñúg]TahrN¾
1. 767 nm 2. 6.58x1014/s 3. 2.0x10-19 J, 2.0x10-17 J; famBlFM KwtMbn;kaMrsμI X
famBltic KwtMbn; GaMgRhVaRkhm 4. 103 nm 5. 3.38x10-19 J 6. λ = 3.32 Ǻ 7. (a)
tEmø n KYrEtelkmUlnigviC¢man (b) tEmø l cab;BI 0 eTAdl n-1 edl l mantEmøFMCan n (c)
tEmø m cab;BI -l eTAdl +l edl m mantEmø FMCan l (d) tEmø m Kw +1/2 rw -1/2 min 0
l l s
8. (a) Gacman (b) Gacman (c) minGacman eRBaHmanBIreGLicRtugkñúgG½rb‘Ítal; 2p
Edlmans<indUcKña. (d) Gacman (e) minGacman eRBaHkñúgRsTab;rg s RtUvmanEtBIr

eGLicRtug (f) minGacman eRBaHkñúgRsTab;rg p RtUvmanEt 6 eGLicRtug. 9. 1s , 2s , 2p , 2 2 6
3s , 3p , 3d , 4s . 10. 4s , 4p . 11. Rkum IVA xYbTI 6 CaRkumem

2 6 5 2 2 3
12.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
cMelIy¬sMrab;lMhat;elxess¦
27. 238.9m 29. 6.45x1014/s 31. 1.9x102 s 33. 6.05780211x10-7 m, 4.959x1014/s
35. 8.316x10-28 J 37. 3.72x10-19 J 39. yes, red 41. 1.6x1014/s 43. 1.22x10-7 m
45. 7.46x10-6 m 47. 6.965x10-19 J 49. 1.01 Ǻ, 51. 7,28 x 107 m/s 53. 2,29 x 10-24 Ǻ
tUcCan 55. l = 0, 1, 2, 3; m = -3, -2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3 57. 3, 7 59. (a) 3p (b) 4d (c) 4s (d)
l
5f 61. (a) minGac)an (b) minGac)an (c) Gac)an (d) minGac)an (e) Gac)an
7-72
CMBUkTI7
63. (a) Gac)an 1s , 2s , 2p (b) minGac)an. eGLicRtugkñúgG½rb‘Ítal;mYyRtUvmans<InpÞúy Kña.

2 1 3
(c) Gac)an 1s , 2s , 2p (d) minGac)an. RsTab;rg s minGacTukeRcInCan 2 eGLicRtug.

2 2 4
65. (a) minGac)an. RsTab;rg s minGacTukeRcInCan 2 eGLicRtug. (b) Gac)an (c)
minGac)an. RsTab;rg p minGacTukeRcInCan 6 eGLicRtug. (d) Gac)an.

67.

1s 2p 1s 2p
69. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3 71. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3, 3d3, 4s2
73. 4s2, 4p5 75. 3d2, 4s3 77. Rkum IIIA xYbTI 6 Rkumem
79. [Ar]
3d 4s
81.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
sarFatu)a:ra:m:aejTic.
83. 6.51x1014/s, 4.31x10-19 J 85. 485 nm, BN’exov-ébtg 87. 6.55x1014/s 89.
5.59x105 m/s 91. 4.34x10-7 m 93. 7 95. 1.64x10-7 m, UV Cit 97. 1.50x104 eV
99. (a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 3 (d) 1 101. 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f, 6g, 6h.
7-73

Chapter 7 Quantum Theory I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 7 Quantum Theory I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CMBUkTI7

rUb 1 etsþGNþatePøIgénFatuRkum IA nig IIA. BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ GNþatePøIgrbs;lIcUmB’NRkham

eTaHbICaGNþatePøIgB’NRkhménlIcUm nigRsþg;cUmelceLIgRsedogKña BnøWnImYy²

rUb 2 karbeBa©js,úicbnÞat;énFatumYycMnYn. bnÞat;TaMgenHRtUvKñaeTAnwgBnøWemIleXIjEdl beBa©j

1 lkçN³rlkBnøW (The wave nature of light)

fμFøak;. enHCa]TahrN_RsedogKñamYyénrlk. rlk Cakarpøas;bþÚrdEdl²Cabnþ b¤lMeyal

rvagBic (peak) BIrEdlenACab;Kñaénrlk ¬rUb 3¦. rlkviTüúmanCMhanrlkRbEhlBI 100mm

énBnøWemIleXIjEtgEtKitCaNaNUEm:Rt (1nm = 10 m). ]TahrN_ BnøWén CMhanrlk 5,55

x 10 m (555nm) CaBnøWelOg-ébtg EdlEPñkmnusSqab;emIleXIjbMput.

rUb 3>rlkTwk ¬rlkGgáaj;²¦. CMhanrlk ¬ λ ¦ CacMgayrvagBicBIr (two peaks)

CMhan nigeRhVkg;rlkmanTMnak;TMngCamYyKñaeTAvijeTAmk. CaTUeTAcMeBaHrlkén

el,ÓnrlkBnøWGaRs½yeTAnwgmCÄdæanEdlvaqøgkat;. kñúgsuBaaØkasel,Ón KW 3,00 x 10 8

m/s ehIyel,Ónkñúgxül;KWmantMéltUcCagenHbnþicEtb:ueNÑaH. cMeBaHkarKNnaenAkñúgEpñkenH

cMelIy³ eRhVkg; nigCMhanrlkKWTak;TgeTAnwgrUbmnþ c = νλ . eyIgGacteRmob

lMhat; 7>1³ eRhVkg;énbnÞat;RkhmCaMkñúgs,úicénb:UtasüÚmKW 3,91 x 10 /s . etICMhanrlkén

TwkxniC. s,úicmYykñúgcMeNams,úicbnÞat;TaMgenHénessüÚmmanCMhanrlk 456nm .

karteRmobéneRhVkg; b¤CMhanrlkénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:TicehAfa s,úiceGLicRtU

B’NRkhm) nigkaMrsμIG‘ulRtasVay (Ultraviolet) manCMhanrlkticCag 400nm

kg;TickmμfamBlrbs;bøg; ( Planck's Quantization of Energy)

1 elak Planck KWCasa®sþacarürUbviTüaénsaklviTüal½y Berlin enAeBlEdlKat;eFIVkarRsavRCavenH.

ekþAERbRbYlCak;lak;CamYysItuNðPaB. GgÁFatrwgbeBa©jBnøWRkhmenAsItuNðPaB 750 C o

bnÞab;eTACaBnøWB’NsenAsItuNðPaB 1200 C. enAsItuNðPaBTabCagenH vabeBa©jBnøWRkhm.

enAeBlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg BnøWB’NelOg nigBnøWB’NexovEdllayCamYyBnøWB’NRkhm

= 6,63 x 10 J.s. tMélén n RtUvEt 1 b¤ 2 b¤epSgeTotCacMnYnKt;.

dUecñHfamBlEtmYyKt;EdlGatUmj½rGacmanKW hν, 2hν, 3hν .l. cMnYntageday n

3hν eTA 2hν vaRtUvEtbnßyfamBl hν dg nigfamBlenHRtUvEt)anbeBa©jmYyEpñktUc (b¤

kg;Tic) énfamBlBnøW. dUecñH Kat;esñIfa BnøWpSMeLIgBIkg;ta (\LÚvenHehAfa pUtug) b¤

kñúgqñaM1905 elak Einstein )aneRbIbBaØtiþpUtugedIm,IBnül;BIplpUtUeGLicRTic. plpUtU

lkçN³énelah³enaHEtb:ueNaÑH. ]TahrN_ eTaHbIBnøWB’NsVay nwgbNþaleGayelah³

rUb 5 plpUtUeGLicRTic. BnøWcaMgb:HelIépÞelah³Edlpþac;eGLicRtug. épÞelah³KW)andak;

3 RTwsþI Bohr énGatUmGIuRdUEsn (The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom)

(emIlrUb 6). edayEp¥keTAelIkargarrbs; Planck nig Einstein elak Bohr )anykeTA

GnuvtþedIm,IbegáItRTwsþIfμIeTAelIGatUmgay GIuRdUEsn . munnwgemIlRTwsþI Bohr

Edl n mYycMnYnCacMnYnKt; (elxKt;) FMCag 2 . edaykarCMnYs n = 3 Ca]TahrN_ nig

bBa©b; E ) emIlrUb 8. kñúglMnaMenH eGLicRtug)at;bg;famBlEdl)anbeBa©jCapUtug.

müa:geTot famBlbBa©b;éneGLicRtugbUkfamBlpUtugesμInwgfamBledIméneGLicRtug (tam

rUb 7 karray)a:yénBnøWB’NsedayRBIs. BnøWB’NscUleTAEpñkxageqVgb:HCamYyRBIs EdlbnSay

rUb8 düaRkamkMritfamBlsMrab;eGLicRtugkñúg GatUm

kñúgPaBqøg (BiPakSakñúgRTwsþI 2) BIkMrit n = 4

enAkñúgRTwsþIenH elak Bohr )aneRbIbBaØtþipUtugrbs;elak Einstein edIm,IBnül;BI

smIkarxagelI Kat; GacbegáItrUbmnþ Balmer eLIgvij)anya:gCak;lak;. elIsBIenHeTAeTot

sMrab;kg;TiceménkMritfamBledIm nig n sMrab;kg;TiceménkMritfamBlbBa©b;.

EdlekIteLIgsMrab; n esμI 1, 2 nig 3

h = 6,626 x 10-34Jxs nig c = 2,998 x 108m/s eyIg)an RH

EdlCatMélefr)an[kñúgrUbmnþ Balmer. kñúgrUbmnþ Balmer cMnYnkg;Tic n KW 2 . mann½yfa

rUbmnþ Balmer [CMhanrlkEdlekIteLIgkalNaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnrgPaBqøg

eyIg)anes‘rIepSg²KñaénbnÞat; (b¤CMhanrlk) sMrab;s,úicénGatUmGIuRdUEsn (emIlrUb 9) .

ebIlT§plrbs;GñkGviC¢man mann½yfa eyIg)anKNna E - E CaCag E - E .

lMhat; 4³ KNnaCMhanrlkBnøWEdl)anbeBa©jGatUmGIuRdUEsn kalNaeGLicRtugrg

tamRTwsþI Bohr karbeBa©jBnøWBIGatUmekIteLIg kalNaeGLicRtugrgPaBqøgBI

rUb 10 BnøWLaEs‘renAeBlbMElgeTACaBnøWB’Ns. BnøWLaEs‘rB’NRkhmbþÚreTACaB’Ns

GIuy:ugGaluymIjÚmmYycMnYn. PaBqøgeGLicRtugkñúgLaEs‘rt,ÚgTTwmKWCa Cr kñúg Al O rwg.

düaRkamkMritfamBlén Cr kñúgt,ÚgTTwmKW)anbgðajkñúgrUb 11 . PaKeRcInén Cr

KWdMbUgfitenAkñúgkMritfamBlTabbMput (kMrit 1). ebIGñkbBa©aMgBnøWmanCMhanrlk 545nm

mYycMnYnkñúgkMrit 3 beBa©jRbUtug nigtLb;eTAkMrit 1 b:uEnþPaKeRcInénGIuy:ugTaMgenH rgPaBqøg

GIuy:ug Cr kñúgkMrit 2 mindUckMritTabbMputeT vaKμansßirPaB ehIyvanwgrgPaBqøgeTA

kMrit 1 vij. dUecñH GñksgÇwmfa Cr kñúgkMrit 1 edIm,IrgPaBqøgeTAkMrit 1 edaykarbeBa©j

pUtugedayÉkÉg (CMhanrlkénkarbeBa©jenHKW 694nm) .

rUb 11³ kMritfamBlénGIuy:ugRkUm III kñúgt,ÚgTTwm .

ebIGñkbeBa©aMgBnøWciBaa©cenACMhanrlk 545nm dak;elIcgáWHt,ÚgTTwm enaHGIuy:ug Cr 3+

PaKeRcIn)anbBa©b;kñúgkMrit 2 sMrab;ry³eBlRbEhlCamYyPaKmIløIvinaTI (EdlCary³eBlEvg

sMxan;Nas;edIm,IdMeNIrkarLaEs‘r. ebIGIuy:uglMejacTaMgenHGacbeBa©jBnøWÉkÉg b¤swgEt

\LÚvenH eyIgGacBnül;BIdMeNIrkarénLaEs‘rt,ÚgTTwm. rUbLaEs‘r KWbgðajkñúg rUb