GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Genetic Engineering - Mechanisms

12 STEM | PROF. MARY LOU BONGALBAL | SEM 1 2022

● Genotype
DNA ○ contains genetic codes
○ internal heredity
● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) ○ combination of alleles that they
○ “biological hard drive” possess for a specific gene
● Nucleotides
○ monomers AA → dominant gene / homozygous recessive
■ 1 phosphate, 1 sugar, Aa → heterozygous allele
nitrogenous base (adenine) aa → recessive gene / homozygous recessive
● Nucleic Acids
○ polymer ● Phenotype
○ RNA (ribonucleic acid) ○ observable traits
○ DNA ○ influenced by genotype
● Uracil
○ RNA nitrogenous base ● Phenocopy
○ variation in an organism that
DNA RNA resembles a genetic one, but has
an environmental rather than a
● Thymine ● Uracil genetic cause, and is not inherited.
● Cytosine ● Cytosine ○ influenced by the environment
● Guanine ● Guanine
● Adenine ● Adenine ● Variation
○ difference between species
● Pyrimidines
○ thymine, uracil, cytosine ● Gregor Mendel
● Purines ○ father of genetics
○ guanine, adenine ○ tea plant experiment

NITROGENOUS BASE PAIRINGS PLANT BREEDING

DNA RNA
● Cross Pollination
● A-T ● A-U ○ transfer of pollen from one flower
● T-A ● U-A to another flower of a different
● C-G ● C-G plant
● G-C ● G-C ○ combination of grains
example: ○ ex., gumamela, corn
ATG ATG* = TAC TAC
* = hydrogen bonds ● Self Pollination
○ occurs when the pollen grain of
GENETIC ENGINEERING one flower is transferred to
another flower of the same plant
(ex. rice, peanut, corn)
● Genetic Engineering
○ the alteration of DNA of an pollen grains x ovules = sexual reproduction
organism to produce a GMO
■ GMO - Genetically
Modified Organism MASS PURE LINE
SELECTION SELECTION
■ transgenic genes
(transfering/ changing of ● large number of ● seeds are
genes) phenotype seeds harvested
mixed together to individually
● Classical Breeding constitute a new ● for self
○ used to acquire desirable traits variety pollination
○ conventional/traditional breeding ● for cross ● narrow
pollination adaptation
● wide adaptation ● highly uniform
● less uniform ● genetic
● genetic variation is variation is

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 present absent
➔ CUTTING
● process of choosing ● crossing the ◆ cutting of plasmids* to get the
ideal plants from a superior looking gene of interest
large population plant/seed ● RESTRICTION ENZYME -
acts as scissors to cut
specific sites (restriction
sites) ; sticky ends
● Selective Breeding
○ artificial breeding
○ experimental BOTH DONOR AND VECTOR USE THE SAME
○ organisms w/ desired traits are RESTRICTION ENZYME
mated to create offsprings w/
those desired characteristics ➔ INSERTION
○ weak / low resistance to diseases ◆ insert the gene of interest to the
plasmid using DNA LIGASE
● DNA LIGASE - acts as glue
● Hybridization
○ two organisms w/ unlike traits are ➔ TRANSFORMATION
crossed to produce the best in ◆ where exogenous genetic material
both organisms is directly taken up and
○ can be different species or incorporated by a cell through its
different types within the same cell membrane
species ◆ Recombinant DNA → Transgenic
○ selective breeding DNA

● Luther Burbank ➔ EXPRESSION

○ crossed (1) potato that is disease ◆ replication
resistant, and (1) potato that can ◆ bacteria is produced thru binary
produce a large capacity fission; they reproduce easily
○ OFFSPRING = Burbank potatoes ● BINARY FISSION - asexual
reproduction by a
● Inbreeding separation of the body into
○ continued breeding of similar two new bodies
individuals
○ keeps each breed unique
○ high susceptibility to diseases
and deformities
■ this is because their genes
are very similar

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTIVE BREEDING

● to create organisms with desired traits
● allow organisms to adapt well to the
environment
TERMS

STAGES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING ● PLASMID

○ can be formed in bacteria/
cytoplasm
➔ ISOLATION
○ extra chromosomal DNA
◆ breaking / opening of the donor
○ small circle where DNA molecule
cell to get the gene of interest (or can be found
DNA) ○ bacteria can cope w/ the
● DONOR - source of gene of environment with the help of
interest plasmids
● VECTOR - any piece of
molecule that contains ● NUCLEOID REGION
genetic material that can ○ where chromosomal DNA can be
be replicated and found
expressed when transferred
into another cell

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 PRODUCTION OF INSULIN PRECAMBRIAN

1. Human insulin is extracted from pancreas HADEAN EON

cells and an insulin-producing gene is
isolated.
2. A plasmid DNA is extracted from a
bacterium and cut with a restriction
enzyme, forming a plasmid vector.
3. Insert human insulin-producing gene into
the bacterial plasmid vector to form the
recombinant DNA of human
insulin-producing gene.
4. Introduce this recombinant DNA into a
bacterial cell to form the recombinant
bacterium.
5. The recombinant bacteria multiply in a
fermentation tank and produce human
insulin.
6. Insulin is extracted, purified and bottled. It
is then ready to be injected into diabetic
patients.
● Beginning of Earth
● 4.6 - 3.8 BILLION OF YEARS
● Meteorite bombardment
● Thea - a planet that collided with Earth
○ Moon was formed
○ Caused the Earth to tilt 23 degrees
ARCHEAN EON
● Island Formation
● 3830-2500 Billion of years
● Meteorites contained small amounts of
molecules that caused land to form.
● Island were also formed from hardened
magma caused by underwater volcanoes
● Cyanobacteria
○ Blue-green algae
○ Stromatolites

PROTEROZOIC EON
● Breathable air
● 2.5 BYA - 542 MYA
● The cyanobacteria contains chlorophyll
that makes oxygen.
○ CRYOGENIAN PERIOD
- Ice Age “Snowball Earth”

go mhie

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

- CALENDAR for events in Earth’s History

● EON
- Largest unit of geologic time
equals to one billion years PHANEROZOIC EON
● ERA ○ CENOZOIC - NEW
- Spans from ten to hundred million ○ MESOZOIC - MID
years
○ PALEOZOIC - OLD
● PERIOD
- No more than one hundred million
PALEZOIC ERA
of years
● EPOCH
● CAMBRIAN PERIOD
- Smallest division of the GTS
○ Cambrian explosion
characterized by distinction
○ 542-488 Million Years Ago
organisms.
○ Rapid Diverse of Marine organisms
(less predators)
○ Sea level rises

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 ○ Fungi, algae, sea plants
○ Trilobites (sea cockroaches)
● ORDOVICIAN PERIOD
○ 488-428 Million years ago
○ Appearance of vertebrates
invertebrates
● SILURIAN PERIOD
○ 428-416 Million years ago
○ Appearance of insects (spiders,
centipede)
○ No predators
● DEVONIAN PERIOD
○ 416 - 359 Million years ago
○ Age of Fish
● CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD
○ 356 - 299
○ Rise of insects
○ Appearance of Amphibians (land
and water animals)
○ Coal deposits
● PERMIAN PERIOD
○ 299-251 Million years ago
○ The Great Dying
○ Extinction
○ 90% of marine life and 75%
terrestrial life died
MESOZOIC ERA
● TRIASSIC PERIOD
○ 251 - 199.6 Million years ago
○ After the great dying
○ Metoposaurus - amphibians
○ Cynognathus - reptiles
○ Low number of amphibians
○ Modern invertebrates (jellyfish,
snails)
● JURASSIC PERIOD
○ 199.6 - 145.5 Million years ago
○ Conifers (pine trees, cone trees)
○ Angiosperm appearance
(flowering plant)
○ Archaeopteryx (first bird)
○ End Cretaceous Extinction
○ Extinction of Dinosaurs
- Volcanic Eruption
- Asteroid Impact
- Diseases
- Continental Drift (change
of climate & in
& environment)
CENOZOIC ERA
● PALEOGENE EPOCH
○ Continents moving to its current
position (gradually)
○ Mammals rapidly diversified
○ Different climate
○ Mammals adapt to the
environment (adaptive radiation)
● EOCENE EPOCH
○ Perissodactyles - odd no. of toes
○ Artiodactyles - even no. of toes
● OLIGOCENE EPOCH
○ Ancient Dogs and Cats
○ Primates
● NEOGENE EPOCH
○ Developed grasslands
○ Appearance of Ruminant animals
○ Mammoths and Early Humans
○ Cellulose - Carbohydrates found in
plants
○
QUATERNARY PERIOD
● 2.6 MYA - Present
● PLEISTOCENE EPOCH
○ Last Ice Age
- Climate Change
- Fluctuation
- Milcikoutch - is the gradual
change that affects the
area of earth’s radiation, tilt
of the earth.
● HOLOCENE EPOCH
○ Age of Humans
○ Present
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
● predicts the future
● if great dying and other extinction did not
happen, modernization will not happen
and we will not have fossil fuels
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 TYPES OF FOSSIL

kaya? syempre kaya mo yan!

PETRIFIED FOSSILS
● created when minerals replace the
FOSSILS
structure of the remains of a living
thing.
● natural remains or evidence of living ● result of permineralization
things from prehistoric times. ● highly porous and easily petrified
● should be naturally created ○ wood fragments
○ bones
EXAMPLES OF FOSSILS ○ shells

● Footprints
○ not remains but serves as an
evidence or trace of the organism
who lived a long time ago.
● Bones of a caveman
● Gnat preserved in amber
○ fossil in a fossil (2 fossils)
■ Gnat fossil
MOLD and CAST
■ Fossilized tree sap
● copy of an organism with details of
external anatomy
EXAMPLES OF NOT A FOSSIL ● MOLD is the hollow area in the rock in the
shape of an organism or part of an
● Mummy organism.
○ artificially preserved or manmade ○ cavity or shell
● CAST is the shape of the organism
● Hieroglyphics
○ character of the ancient Egyptian
Writing System

● Drawing in caves
○ only recorded the organisms that
lived from the past, not the history
itself

PLANT FOSSIL DENDRITE

CARBON FILM
● there is the ● seeps through
impression of a rocks and has ● shows the outline pressed upon a rock.
plant repeating ● colors can be black or dark brown (shades
(embedded) geometric of brown) depending on the type of rock.
● not flat patterns
● fossil ● flat
● not a fossil

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 correlation of the rock layers based on
TRACE FOSSIL
fossil species.
● created by movements or actions made
by an organism
PRINCIPLES OF CROSS-CUTTING
● tells us about the organism’s behavior,
RELATIONSHIP
appearance, lifestyle, etc.
➔ A rock feature cuts across another feature
must be younger than the rocks that it
cuts.

INCLUSION PRINCIPLE
➔ Small fragments of one type of rock but
embedded in a second type of rock must
have formed first and were included when the
second was forming.
ORIGINAL REMAINS
● almost the full part of an organism’s
body is preserved.
MECHANISMS OF CHANGE

● GENETIC VARIATION
○ all heritable traits are
characteristics of an organism that
is influenced by the genes.
○ without Genetic Variation, there
will be no diversification.

MECHANISMS OF CHANGE
IMPORTANCE OF FOSSILS
● Mutation
● serves as an evidence of evolution ● Gene Flow
● helps in determining events and their orders ● Genetic Recombination
in the Geologic Time Scale ● Genetic Drift
● Natural Selection
konting push na lang mhie

MUTATION
PRINCIPLES BEHIND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
● changes in the genetic sequence (DNA
structure)
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION ○ may be deleted or duplicated
➔ The layer on the bottom was deposited ○ DUPLICATION - fragment joins
first and so is the oldest. with homologous chromosomes
○ INVERSION - traits are in inverse
direction
PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY
○ TRANSLOCATION - attached in
➔ All rock layers were originally deposited non-homologous
horizontally. ○ DELETION - section of DNA is lost,
or deleted (missing trait)
PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY
■ examples of mutation :
➔ originally deposited layers of rock ● Walker-Warburg
extended laterally in all directions until Syndrome (WWS)
either broken up or displaced by later ● Cri Du Chat
events. - can cause severe
mental and physical
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL SUCCESSION problems.
- deletion of
➔ Each age in the Earth’s history is unique
chromosome #5.
such that fossil remains will be unique.
● Charcot-Marie
This permits vertical and horizontal
- tooth disease.

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 ■ mutations can lead to :
- harmful chemicals
- toxins
- radial

GENE FLOW

● also called as Gene Migration

● genes from immigrants may add new
alleles to the existing gene pool of the
population.

GENETIC RECOMBINATION
● happens during meiosis I
● sex cells ; independently witin the
organism that reproduce sexually
● pieces of DNA are broken and
recombines to produce new
combinations of alleles
● alleles of different genes are inherited

GENETIC DRIFT
● effect of chance
● occurs because the alleles in an
offspring generation are a random
sample of the alleles in the parent
generation.
● alleles frequency in each generation will
drift up and down until at one point either
all A or all a are chosen and alleles are
fixed from that point.

○ BOTTLENECK EFFECT
■ a sharp reduction in the
size of a population due to
the environment such as
earthquakes, famines,
floods, disease, and
droughts.
■ alleles frequencies change
at random which can lead
to a loss of genetic
variation with populations.

NATURAL SELECTION

● it is the process through which

populations living organisms adapt and
change
● adaptation in the environment

wow galing so much tapos na mag review <3

goodluck mga bading

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