AESF 5310

Advanced Aerodynamics

Lecture 4: 14 Sept 2022

Cirrus SR22 Instructor: Prof Larry Li 1
 Today’s agenda
• Circulation: The thing that produces lift
• Mathematical definition
• Physical interpretation
• Example calculation

• Potential flow around a cylinder

• Building blocks: Uniform flow + doublet
• With lift: Uniform flow + doublet + irrotational vortex

• How much lift?

• Kutta-Joukowski theorem: Lift ∝ circulation
L4 2
 Circulation [AS2.13]
From undergrad fluids, you may recall that to produce lift, we need to
have a finite amount of something called circulation. But…

What exactly is circulation?

Why should we care about it?

How do we calculate it?

L4 3
 Circulation: Mathematical definition
• In general, circulation refers to carrying something around a closed path:
Starting point → Go somewhere → Return to starting point
• In fluid mechanics, circulation is a line integral of 𝑉 taken around a closed
path: Γ ≡ ‫𝑠 𝑑 ∙ 𝑉 𝐶ׯ‬Ԧ where 𝑉 is the velocity field, 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ is an infinitesimal arc
length vector, and 𝐶 is a closed path traversed in the clockwise direction.

Cartesian coordinates: 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑦

𝑑𝑠Ԧ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝑦

Polar coordinates: 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑑𝑟 𝑒𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑒𝜃

𝑥 𝐶
𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃

• Things to note:
• The value of Γ depends on both the velocity field and integration path 𝐶.
• In contrast to the standard convention in maths, we take clockwise Γ to
be +’ve in aerodynamics because clockwise Γ produces the upward lift
L4 that we want. 4
 Circulation: Mathematical definition
This does not mean that the fluid
• In general, circulation refers to carryingelements
something around around
are circulating a closed
thispath:
path
Starting point → Go somewhere → Return (or around an airfoilpoint
to starting for that matter)!

• In fluid mechanics, circulation is a line integral of 𝑉 taken around a closed

path: Γ ≡ ‫𝑠 𝑑 ∙ 𝑉 𝐶ׯ‬Ԧ where 𝑉 is the velocity field, 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ is an infinitesimal arc
length vector, and 𝐶 is a closed path traversed in the clockwise direction.

Cartesian coordinates: 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑦

𝑑𝑠Ԧ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦
𝑦

Polar coordinates: 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑑𝑟 𝑒𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑒𝜃

𝑥 𝐶
𝑉 ∙ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = 𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃

• Things to note:
• The value of Γ depends on both the velocity field and integration path 𝐶.
• In contrast to the standard convention in maths, we take clockwise Γ to
be +’ve in aerodynamics because clockwise Γ produces the upward lift
L4 that we want. 5
 Circulation: Physical interpretation
Γ ≡ ර 𝑉 ∙ 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = Alignment of the velocity field with 𝐶
𝐶

𝑪
𝑪

L4
Γ = positive or negative? Γ = positive or negative? 6
 Circulation: Example calculation

𝑦 Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥

1) Verify that this velocity field satisfies

(0,1) mass conservation.

s2 2) Calculate Γ for the closed path shown,

s1 as the sum of contributions from s1, s2, s3.

(0,0) s3 (1,0) 𝑥

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 Circulation: Example calculation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
1) Check continuity (mass conservation): 2D flow ∴ + 𝜕𝑦 = 2x − 2x = 0 so YES!
𝜕𝑥
2) It is helpful to recognize that segments s1, s2, s3 are defined respectively by the equations:

For s1 → 𝑥 = 0
For s2 → 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 → 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦
For s3 → 𝑦 = 0

Γ = ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑢 ׯ‬+ 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = ‫𝑠׬‬1 + ‫𝑠׬‬2 + ‫𝑠׬‬3 where the start and end points of the
path are used to set the integration limits
𝑦
Along s1, 𝑥 is constant 𝑥 = 0 , so we only need to evaluate the 𝑦 integral:

(0,1) 1 1 1
‫׬‬0 𝑣ȁ𝑥=0 𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 ȁ𝑥=0 𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 0 𝑑𝑦 = 0 (𝑦 goes from 0 to 1)

s2
s1

(0,0) s3 (1,0) 𝑥 Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 8

 Circulation: Example calculation
Along s2, both 𝑥 and 𝑦 vary, so we need to evaluate both 𝑥 and 𝑦 integrals:

1 0
‫׬‬0 𝑢ȁ𝑦=1−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬1 𝑣 ȁ𝑥=1−𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Integrate with respect to 𝑥, so Integrate with respect to 𝑦, so

express everything in terms of 𝑥 express everything in terms of 𝑦
1 0
‫׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬1 −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 ȁ𝑥=1−𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1
𝑥3 0 1
ฬ + ‫׬‬1 −2(1 − 𝑦)𝑦 + (1 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = after evaluating both integrals
3 0 6

𝑦
Along s3, 𝑦 is constant 𝑦 = 0 , so we only need to evaluate the 𝑥 integral:
(0,1) 0 1 1
‫׬‬1 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = − ‫׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = − 3 (𝑥 goes from 1 to 0)

s2
s1
1 1 1
Hence Γ = ‫𝑠׬‬1 + ‫𝑠׬‬2 + ‫𝑠׬‬3 = 0+ 6− 3 = −6

(0,0) s3 (1,0) 𝑥 Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 9

 Calculating Γ directly using vorticity & area integrals
• From vector calculus, you may remember that, via Stokes’ theorem, we can
relate line integrals to area integrals (i.e. surface integrals):

𝑑𝑠Ԧ
Γ ≡ ‫𝑠 𝑑 ∙ 𝑉 𝐶ׯ‬Ԧ ≡ − ‫𝐴𝑑 𝑛 ∙ 𝑉 × 𝛻 𝐴׭‬ 𝐴
𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝐶
where 𝐴 is the area bounded by the closed curve 𝐶.
𝑥

• If the flow is 2D in the 𝑥-𝑦 plane (or the 𝑟-𝜃 plane), the
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
integrand 𝛻 × 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 is just the vorticity: 𝜔𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
• This means that Γ = − ‫𝐴׭‬ − 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
See next slide
• Let’s calculate Γ again, but using an area integral

L4 10
 Calculating Γ directly using vorticity & area integrals
Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑣 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = − = −2𝑦 + 1 − 0 = −2𝑦 + 1 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

(0,1)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Γ = − ‫𝐴׭‬ − 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
s2
𝑥=1 𝑦=1−𝑥 s1
= − ‫=𝑥׬‬0 ‫=𝑦׬‬0 −2𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=1 𝑦=1−𝑥
= − ‫=𝑥׬‬0 −𝑦 2 + 𝑦ȁ𝑦=0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=1 (0,0) s3 (1,0) 𝑥
= − ‫=𝑥׬‬0 − 1 − 𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=1 1
= − ‫=𝑥׬‬0 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = − which is the same answer as before,
6
confirming this result is correct!
L4 11
 Why should we care about
circulation in aerodynamics?

L4 12
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akoJ2zBwX1o
 Today’s agenda
• Circulation: The thing that produces lift
• Mathematical definition
• Physical interpretation
• Example calculation

• Potential flow around a cylinder

• Building blocks: Uniform flow + doublet
• With lift: Uniform flow + doublet + irrotational vortex

• How much lift?

• Kutta-Joukowski theorem: Lift ∝ circulation
L4 13
 Potential flow around a cylinder:
Symmetric top-bottom, front-back, so no drag

L4 14
 Potential flow around a cylinder [AS3.13]

+ =

Doublet
𝜅 sin 𝜃
Uniform flow (a special 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑈𝐹 + 𝜓𝐷 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 −
source-sink pair) 2𝜋 𝑟
𝜅
= 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 −
−𝜅 sin 𝜃 2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑟 2
𝜓𝑈𝐹 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜓𝐷 = 𝑅2 𝜅
2𝜋 𝑟 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 − where 𝑅2 = 2𝜋𝑉
𝑟2 ∞

Analytical stream function for the potential

flow around a cylinder of radius 𝑅 [AE3.92]

L4 15
 Potential flow around a cylinder [AS3.13]
Hence 𝑟 = 𝑅 and 𝜃 = 0 are streamlines.

We differentiate 𝜓 to get the velocity:

1 𝜕𝜓 𝑅2
𝑢𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 = 𝑉∞ cos 𝜃 1 − [AE3.93]
𝑟2
𝜕𝜓 𝑅2
𝑢𝜃 = − 𝜕𝑟 = −𝑉∞ sin 𝜃 1+ [AE3.94]
𝑟2

𝜅 sin 𝜃
To find the stagnation points, we require both 𝜓 = 𝜓𝑈𝐹 + 𝜓𝐷 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 −
𝑢𝑟 = 0 and 𝑢𝜃 = 0. This occurs at locations 2𝜋 𝑟
𝜅
𝐴 and 𝐵 in the figure. = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 −
2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑟 2
𝑅2 𝜅
Away from the stagnation points, there is slip = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 − where 𝑅2 = 2𝜋𝑉
𝑟2 ∞
on the cylinder surface (𝑟 = 𝑅) owing to our
irrotational (and hence inviscid) assumption. Analytical stream function for the potential
In fact, at 𝜃 = 𝜋Τ2 , 3𝜋Τ2 and 𝑟 = 𝑅, flow around a cylinder of radius 𝑅 [AE3.92]
𝑢𝜃 = 2𝑉∞ (streamlines converge).
L4 16
 Potential flow around a cylinder [AS3.13]

The streamlines are symmetric ↕ and ↔, which

implies that there are no unbalanced forces in
either the vertical (lift) direction or the horizontal
(drag) direction, i.e. there is no net change in
momentum as the fluid goes around the cylinder.

The ‘no lift’ result is unsurprising given the ↕

symmetry of the cylinder geometry. 𝜅 sin 𝜃
𝜓 = 𝜓𝑈𝐹 + 𝜓𝐷 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 −
2𝜋 𝑟
The ‘no drag’ result, however, is unphysical and 𝜅
arises because we have excluded the effect of = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 −
2𝜋𝑉∞ 𝑟 2
viscosity (recall IRROT flow assumption). 𝑅2 𝜅
= 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1 − where 𝑅2 = 2𝜋𝑉
This is called d’Alembert’s paradox. 𝑟2 ∞

Analytical stream function for the potential

flow around a cylinder of radius 𝑅 [AE3.92]

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 Potential flow around a cylinder [AS3.13]

Because the flow is irrotational, we can use

Bernoulli’s equation to find the pressure
distribution on the cylinder’s surface from the
azimuthal velocity (recall 𝑢𝑟 = 0 on the cylinder):

1 1
𝑃∞ + 2 𝜌𝑉∞2 = 𝑃𝑠 + 2 𝜌𝑢𝜃2 = constant everywhere
Free-stream On cylinder surface (𝑟 = 𝑅)

We define the surface pressure coefficient as:

𝑃𝑠 −𝑃∞ Turbulent BL
𝐶𝑝 = 1 =1− 4 sin2 𝜃 [AE3.101]
𝜌𝑉 2
2 ∞
Laminar BL

L4 18
[180 − 𝜃 in degrees]
 How do we make our cylinder produce lift?

L4 19
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4rp2aLQl7vg
Potential flow around a cylinder with lift [AS3.15]

To produce lift, we need to upset the ↕ symmetry. How?

Above the cylinder, the flow
We add an irrotational vortex: becomes faster (by reinforcement)

Below the cylinder, the flow

becomes slower (by cancellation)

So by Bernoulli’s equation, 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 > 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 and thus we get lift!

L4 20
 Exactly how much lift do we get? [AS3.15]
The stream function for UF + Doublet + IV is:
𝑅2 Γ 𝑟
𝜓 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 1− + ln [AE3.118]
𝑟2 2𝜋 𝑅

We differentiate this to get the velocity on the cylinder 𝑟 = 𝑅 : 𝐿′

Γ
𝑢𝑟 = 0, 𝑢𝜃 = −2𝑉∞ sin 𝜃 −
2𝜋𝑅

𝑉∞
From Bernoulli, we get the gage pressure acting radially
inwards on the cylinder’s surface:
1
𝑃𝑠𝑔 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃∞ = 𝜌 𝑉∞2 − 𝑢𝜃2
2

To find the lift (per unit span), we project 𝑃𝑠𝑔 onto the Note there is still no drag
because of ↔ symmetry
vertical axis and integrate around cylinder’s circumference:
2𝜋
𝐿′ = − ‫׬‬0 𝑃𝑠𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑅𝑑𝜃 = 𝜌𝑉∞ Γ

L4 21
 Early 20th century

Generalization: The Kutta-Joukowski theorem

According to inviscid theory, the lift (per unit span) of any
2D body with constant cross-section immersed in a uniform
flow is proportional to the net circulation around it: M.W. Kutta N.Y. Joukowski
(German (Russian
mathematician) physicist)

𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ [AE3.140] 𝐿′

where 𝐿′ is the lift (vector) per unit span, which is

𝑉∞
always ⊥ to the free-stream 𝑉∞ and is
positive (upward) for positive (clockwise) circulation.

Γ is the net circulation around the 2D body taken along

a closed path in a region of potential flow (i.e. not in the
viscous boundary layers – not that there are any here).

In effect, we have reduced the problem of finding lift to one

of finding the circulation Γ.
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 But then you might ask… [AS3.16]
If the basic building blocks (UF + Doublet + IV) of our lifting flow are all
irrotational, how can we get any circulation? (…and hence any lift?)

To get finite 𝛤 and hence finite lift, we need our

integration path to enclose at least one 𝐿′
singularity point where the vorticity 𝛻 × 𝑉 = ∞

𝑈∞

∞ vorticity at
center of IV

Airfoil can be modelled as a distribution of

vortices with the usual singularities (∞
vorticity) at their centers … more on this in
L4 the next lecture, when we introduce TAT. 23
 Magnus effect: Rotating football

L4 24
 Magnus effect: Rotating basketball

L4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OSrvzNW9FE 25
 Magnus effect: DIY rotor ship

L4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ao8RfUermdw&feature=youtu.be 26
 Magnus effect: E-Ship 1 (rotor ship)
Technical success, but…
-Too costly (excessive maintenance and capital required)
-Dependent on wind direction and strength

L4 27
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Ship_1
 Magnus effect: Estraden (rotor ship)

L4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZoE_BKizxI 28
 Magnus effect: Flettner airplane

The Plymouth A-A-2004 was built in 1930 by three anonymous American inventors, and was
reported to have made successful flights over Long Island Sound. An inherent safety concern is
that if power to the rotating drums was lost – even if thrust was maintained – the aircraft would
lose its ability to generate lift as the drum slowed down and it would not be able to sustain
flight. Moreover, the drag on a cylinder is much higher than that on a well-designed wing. 29
Ray, Keith (2015). The Strangest Aircraft Of All Time. Stroud, Gloucestershire GL5 2QG: The History Press
 Magnus effect: KFC bucket airplane

L4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K6geOms33Dk 30