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Exam Formula Sheets
 System of Equations and Matrices
 3 Matrix Row Operations:
• Switch any two rows.
• Multiply any row by a nonzero constant.
• Add any constant-multiple row to another
 Even and Odd functions

• Even function: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) Odd function: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

 Graph Symmetry
• 𝑥 -axis symmetry: if (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, then (𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the graph
• 𝑦-axis symmetry: if (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, then (−𝑥, 𝑦) is also on the graph
• origin symmetry: if (𝑥, 𝑦)f is on the graph, then (−𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the graph
 Function Transformations
 Stretch and Compress

• 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 > 0 vertical: stretch 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑎 > 1

 Reflections

• 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) reflect 𝑓(𝑥) about 𝑥 -axis

• 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) reflect 𝑓(𝑥) about 𝑦-axis

 Stretch and Compress

• 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 > 0 vertical: stretch 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑎 > 1

: compress 𝑓(𝑥) if 0 < 𝑎 < 1
• 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥), 𝑎 > 0 horizontal: stretch 𝑓(𝑥) if 0 < 𝑎 < 1
: compress 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑎 > 1

 Shifts

• 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 vertical: shift 𝑓(𝑥) up

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 : shift 𝑓(𝑥) down

• 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ℎ > 0 horizontal: shift 𝑓(𝑥) left

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ), ℎ > 0 : shift 𝑓(𝑥) right

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 Formulas/Equations
• Slope Intercept: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 Point-Slope: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦2 −𝑦1
• Slope: 𝑚= ; 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ≠ 0
𝑥2 −𝑥1
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
• Average Rate of Change: = , where 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏
Δ𝑥 𝑏−𝑎

• Circle: 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑑, 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2

1
• Triangle: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏ℎ
2
• Rectangle: 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2𝑙 + 2𝑤 , 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑤
• Rectangular Solid: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ, 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
4
• Sphere: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3 , 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
3
• Right Circular Cylinder: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ , 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

 General Form of Quadratic Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 , (𝑎 ≠ 0)

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
• Quadratic Formula: 𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑏
• Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘): ℎ=− 𝑘 = 𝑎(ℎ)2 + 𝑏(ℎ) + 𝑐,
2𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
or (− , 𝑓 (− )), or (− , )
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎
• Axis of symmetry: 𝑥 = ℎ

 Vertex Form of Quadratic Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 vertex (ℎ, 𝑘)

 Polynomial function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎0

 Polynomial graph has at most 𝑛 − 1 turning points.

 Remainder Theorem
• If polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) ÷ (𝑥 − 𝑐), remainder is 𝑓(𝑐).
 Factor Theorem
• If 𝑓(𝑐) = 0, then 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a linear factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
• If 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a linear factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.

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 Rational Zeros Theorem: for polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎0
having degree of at least 1 and integer coefficients with 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑎0 ≠ 0
𝑝
• If , in lowest terms, is a rational zero of 𝑓, then 𝑝 must be a factor of 𝑎0 , and 𝑞 must
𝑞
be a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .

 Intermediate Value Theorem(for continuous function 𝑓(𝑥))

• If 𝑎 < 𝑏 and if 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs, then 𝑓(𝑥) has at least one real
zero between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.

 Conjugate Pairs Theorem

• For polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) with real coefficients: If 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is a
zero of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 is also.
𝑝(𝑥)
 Rational function: 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) polynomials, but 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑞(𝑥)

 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 = zero of denominator in reduced 𝑓(𝑥)

 Horizontal Asymptote:
• 𝑦 = 0 if degree of 𝑝(𝑥) < degree of 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝(𝑥)
• 𝑦= if degree of 𝑝(𝑥) = degree of 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑞(𝑥)
 Oblique Asymptote:
𝑝(𝑥)
• 𝑦 = 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 of if degree of 𝑝(𝑥) > degree of 𝑞(𝑥)
𝑞(𝑥)

 Composite Function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑔(𝑥) )

 Exponential Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥
• If 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣 , then 𝑢 = 𝑣

 Logarithmic Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 (𝑥)

• log 𝑎 (1) = 0 , log 𝑎 (𝑎) = 1 , 𝑎log𝑎 (𝑀) = 𝑀 , log 𝑎 (𝑎 𝑝 ) = 𝑝
• log 𝑎 ( 𝑀 ∙ 𝑁 ) = log 𝑎 (𝑀) + log 𝑎 (𝑁)
𝑀
• log 𝑎 (
𝑁
) = log 𝑎 (𝑀) − log 𝑎 (𝑁)
• log 𝑎 (𝑀𝑝 ) = 𝑝 ∙ log 𝑎 (𝑀)
• If log 𝑎 (𝑀) = log 𝑎 (𝑁), then 𝑀 = 𝑁.

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• If 𝑀 = 𝑁, then log 𝑎 (𝑀) = log 𝑎 (𝑁).
log(𝑀) ln(𝑀)
• Change of Base formula log 𝑎 (𝑀) = or log 𝑎 (𝑀) =
log(𝑎) ln(𝑎)

 Exponential Models Formulas

• Simple Interest: 𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡

𝑟 𝑛∙𝑡
• Compound Interest: 𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

• Continuous Compounding: 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟∙𝑡

• Effective Rate of Interest:

𝑟 𝑛
Compounding 𝑛 times per year 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + ) − 1
𝑛
Compounding continuously per year 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑒 𝑟 − 1

• Growth & Decay: 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐴0 𝑒 𝑘∙𝑡

• Newton’s Law of Cooling: 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑇 + (𝑢0 − 𝑇)𝑒 𝑘∙𝑡

𝑐
• Logistic Model: 𝑃(𝑡) =
1+𝑎𝑒 −𝑏∙𝑡

 Sequences and Series

• 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) ∙ ⋯ ∙ (3)(2)(1)
𝑛! 𝑛!
• 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) =
(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!

• Arithmetic Sequence:
𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
Sum of first 𝑛 terms 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1(𝑎1 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑) = 2 (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑛
or 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1(𝑎1 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑑) = (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑). 2

• Geometric Sequence:
𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 (𝑟)𝑛−1
1−𝑟 𝑛
Sum of first 𝑛 terms 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑎1 𝑟
𝑘−1
= 𝑎1 ∙ for 𝑟 ≠ 0,1
1−𝑟
𝑎1
• Geometric Series: ∑∞
𝑘=1 𝑎1 𝑟
𝑘−1
= if |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟
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 Binomial Theorem:
(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑗=0 (𝑛𝑗) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑗 𝑎 𝑗 = (𝑛0)𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑛1)𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎 + ⋯ + (𝑛−1
𝑛
)𝑥𝑎𝑛−1 + (𝑛𝑛)𝑎𝑛

 Trigonometry
 Circular Measure and Motion Formulas
1
• Arc Length 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 Area of Sector 𝐴 = 𝑟2𝜃
2
𝑠 𝜃
• Linear Speed 𝑣 = , 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 Angular Speed 𝜔=
𝑡 𝑡
 Acute Angle
𝑏 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
• sin(𝜃) = = cos(𝜃) = = tan(𝜃) = =
𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
• csc(𝜃) = = sec(𝜃) = = cot(𝜃) = =
𝑏 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

 General Angle
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
• sin(𝜃) = cos(𝜃) = tan(𝜃) =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑎
𝑟 𝑟 𝑎
• csc(𝜃) = ,𝑏 ≠ 0 sec(𝜃) = ,𝑎 ≠ 0 cot(𝜃) = ,𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏

 Cofunctions
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
• sin(𝜃) = cos ( − 𝜃) , cos(𝜃) = sin ( − 𝜃) , tan(𝜃 ) = cot ( − 𝜃)
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
• csc(𝜃) = sec ( − 𝜃) , sec(𝜃) = csc ( − 𝜃) , cot(𝜃 ) = tan ( − 𝜃)
2 2 2

 Fundamental Identities
sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃)
• tan(𝜃) = cot(𝜃) =
cos(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
1 1 1
• csc(𝜃) = sec(𝜃) = cot(𝜃) =
sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) tan(𝜃)

• sin2 (𝜃) + cos2 (𝜃) = 1 tan2 (𝜃) + 1 = sec 2 (𝜃) cot 2 (𝜃) + 1 = csc 2 (𝜃)
 Even-Odd Identities
• sin(−𝜃 ) = −sin(𝜃 ) cos(−𝜃) = cos(𝜃) tan(−𝜃) = − tan(𝜃)
• csc(−𝜃 ) = −csc(𝜃 ) sec(−𝜃) = sec(𝜃) cot(−𝜃) = − cot(𝜃)
 Inverse Functions
𝜋 𝜋
• 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = sin(𝑦) where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and − ≤ 𝑦 ≤
2 2

• 𝑦 = cos−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = cos(𝑦) where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋

𝜋 𝜋
• 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = tan(𝑦) where −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞ and − < 𝑦 <
2 2

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𝜋 𝜋
• 𝑦 = csc−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = csc(𝑦) where |𝑥| ≥ 1 and − ≤ 𝑦 ≤ , 𝑦 ≠ 0
2 2
𝜋
• 𝑦 = sec−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = sec(𝑦) where |𝑥| ≥ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋, 𝑦≠
2

• 𝑦 = cot−1 (𝑥) means 𝑥 = cot(𝑦) where −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞ and 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋

 Sum and Difference Formulas

• sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin(𝛼 ) cos(𝛽) + cos(𝛼 ) sin(𝛽)
• sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin(𝛼 ) cos(𝛽) − cos(𝛼) sin(𝛽)
• cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos(𝛼 ) cos(𝛽) − sin(𝛼) sin(𝛽)
• cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos(𝛼 ) cos(𝛽) + sin(𝛼) sin(𝛽)
tan(𝛼)+tan(𝛽) tan(𝛼)−tan(𝛽)
• tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1−tan(𝛼) tan(𝛽) 1+tan(𝛼) tan(𝛽)

 Half-Angle Formulas
𝛼 1−cos(𝛼)
• sin ( ) = ±√
2 2

𝛼 1+cos(𝛼)
• cos ( ) = ±√
2 2

𝛼 1−cos(𝛼) 1−cos(𝛼) sin(𝛼)

• tan ( ) = ±√ = =
2 1+cos(𝛼) sin(𝛼) 1+cos(𝛼)

 Double-Angle Formulas
• sin(2𝜃 ) = 2 sin(𝜃 ) cos(𝜃 )
• cos(2𝜃 ) = cos2 (𝜃 ) − sin2 (𝜃 ) = 2cos 2 (𝜃 ) − 1 = 1 − 2sin2 (𝜃 )
2 tan(𝜃)
• tan(2𝜃) =
1−tan2 (𝜃)

 Product to Sum Formulas

1
• sin(𝛼) sin(𝛽) = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
• cos(𝛼) cos(𝛽) = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
• sin(𝛼) cos(𝛽) = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2

 Sum to Product Formulas

𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
• sin(𝛼) + sin(𝛽) = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2

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𝛼−𝛽 𝛼+𝛽
• sin(𝛼) − sin(𝛽) = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
• cos(𝛼) + cos(𝛽) = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
• cos(𝛼) − cos(𝛽) = −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2

 Law of Sines
sin(𝐴) sin(𝐵) sin(𝐶)
• = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

 Law of Cosines
• 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos(𝐴)
• 𝑏2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos(𝐵 )
• 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos(𝐶 )

 Area of SSS Triangles (Heron’s Formula)

1
• 𝐾 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) , where 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
2

 Area of SAS Triangles

1 1 1
• 𝐾 = 𝑎𝑏 sin(𝐶) , 𝐾 = 𝑏𝑐 sin(𝐴) , 𝐾 = 𝑎𝑐 sin(𝐵)
2 2 2

 For 𝑦 = 𝐴sin(𝜔𝑥 − 𝜑) or 𝑦 = 𝐴cos(𝜔𝑥 − 𝜑) , with 𝜔 > 0

2𝜋 𝜑
• Amplitude = |𝐴| , Period= 𝑇 = , Phase shift =
𝜔 𝜔

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