AESF 5310

Advanced Aerodynamics

Lecture 15: 16 Nov 2022

NASA Space Shuttle
Endeavour STS-134 Instructor: Prof Larry Li 1
 Today’s agenda [AS8−10]
• Compressible flow
• Normal shocks
• Example calculation for a supersonic diffuser
• Oblique shocks
• General picture
• Analysis
• Applications

• Reminders
• Project is due on 27 Nov
• Project Q&A this Sat at 1pm on Zoom

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Normal shocks: Example calculation for a supersonic diffuser (1/4)
𝑀1 = 2.5 𝐴𝐵
𝑃1 = 104 Pa Given area ratio of = 3, find 𝑀𝐵 , 𝑃𝐵 and loss of 𝑃𝑜
𝐴𝐴
𝑃0

Shock
𝑇0

Exit
𝑀=1
𝜌0 𝑀<1 1 2
Choked
(Sonic, 𝑀 = 1)

A B

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Normal shocks: Example calculation for a supersonic diffuser (2/4)

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Normal shocks: Example calculation for a supersonic diffuser (3/4)
𝑀𝐴 = 2.5
𝑃𝐴 = 104 Pa What if the shock was at the exit?
𝑃0
𝑇0

Shock
Exit
𝑀=1
𝜌0 𝑀<1
Choked 1 2
(Sonic, 𝑀 = 1)

A B

5
Normal shocks: Example calculation for a supersonic diffuser (4/4)

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 Oblique shocks [AS9]
Not all shocks are normal shocks, i.e. not always ⊥ to the oncoming flow.
For example, when the space shuttle travels at supersonic speeds
through the atmosphere, it produces a complicated shock pattern
consisting of inclined shock waves known as oblique shocks:

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 Oblique shocks [AS9]
X-15 at the USAF Museum (Dayton, Ohio)
Schlieren image of a X-15 model

X-15 attached to its B-52 mother ship

with a T-38 flying underneath

As of Nov 2022, the X-15 holds the official world record for
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the highest speed ever reached by a piloted powered aircraft.
Its maximum speed was 7,274 km/h or nearly 𝑀 = 6.72.
 Schlieren imaging of shock waves

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 Oblique shocks: General picture [AS9]
Oblique shocks are directly relevant to the behavior of supersonic airfoils:

Unlike in a normal shock, for which the downstream Mach number 𝑀2 is always < 1
(subsonic), 𝑀2 for an oblique shock can be either > 1 (supersonic), = 1 (sonic) or < 1
(subsonic) depending on the upstream Mach number 𝑀1 and the wedge angle 𝜃
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(a.k.a. the turning angle) 10
 Oblique shocks: Analysis
As a supersonic flow passes over a wedge, or a concave
corner, it is forced to suddenly decelerate and undergo
a change in direction (by the wedge angle 𝜃). The result
is a straight oblique shock aligned at shock angle 𝛽.

We project the incoming velocity vector 𝑢1 and the redirected velocity vector 𝑢2 in directions
tangent and normal to the oblique shock:

𝑢1 = 𝑢1𝑡 + 𝑢1𝑛 𝑢2 = 𝑢2𝑡 + 𝑢2𝑛

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Tangent Normal Tangent Normal
 Oblique shocks: Analysis
Conservation of mass:
𝜌1 𝑢1𝑛 = 𝜌2 𝑢2𝑛
Only the normal component brings mass across the control surface

Conservation of momentum ⊥ to shock:

𝑃1 + 𝜌1 (𝑢1𝑛 )2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 (𝑢2𝑛 )2
Conservation of momentum ‖ to shock:

𝑢1𝑡 = 𝑢2𝑡  No pressure differential

Conservation of energy (adiabatic = no heat transfer):

ℎ0 = constant  Stagnation enthalpy

Essentially, an oblique shock acts like a normal shock for the velocity component ⊥ to it, while
the tangential velocity remains unchanged. 12
 Oblique shocks: 𝑢1𝑛 = 𝑢1 sin 𝛽
𝑢1𝑡 = 𝑢1 cos 𝛽
𝑢2𝑛 = 𝑢2 sin(𝛽 − 𝜃)
𝑢2𝑡 = 𝑢2 cos(𝛽 − 𝜃)
- From the sketch on slide 11, let’s define:
𝑢1𝑛 𝑢2𝑛
Normal Mach # → 𝑀1𝑛 = 𝑀2𝑛 =
𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝛾𝑅𝑇2
𝑢1𝑡 𝑢2𝑡
Tangential Mach # → 𝑀1𝑡 = 𝑀2𝑡 =
𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝛾𝑅𝑇2

- Although 𝑀2𝑛 is always < 1 (subsonic), 𝑀2 = 𝑀2𝑛 2 + 𝑀2𝑡 2 can be > 1, = 1 or < 1.
- All equations/tables for normal shocks can be applied to oblique shocks, provided you use
ONLY the normal component of the Mach number.
- Usually we know 𝑀1 and 𝜃 (wedge angle) → Need to find 𝛽 (shock angle).
- After a lot of maths, the text gives [AE9.23] for 𝜃 as an implicit function of 𝑀1 and 𝛽, forming
the so-called ‘𝜃-𝛽-𝑀1 ’ relationship:
𝛽 Strong shocks

(𝑀1 sin 𝛽)2 −1

tan 𝜃 = 2 cot 𝛽 2
𝑀1 𝛾 + cos 2𝛽 + 2 Weak shocks
(most common)
Bow shocks
[AE9.23] is hard to invert, so let’s use [AF9.9] 13
𝜃
 Oblique shocks: Final remarks [AF9.9]
Strong shocks
- Less common
- Occurs when flow is bounded between walls
- 𝜷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐 → Normal shock (𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐)
- Always 𝑴𝟐 < 𝟏
𝛽 Weak shocks
- More common
- Occurs when flow is bounded on only one
side (e.g. flow over a wing)
- 𝜷𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝁 → Mach wave limit (𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐)
- Usually 𝑴𝟐 > 𝟏
For large 𝜃 (a blunt body),
depending on 𝑀1 , there may
be no attached solution,
leading to a bow shock.
𝑴𝟐 < 𝟏 Bow shocks are very intense,
increasing heating of the
flow behind them, which
means that less upstream
𝑴𝟐 > 𝟏 energy remains for heating
the body itself. Bow shocks
also increase drag. Both of
Bow shocks these effects are beneficial
to re-entry vehicles,
e.g. see [AF1.10].

Asymptotes to a
Mach wave limit
At 𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐, 𝜷𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝁 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝟏/𝑴𝟏 Normal shock Mach wave
at the center

𝜃
𝒐
At 𝜽 = 𝟎 , there is no flow deflection in either the strong case (normal 𝜽 > 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙
shock) or the weak case (Mach wave). In both cases, the flow streamlines
experience no turning across the normal shock/Mach wave.
𝑴𝟏 > 𝟏 𝑴𝟐 < 𝟏
𝜃 Bow shock
(i.e. detached oblique shock)
 Oblique shocks: Applications [AS9.3−9.4]
• Oblique shocks are often preferred over normal shocks → Why? …because a series of oblique shocks can
produce better post-shock conditions (i.e. smaller rise in 𝑠, smaller drop in 𝑃0 and hence smaller losses,
greater efficiency) than a single normal shock.
• A common application: the engine intake of supersonic aircraft, whose purpose is to compress the inlet
air, decelerating it to subsonic speeds before compressor entry, while minimizing thermodynamic losses.

Engine
compressor

Normal shock inlet Ramp inlet

AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-Kuo: F-15C Eagle:

max speed of 𝑴 = 𝟏. 𝟖
On some supersonic aircraft (e.g. F-16, AIDC
F-CK-1 Ching-Kuo), the intakes are designed
to compress air via a single normal shock.
Although simple, cheap and lightweight, this
design often limits the max speed to 𝑀 < 2.
max speed of 𝑴 = 𝟐. 𝟓
On other supersonic aircraft (e.g. Concorde,
F-14), the intakes are shaped like a ramp or
wedge and compress air via a series of
oblique shocks. These intakes often have15
variable geometry, facilitating 𝑀 > 2.
 Lockheed Martin X-59 QueSST
Contract award: 2018
First test flight: 2023

X-59 QueSST model in the 8 x 6 ft supersonic wind

tunnel at NASA’s Glenn Research Center.

The X-59 QueSST, ‘Quiet SuperSonic Technology’, is a joint project by NASA and Lockheed Martin that aims
to develop a quieter replacement for the Concorde. The ground noise is expected to be around 60 dB(A), or
nearly 1000 times quieter than current supersonic aircraft. This is achieved by using a long narrow airframe
and canards to keep shock waves from coalescing. The X-59 QueSST is designed to fly at Mach 1.4, 55,000
feet above the ground. NASA-Lockheed’s plan is to build an aircraft 94 ft long with room for one pilot. It will
be powered by one of the engines (GE F414) powering Boeing Co.’s F/A-18 fighter jet.

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https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/iasp/lbfd
 Lockheed Martin X-59 QueSST

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3ESPCQgDok

https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/iasp/lbfd https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-WXFsLjYa4
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