AC Analysis:

To analyze the ac signal operation of an amplifier, an ac equivalent circuit is

developed as follows:

1. The capacitors 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , and 𝐶3 are replaced by effective shorts because their values are
selected so that 𝑋𝐶 is negligible at signal frequency and can be considered to be 0Ω.

2. The dc source is replaced by ground.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Signal (AC) Voltage at the Base:
To find 𝑉𝑏 , we first find the total input resistance at the base (𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) ), as
from the figure 𝑅1 is parallel to 𝑅2 parallel to 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) , so their equivalent
resistance is
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡) = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ∥ 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)

Using voltage-divider formula,

voltage at the base of the
amplifier is
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
𝑉𝑏 = ( )𝑉
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡) 𝑠

If 𝑅𝑠 ≪ 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡) then 𝑉𝑏 ≅ 𝑉𝑠
where 𝑉𝑏 is the input voltage,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 , to the amplifier.
Input resistance at the Base:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑏
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = = (1)
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑏

𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑒
where 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒 ∕ and 𝐼𝑏 = since 𝐼𝑒 ≅ 𝐼𝑐 ⇒ 𝐼𝑏 =
𝛽𝑎𝑐 𝛽𝑎𝑐

Now putting the value of 𝑉𝑏 and 𝐼𝑏 in equation (1)

𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒 ∕
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = ⇒ 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑒 ∕
𝐼𝑒
𝛽𝑎𝑐

Output Resistance:
As 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑐 ∕ and 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 𝑟𝑐 ∕
So we have, 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶
Voltage Gain:
The voltage gain is represented by 𝐴𝑣 may be defined as “the ratio of ac
output voltage at the collector (𝑉𝑐 ) to ac input voltage at the base (𝑉𝑏 )”.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑐
𝐴𝑣 = = (2)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑏

from the figure: 𝑉𝑐 =𝐼𝑐 𝑅𝐶

where 𝐼𝑐 ≅ 𝐼𝑒 ⇒ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶 (3)
also 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒 ∕ (4)
Now putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑉𝑏 in equation (2)
𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 =
𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒 ∕
𝑅𝐶
⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = ∕
𝑟𝑒
Attenuation:
It is the reduction in signal voltage as it passes through a circuit and
corresponds to a gain of less than 1.
A voltage gain of the amplifier from base to collector is represented by
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑏 and the attenuation from the source to the base is given as 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑏 .

i.e. 𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
=
𝑉𝑏
𝐼𝑠 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡) )
=
𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
⇒ 𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
As from the previous slide
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
This attenuation is produced by the source resistance and total input
resistance of the amplifier acting as a voltage divider.

The overall voltage gain of the

amplifier, 𝐴𝑣 ∕ , is the voltage gain
𝑉
from base to collector, 𝑐 , times the
𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑏
reciprocal of the attenuation, .
𝑉𝑠
∕ 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑏
𝐴𝑣 = ( )( )
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑠
∕ 𝑉𝑐
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑠
Voltage Gain without the bypass capacitor:
If we remove the bypass capacitor then voltage at the base will be
𝑉𝑏 =𝑉𝑟𝑒∕ + 𝑉𝐸 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑟𝑒 ∕ + 𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐸 and
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶

Now putting the value of 𝑉𝑐 and 𝑉𝑏 in

voltage gain equation
𝐼𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 =
𝐼𝑒 (𝑟𝑒 ∕ +𝑅𝐸 )

𝑅𝐶
⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = ∕
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸
Stability of the Voltage Gain:
Stability is a measure of how well an amplifier maintains its design values
over changes in temperature or for a transistor with a different 𝛽.
The gain of the common emitter
amplifier (with bypass capacitor) is
𝑅
given by 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐶∕
𝑟𝑒
and without bypass capacitor
𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 = ∕
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸
as 𝑟𝑒 ∕ ≪ 𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝐶
so 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝐸
Swamping 𝑟𝑒 ∕ stabilize the Voltage Gain:
Swamping is a method used to minimize the effect of 𝑟𝑒 ∕ without reducing
the voltage gain to its minimum value.

𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑣 = ∕
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸1

as 𝑟𝑒 ∕ ≪ 𝑅𝐸1

𝑅𝐶
so 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝐸 1
Current Gain:
𝐼𝑐
The current gain (𝐴𝑖 ) from base to collector is 𝐴𝑖 = = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 . However, the
𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑐
overall current gain of the common-emitter amplifier is 𝐴𝑖 = .
𝐼𝑠
The source “sees” a total resistance of 𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡) . So, the total current
produced by the source can be calculated.

As 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅𝑠 + 𝑉𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)

(a) (b)
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
Hence
𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑡𝑜𝑡)
Power Gain:
The overall power gain is the product of the overall voltage gain (𝐴𝑣 ∕ ) and the
overall current gain (𝐴𝑖 ).
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 ∕ 𝐴𝑖
Where
∕ 𝑉𝑐
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑠