tial force per unit

odies.

ace called normal

surface in case of
volume of body.
esses the body 
repulsive.
nses the body 
e attractive.

re v/s Stress :

Stress
ress can be normal or
ngential
ay be compressive or
nsile in nature.
nsor

of cross sectional
ed by a force of

B) 4.0 × 107 KN/m 2

D) None

= 4.0 × 107 N/m 2

nit size of the body

ngth per

ength
ngth

n volume per unit

V-  V

Volume
sirain
F

l
(C) Shear Strain : Angle through x work done to increase dx length
which a line originally normal YA
to fixed surface is turned. dW = Fdx = xdx
L
L  L
x YA
 =
L
Total work done = W =  0 L
xdx

Note : Strain is unitless. Shear 1 YA

strain = (L)2
2 L
Ex.2 A copper rod 2m long is stretched by 1mm.
F
GL I
2

HL JK
W 1
Strain will be - Work done per unit volume = = Y
V 2
(A) 10-4, volumetric
[ V = AL]
(B) 5 × 10-4, volumetric
W 1
(C) 5 × 10-4, longitudinal = Y (strain)2
(D) 5 × 10-3, volumetric V 2
W 1
= x stress x strain
 1 10 3 V 2
Sol. [C] Strain = = = 5 × 10–4,
 2 Stress
[ Y = ]
longitudinal Strain
W 1 (stress )2 W 1 F L
4. THERMAL STRESS =  = ×
V 2 Y AL 2 A L
If the ends of a rod are rigidly fixed and its 1 1
W = F × L = load x elongation
temperature is changed, then compressive 2 2
stresses are set up in the rod. These developed
stress are called thermal stress. Ex.4 A spring is stretched by 3cm when a load of
5.4 x 106 dyne is suspended from it. Work
Thermal Stress = Y  t
done will be-
Y  modulus of elasticity
(A) 8.1 × 106 J (B) 8 × 106 J
  Coefficient of linear expansion (C) 8.0 × 106 ergs (D) 8.1 ×106 ergs
t  change in temperature 1
Sol. [D] W = x load x elongation
2
Ex.3 A wire of cross sectional area 3mm 2 is just 1
stretched between two fixed points at a W = × 5.4 × 106 × 3
temperature of 200C. Determine the tension 2
W = 8.1 × 106 ergs
when the temperature falls to 200C. Coefficient
of linear expansion  = 10 –5 / 0 C and
6. STRESS-STAIN CURVE
Y = 2 × 1011 N/m 2.
(A) 120 KN (B) 20 N If we increase the load gradually on a vertical
(C) 120 N (D) 102 N suspended metal wire,
Sol. [C] F = Y A  t In Region OA : 
stress
= 2 × 1011 × 3 × 10–6 × 10-5 × 20 C D E
B
F = 120 N.
A
5. WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE
O strain
In stretching a wire work is done against internal
restoring forces. This work is stored in body as Strain is small (< 2%)
elastic potential energy or strain energy. Stress  Strain  Hook's law is valid.
If L = length of wire & Slope of line OA gives Young's modulus Y of the
material.
A = Cross-sectional Area.
In Region AB : Stress is not proportional to
F/A YA strain, but wire will still regain its original length
Y =  F = x after removing of stretching force.
x/L L
 In region BC : Wire yields  strain increases Ex.5 A wire of length 1m and area of cross section
rapidly with small change in stress. This behavior 4 x 10-8 m 2 increases in length by 0.2 cm
is shown up to point C known as yield point. when a force of 16 N is applied. Value of Y
In region CD : Point D correspondes to for the material of the wire will be
maximum stress, which is called point of (A) 2 × 106 N/m 2 (B) 2 × 1011 kg/m 2
11
(C) 2 × 10 N/mm 2 (D) 2 × 1011 N/m 2
breaking or tensile strength.
In region DE : The wire literally flows. The Sol. [D] By Hook's law
maximum stress corresponding to D after which F/A FL
wire begin to flow. Y = =
 /L A
In this region strain increase even if wire is
unloaded and rupture at E. 16  1
Y= 8 = 2 × 10111 N/m 2
(4  10 ) (0.2  10 2 )
7. HOOK'S LAW
7.2 Bulk Modulus :
Stress is proportional to strain with in limit of
proportionality for metal. Volume stress P VP
B= = V  B = – V
Stress Volume strain

E = Modulus of Elasticity = = constant V
Strain
7.3 Compressibility :
7.1 Young's Modulus ( Y ) :
F
GV I
HP JK
Linear Stress F/A 1 1
Y = = L k = = –
Linear Strain L / L B V
7.4 Modulus of Rigidity :
Note : tan gentialstress
l =
(A) For Loaded Wire : tan gentialstrain

F/A
F =

FL L
M
Y 
FL O
& A  r P2
Only solid can have shearing as these have
 L =
r Y 2
N A L Q definite shape.
for rigid body L = 0 so Y =  i.e. D
elasticity of rigid body is infinite. 8. POISSION'S RATIO
(B) If same stretching force is applied to different
Lateralstrain d/D L
wire of same material. = =
Linear strain L / L
L l
L  [As F and Y are const.] dL
r2 = d
LD
Greater the value L, greater will be elongation.
Interatomic force constant = Young Modulus x
(C) Elongation of wire by its own weight :
Interatomic distance.
In this case F = Mg acts at CG of the wire so
Ex.6 The volume of a solid rubber ball (C) when it
length of wire which is stretched will be L/2
is carried from the surface to the bottom of
FL (Mg)  L / 2 MgL gL2 a 200m deep lake decreases by 0.1%. The
    L = = = = value for bulk modulus elasticity for rubber
AY r 2 Y 2AY 2Y
will be
[ M = AL] (A) 2 × 109 Pa (B) 2 × 106 Pa
4
(C) 2 × 10 Pa (D) 2 × 10-4 Pa
gL2
L =
2Y
 PV V
Sol. [A] B = –  Fractional decrease in volume = – = p
V V
Given, P = hdg = 200 x 103 x 10 = 5 × 10–10 × 15 × 106
P = 2 × 105 N/m 2 = 7.5 × 10–3
V 0.1 Ex.10 The Young's modulus of steel is 2 × 1011 N/m2
= = 10–3 and its coefficient of linear expansion is
V 100
1.1 × 10–5 per deg. The pressure to be
2 x 10 6 applied to the ends of a steel cylinder to
 B = = 2 × 109 N/m 2
10 3 keep its length constant on raising its
temperature by 100ºC, will be -
Examples Stress, strain & work done in (A) 5.5 × 104 N/m 2 (B) 1.8 × 106 N/m 2
based on stretching a wire 8
(C) 2.2 × 10 N/m 2 (D) 2.0 × 1011 N/m 2
Ex.7 A steel wire is 4.0 m long and 2 mm in Sol. [C]
diameter. Young's modulus of steel is Increase in length on heating
1.96 × 1011 N/m 2. If a mass of 20 kg is l =  L T
suspended from it the elongation produced To annul this increase if pressure applied is
will be - p then
(A) 2.54 mm (B) 1.27 mm l
(C) 0.64 mm (D) 0.27 mm p = Y
L
Sol. [B]
= Y T
stress F/ A FL
Y = = = Al = 2 × 1011 × 1.1 × 10–5 × 100
strain l /L = 2.2 × 108 N/m 2
FL
 l = AY 9. RELATION BETWEEN Y, K,  
20  9.8  4 Y = 3k (1 – 2) ....(1)
=
  (10 3 )2  1.96  1011
Y
= 1.27 × 10–3 m = 1.27 mm = ....(2)
2(1  )
Ex.8 A brass rod is to support a load of 400 N. If
its elastic limit is 4.0 × 108 N/m2 its minimum From (1)
diameter must be -
1 Y
(A) 1.13 mm (B) 2.26 mm = [1 – ] ....(3)
(C) 3.71 mm (D) 4.52 mm 2 3k
Sol. [A] Y
Limiting stress = 4.0 × 108 N/m 2 From (2) = – 1 ....(4)
2
F 400
= = 4.0 × 108 From equation (3) & (4)
A A
or A = 10–6 m 2
1 1  Y  Y
= – 1
2  3k 
1/ 2 1/ 2
 4A   4  10 6  2
 D =   =  

     
9 3 1
= 1.13 × 10–3 m = 1.13 mm = +
Y  k
Ex.9 The compressibility of water is 5 × 10–10 m2/N.
If it is subjected to a pressure of 15 MPa,
the fractional decrease in volume will be - 9 k
Y =
(A) 3.3 × 10–5 (B) 5.6 × 10–4   3k
(C) 7.5 × 10 –3 (D) 1.5 × 10–2
From (1) & (2)
Sol. [C] Compressibility
Y = 3k (1 – 2) & Y = 2 (1 + )
1 V 3k (1 – 2) = 2 (1 + )
 = = – = 5 × 10–10
K V p
 11. Poission ratio is unit-less quantity.
3k  2 
= ....(5)
6k  2  1
12. Compressibility =
BulkModulus
From equation (5)
3k (1 – 2) = 2 (1 + ) 13. Elasticity decreases on increasing
1– 2 > 0 [if  is ( + Ve)] temperature.
14. Liquid and gases have only volume elasticity.
1
>  15. A carbon filament which is highly elastic at
2
ordinary temperatures becomes plastic when
1 +  > 0 (if  is (-Ve)]
heated by the current through it. This proves
1+  > 0 that elasticity decreases with increasing
> - 1 temperature.
Thus  lies between 1/2 and – 1. 16. A substance temporarily loses its elastic
Ex.11 For a given material, the Young's modulus is properties when a continuous strain is applied
2.4 time that of rigidity modulus . It's over it. This is known as the state of elastic
poisson's ratio is fatigue.
(A) 1.2 (B) 1.02
(C) 0.2 (D) 2 F1 A 1 L2 r12 L
ML O
PL
 Y is sameO
NL QNL  L P
M2
17. F2 = A 2 × L1 = r22
Sol. [C] 1 1Q 2
y = 2 (1 + )
18. In spring work done
y = 2.4 × 
W = 1/2 kx 2
2.4  = 2 (1 + )
(1 + ) = 1.2 19. Work done in increasing spring extension
 = 0.2 from l1 to l 2 = W = 1/2 k(l22 – l 12)
20. If the weight suspended from the wire and its
POINTS TO REMEMBER original length is same.

1. No one material is perfectly elastic in the

 (only l and r is changed)
universe.   l r2 = constant
2. After applying force on a body, if relative
displacement is negligible, it can be F
G
Y Y I
HF  F JK
1 2
considered as rigid body. 21. Two wire having
1 2

3. Steel is more elastic than rubber.

L L 2 L2 r12
4. Structural material have always elastic L 
r2
 L1 = L1 × r22
properties.
5. Braking stress is independent of length of L O
Y1  Y2
M
6.
the wire.
The breaking stress needed to break a wire
22.
1 N P
Two wires having L  L
Q2

is called tensile strength. F L 2 F2 r12

L   L =
Longitudinalstress r2 1 F1 r22
7. Young's modulus =
Longitudinalstrain 23. Due to tension intermolecular distance
between atom is increase and therefore P.E.
Shear stress
8. Modulus of rigidity = at the wire is increased and with removal of
Shear strain force interatomic distance is reduced and so
9. Breaking stress depend on the material of is the P.E. This change in P.E. appears as
the wire. heat in the wire and thus temperature is
increase.
10. Elasticity increases on adding impurities.
24. Due to continued use, original length of the
spring is increased and thus elasticity is
decreased.
25. The v alue of modulus of elasticity is
independent of the magnitude of the stress
and strain depend only on nature of material
of the body.
26. Greater the value of Y, B, , more elastic is
material.
28. As liquid and gases cannot be deformed
along one dimension only and cannot sustain
shear strain that's why Y and  does not
exists.
29. Bulk of modulus exists for solid liquid & gas.
30. Esolid > Eliquid > Egas
31. Isothermal Elasticity E = P
Adiabatic Elasticity E =  P

27. Y and  exists only for solids. E > E 

32. With rise in temperature Y, B,  decreases
because distance between atom increases.
 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex1 A wire of length 1m is stretched by a force
MgL
of 10N. The area of cross-section of the wire Sol. [A] Y =
is 2 × 10–6 m2 & y is 2 × 1011 N/m2. Increase r 2 
in length of the wire will be - but Mg/r2 = 20 × 108 & l = L then
(A) 2.5 × 10–5 cm (B) 2.5 × 10–5 mm Y = 20 × 108 N/m 2
-5
(C) 2.5 × 10 m (D) None
Ex.5 A steel wire of uniform cross-section of 2mm2
Sol. [C] Stress = F/A = 10/(2 × 10-6) is heated upto 500C and clamped rigidly at
= 5 × 106 N/m 2 two ends. If the temperature of wire falls to
300 then change in tension in the wire will
Stress 5  10 6 be, if coefficient of linear expansion of steel
Strain = = = 2.5 × 10–5
Y 2  1011 is 1.1 × 10-5 / 0C and young's modulus of
elasticity of steel is 2 × 1011 N/m 2.
l = L x strain = 1 × 2.5 × 10–5 (A) 44 N (B) 88 N
l = 2.5 × 10–5 m (C) 132 N (D) 22 N
Ex.2 A stress of 1kg/mm 2 is applied on a wire. If Sol. [B]
the modulus of elasticity of the wire is F = Y  tA
1010 dyne/cm2, then the percentage increase A = 2 × 10–6 m 2
in the length of the wire will be
Y = 2 × 11 N/m 2
(A) 0.007 (B) 0.0098
 = 1.1 × 10–5
(C) 98 (D) 9.8
t = 50 – 30 = 200C
 Mg 1000  980  100 F = 2 × 1011 × 1.1 × 10–5 × 20 × 2 x 10–6
Sol. [B] = =
L AY 1012  0.01 = 88N.
Hence correct answer is (B)
l = 0.0098 cm.
Ex.6 The work done in increasing the length of a
Ex.3 A uniform steel wire of density 7800kg/m 3 is
one meter long wire of cross-sectional area
2.5 m long and weighs 15.6 × 10–3 kg. It
1mm2 through 1mm will be (Y = 2 x 1011 N/m2)
extends by 1.25 mm when loaded by 8kg.
Calculate the value of young's modulus for (A) 250 J (B) 10 J
steel. (C) 5 J (D) 0.1 J
Sol. [D] Work done on the wire
(A) 1.96 × 1011 N/m 2 (B) 19.6 × 1011 N/m2
(C) 196 × 1011 N/m 2 (D) None 1 1
W= F×l= × stress x volume x strain
Sol. [A] Volume = Mass/density 2 2
Area of cross-section = volume/length 1
W = × Y × strain2 × volume
2
mass 15.6  10 3
= = = 8 × 10–7 m2 1  2 YAL2
density  length 7800  2.5 W = × Y × × AL =
2 L2 2L
F 8  9.8  2.5 2  1011  10 6  10 6
Y = = W = = 0.1 J
AL (8  10 7 )  125
.  10 3 2 1
Y = 1.96 × 1011 N/m 2 Ex.7 A metallic wire is suspended by suspending
Ex.4 Length of wire is doubled, when 20 x 108 N/m2 weight to it. If s is longitudinal strain and Y
stress is applied on it. Modulus of elasticity its young's modulus of elasticity. Potential
in N/m2 will be energy per unit volume will be
(A) 20 × 108 (B) 20 × 109 1 2 2 1 2
(A) Y S (B) Y S
(C) 20 × 1010 (D) 10 × 108 2 2
1
(C) YS2 (D) 2YS2
2
Sol. [C]
Force F
Potential energy per unit volume = u Sol. [C] stress = =
Area r2
1
= × stress × strain 1
2  stress S 
r2
stress FS I Fr I 2
But Y =
strain  G
HS JK= G
1

2 Hr JK
2

1
 stress = Y x strain = Y x S
r1 2
 Potential energy per unit volume = u Given r2 = 1
1 1
= x (YS)S = YS2 S1 1
2 2
 S2 = 4
Ex.8 The lengths and radii of two wires of same
material are respectively L, 2L, and 2R, R. Ex.10 The compressibility of water is 5 x 10-10 m2/N.
Equal weights are applied on then. If the Find the decrease in volume of 100ml of water
elongations produced in them are l1 and l 2 when subjected to a pressure of 15 MPa.
respectively then their ratio will be (A) 0.75 ml (B) 0.75 mm
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 4 : 1 (C) 0.75 mm (D) 7.5 mm
(C) 8 : 1 (D) 1 : 8 Sol. [A]

1 L1 r22 1 V
Sol. [D]  compressibility = =
 2 = L 2 r12 K V  P

L1 = L, L2 = 2L, r1 = 2R., r2 = R 1
V = (V × P) ×
K
1 L R2 1 V = (100 × 15 × 106) × 5 × 10–10
  2 = 2L 4R 2 =
8 V = 0.75 m l
Ex.9 The ratio of radii of two wires of same Ex.11 The upper end of a wire 1 meter long and
material is 2:1. If these wires are stretched 2mm radius is clamped. The lower end is
by equal force, then the ratio of stresses twisted through an angle of 450. The angle of
produced in them will be shear is.
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1 (A) 0.090 (B) 0.90
(C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1 (C) 9 0 (D) 900
Sol. [A]

r (2 / 1000) 45 0
 = = = 0.090.
L 1

1. INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
The force of interaction between two molecules
depends on the spatial distribution of the electrons
and the separation between the molecules. The
forces are due to the electrostatic interactions of
electrons and nuclei of the molecules. The forces
may be attractive or repulsive depending upon
the separation between the molecules. These
forces are termed as intermolecular forces.
(A) The variation of inter atomic force with
distance between two molecules is shown in
following diagram.
S energy of the molecules decide whether the
Attraction Repulsion
F matter is in solid, Liquid or in gaseous phase.
O
r0
F
At a fix distance r0 the attractive and repulsive
forces acting between the molecules counter
balances each other so there is no net force
between the molecules. The distance r0 is of
the order of 10-10m. The distance r0 is also
termed as intermolecular distance.
(B) For r > r0 the net force between molecules is
attractive. For r < r0 the net force between
the molecules is repulsive.
2. INTERMOLECULAR POTENTIAL ENERGY
The molecules exert forces of attraction on each
other so they possess potential energy. The
potential energy U is related with the
inter-molecular force as-
dU
F =
dr
A
U always in a state of random motion capable
O B
C F
r0
(a) The variation of intermolecular potential energy
with the distance r between two molecules is
plotted in following graph. These curve may
have different shapes for different materials
but their general behaviour is same.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
(b) At intermolecular separation r = r0 the P.E.
is minimum.
(c) At this position the molecules is in state of
stable equilibrium.
(d) At distance r > r 0 potential energy is
negative.
(e) For distance r < r0 the potential energy is
positive.
3. STATES OF MATTER
Molecules also possess K.E. due to temperature
of the matter. The ratio of kinetic and potential
P r (A) Solid State :
(i) Solids have fixed shapes and fixed volumes.
(ii) At ordinary temperatures the mean kinetic
energy of molecules is very small compared
with their potential energy. Hence the
molecules are rigidly connected to each other
and remains at their respective sites.
(B) Liquid State :
(i) A liquid has fixed volume but no fixed shape.
(ii) The mean kinetic energy of liquid molecules
is much larger then that for solid. As a result
of this these molecules can move freely in
the container. However this energy is not
sufficient for the molecules to escape from
the surface of the liquid.
(iii) Liquid possess properties like surface
tension, Capilliarity etc.
C. Gaseous State :
(i) Gases have neither fixed shape nor fixed
volume.
(ii) A molecule belonging to gaseous phase is
of moving freely because the intermolecular
r forces between the molecules is almost
negligible.
E
D 4. VARIOUS TYPES OF BONDS
(i) In solids molecules form bonds with each
other.
(ii) Various types of bonds exits between
molecules but all of them are electrostatic in
nature.
 (iii) Name of various types of bonds which may
exist in solids are
(i) ionic (ii) covalent(iii) vander Waal's Binding (iv)
metallic(v) hydrogen bonding.
4.1 Ionic Bond :
(i) The cause of this binding is transfer of one
or more electron from one atom to another
atom by which positive and negative ions are
formed.
(ii) The electrostatic force of attraction between
these ions is the cause of ionic bond. Crystal
containg binding of this type are termed as
ionic solids.
Examples: NaCl, CsCl, LiF etc.
4.2 Covalent Bond :
(i) This arises due to sharing of electron between
neutral atoms.
This bond is highly directional in nature
e.g. in silicon, germanium etc.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
(1) Metallic bonds forms between atom having
small number of valence electrons.
(2) Net dipole moment of non polar molecules is
zero.
Example : O 2, H2, CO2, CH
(3) Cohesive force : The attractive inter-molecular
force acting between the molecules of same
material is called, cohesive force e.g. water-
water molecule.
(4) Adhesive force : the attractive molecular force
acting between different types of molecules for
example force acting between glass and water
molecules.
(5) The magnitude of r0 is of the order of 10-10 m.
(6) Characteristics of inter-molecular forces-
These are short range forces.
These do not obey inverse square law.
Their nature is electromagnetics.
(iii) Such solids are generally semiconductor in
nature.
4.3 Molecular bonding :
(i) Such bonds are formed between non polar
molecules.
(ii) Such a bonding is due to a weak force as
present between two electric dipoles.
Example : CH4, Cl 2, CO 2 etc.
4.4 Metallic Bond and Metals :
(i) These bonds result due to interaction between
the positive crystal lattice and free electron
gas.
(ii) These bonds are formed between the atoms
having low ionisation energy.
Example : Cu, Al, Na, Ag etc.
(7) Phenomena like viscosity, surface tension,
wetting of a surface by a liquid, capillarity etc
can be explained on the basis of inter molecular
forces.
(8) The physical propoerties of three states of
matter can be explained on the basis of these
force.
(9) When a molecule is brought from infinity
towards to another molecules then U decreases
in positive direction i.e. increases in the
negative direction.
(10) There are three states of matter on the basis
of potential energy.
(11) For the solids, which can be easily
compressed, the melting point is low and
temperature coefficient of expansion is high.
 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Ex.1 What type of bonds are there in GaAs ? Ex.4 The structure of diamond lattice is equivalent
(A) Ionic and covalent to-
(B) Ionic and hydrogen (A) Ne (B) Ar
(C) Covalent and Vander wall's (C) Si and Ge (D) K and Ni
(D) Ionic and Vander Waal's Sol. [C]
Sol. [A] The structure of diamond lattice is equivalent
In GaAs ionic and covalent bonds are present. to that of semiconductors Ge and Si.
Ex.2 In non-polar molecules the positive and Ex.5 If the potential energy between two atoms is
negative charge centres- A B
U = 12 – 6 then the binding energy Ub in
(A) Do not coincide r r
(B) coincide equilibrium position will be-
(A) A2/4B (B) B2/4A
(C) sometimes coincide and sometimes do
(C) 2A/B4 (D) None
not coincide
Sol. [B]
(D) nothing can be predicted.
Sol. [B] Binding energy U BO = potential energy at
In non-polar molecules the positive and inf inite distance-potential energy at
negative charge centres coincide. equilibrium distance
Ex.3 In diamond crystal lattice, the angle enclosed
UBO = Ur – Ur  r0
by the bonds between different carbon atoms = 
is-
F
G2A I
1/ 6

(A) 109028'
(C) 60 0
(B) 900
(D) 450
 Ur =  = 0 and r0 = HB JK
Sol. [A] A B B2 B2
 UB O = 0 – + 2A = – +
In diamond lattice the angle enclosed by the F
G2A I
2
4A 2A
bonds between different carbon atoms is
109028'.
HB JK B

B2
UBO =
4A