MINISTRY OF HEALTH OF UKRAINE

BUKOVINIAN STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Nina Voytkevich, Oleksandr Rak, Valentyna Bebykh, Iryna Zazulia, Karina

Karatintseva, Galyna Lapa, Kvitoslava Matiychuk, Liubov Stegnitska, Mariya
Teslenko, Agnessa Tomashevska, Hanna Shalayeva

PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH IN USE

(MEDICINE)

Chernivtsi - 2021
 МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОХОРОНИ ЗДОРОВ’Я УКРАЇНИ
БУКОВИНСЬКИЙ ДЕРЖАВНИЙ МЕДИЧНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ
КАФЕДРА ІНОЗЕМНИХ МОВ

Н.І.Войткевич, О.М.Рак, В.В.Бебих, І.В.Зазуля, К.П.Каратінцева,

Г.М.Лапа, К.Д.Матійчук, Л.В.Стегніцька, М.О.Тесленко,
А.Ю.Томашевська, Г.В.Шалаєва

АНГЛІЙСЬКА МОВА В ПРОФЕСІЙНОМУ

СПІЛКУВАННІ
(МЕДИЦИНА)

Чернівці – 2021
UDC: 811.111(075.8)
A 64

Nina Voytkevich, Oleksandr Rak, Valentyna Bebykh, Karina Karatintseva, Galyna

Lapa, Kvitoslava Matiychuk, Liubov Stegnitska, Mariya Teslenko, Agnessa
Tomashevska, Hanna Shalayeva

English in Professional Use (Medicine) – Chernivtsi, 2021. – c.

Textbook “ English in Professional Use (Medicine)” is compiled according to the
requirements of the curriculum on English and Professional English for the 1 st and
2nd-year students of medical faculties at higher educational institutions. The
objectives of the textbook are: 1) to ensure professional direction in teaching
English learners, reach unprepared level of English communication, reading,
annotation and reviewing of authentic scientific literature; 2) to prepare English
learners for successful passing of the Unified State Qualification Exam (USQE)
integrated test exam KROK-1 and exam on professional English.

Reviewers:
Pavlo Sodomora – Doctor in Philosophy, Associate Professor, Head of the
Department of Latin and Foreign Languages, Danylo Halytskyi Lviv National
Medical University

Halyna Yeriomkina – Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor,

Head of the Department of Foreign Languages, Odessa National Medical
University

Recommended by the BSMU Academic Council on April 22, 2021; minutes № 8.

ISBN 978-966-697-935-6
УДК: 811.111(075.8)
A 64

Н.І.Войткевич, О.М.Рак, В.В.Бебих, І.В.Зазуля, К.П.Каратінцева, Г.М.Лапа,

К.Д.Матійчук, Л.В.Стегніцька, М.О.Тесленко, А.Ю.Томашевська,
Г.В.Шалаєва. Підручник «Англійська мова в професійному спілкуванні
(Медицина). – Чернівці, 2021. – с.

Рецензенти:
Павло Содомора – Доктор філософських наук, доцент, завідувач кафедри
латинської та іноземних мов Львівського національного університету ім.
Данила Галицького

Галина Єрьомкіна – Кандидат філологічних наук, доцент, завідувач кафедри

іноземних мов Одеського національного медичного університету

Підручник “ English in Professional Use (Medicine) ” укладений відповідно

вимогам програми з англійської мови та англійської мови за професійним
спрямуванням для студентів 1-2 курсів медичних факультетів закладів вищої
освіти і ставить за мету: 1) забезпечити професійну спрямованість у навчанні
здобувачів освіти англійській мові, вихід на непідготовлену англомовну
комунікацію, читання, анотування та реферування автентичної наукової
літератури, 2) підготувати до успішного складання ЄДКІ інтегрованого
тестового іспиту КРОК-1 та іспиту з англійської мови професійного
спрямування.

Рекомендовано: на засіданні Вченої Ради Буковинського державного

медичного університету 22 квітня 2021 року, протокол № 8.

ISBN 978-966-697-935-6
 Acknowledgements
Having ideas and turning them into a book is as hard as it sounds. Writing
this textbook appeared to be harder than we had ever thought and more rewarding
than we could have ever imagined. None of this would have been possible without
experiences and support from every member of our Scribe Team.
What a pleasure it is to meet with people who are interested in original ideas,
who render a constructive critique of any material, suggestion or practice that
comes before them, and who are always eager to test something new – new ways
of thinking, approaches and techniques.
Thank to everyone on our Scribe Team who contributed to writing. Without
our mutual efforts this book would not exist.
We can’t thank our talented and creative students enough for being our
everlasting source of inspiration and encouragement, especially for Group 1
Medical Faculty № 1 of 2020-2021!
 BUKOVINIAN STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

Bukovinian State Medical University (BSMU) was

founded in October, 1944 on the base of the 2 nd Kyiv Medical Institute. The
foundation of this higher educational institution, its formation and development
played a significant role for the training of medical and scientific personnel in
Bukovyna. A colonial status of the region left a negative imprint on the life of the
population which was characterized by the highest sickness and mortality rates
in Europe. In 1939 there were only 120 physicians in the region.
Nowadays the academic staff of the University includes hundreds of Doctors
and Candidates of science, who are Professors and Associate Professors of 8
faculties, 49 theoretical and clinical departments. The University employs the
highest quality academic staff which provides a high level of training for a
comprehensive development of students. The teaching team takes advanced
training courses at home and abroad. Bukovinian Medical University closely
collaborates with other universities and participates in various education and
research programs. The students have an access to a wide range of learning and
training facilities including MOODLE, computer equipped labs which are set
within the University, city and regional hospitals. The training environment
includes Medical Simulation Center and the Center of Scientific Medical Research,
which are of great assistance for the students and those who caries out a
research work. The academic staff of the University conducts a large scale
scientific research in the related fields of Gastroenterology, Embryology,
Cardiovascular and kidney diseases. The Council of Young Scientists and the
Students' Scientific Society which embrace over 600 members also play a
significant role in the research work of the University. Bukovinian University
offers degree programs, where postgraduates have an opportunity to get a
medical degree and become a part of a research community. It gives our students
the best start to their career. Many of our graduates work in their Alma Mater -
they teach students and share their experience.
Our students’ community is very diverse including students from India,
Ghana, Nigeria, Algeria, Syria, and other countries. Students are provided with
modern conveniences in 8 hostels they reside. Different activities, social and
academic events are organized throughout the year for our large international
community. Creative students can show their talents when joining a variety of
functions. The Folk Dance and Song Ensemble "Trembita" is very popular in the
town of Chernivtsi and beyond its limits. It has been a winner of international
and regional contests and still remains one of the best amateur societies of
Bukovyna.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to be founded бути заснованим
to play a significant role відігравати значну роль
to leave a negative imprint залишити негативний відбиток
sickness rate рівень захворюваності
mortality rate рівень смертності
to employ брати на роботу, працевлаштовувати
academic staff викладацький склад
highest quality найвища якість
to provide a high level of training забезпечувати високим рівнем
підготовки
comprehensive development всебічний розвиток
to collaborate with співпрацювати з
advanced training courses курси підвищення кваліфікації
education and research programs навчальні та дослідницькі програми
learning and training facilities засоби для навчання та підготовки
computer equipped labs обладнані комп’ютерами лабораторії
to be of great assistance бути дуже корисним
to carry out (conduct) research проводити дослідження
degree programs ступеневі програми
postgraduate аспірант
to have an opportunity мати можливість
to share experience ділитись досвідом
students’ community студентська спільнота
diverse різноманітний
provide with modern conveniences забезпечувати (надавати) сучасними
зручностями
function (тут: урочиста подія)
beyond limits поза межами
international and regional contests міжнародні та обласні конкурси
amateur society самодіяльний гурток
Note: mind the acronym MOODLE – Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning
Environment (модульне об'єктно-орієнтоване динамічне навчальне
середовище)

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. When was Bukovinian State Medical University founded?
2. How can you characterize medicine in the region at the beginning of the XX
century?
3. What was the reason of high sickness and mortality rate in Bukovyna?
4. What are the training facilities of the University?
5. What does the academic staff of the University include?
6. What programs does the University offer to the students?
7. What does the University international community consist of?
8. What do you know about the student’s scientific society?
9. What activities does the University offer for creative students?
10.What conditions are created for student’s study and research?
11.What famous University graduates do you know?
12.What activities would you like to participate in?

II. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH PROPER WORDS AND

PHRASES FROM THE TEXT. TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES.
1. My Dad (відіграв значну роль) in the choice of my future profession.
2. He was involved into a bad company and it (залишило негативний
відбиток) on his behavior and studies.
3. My brother is a promising computer expert. He (був взятий на роботу) in a
big corporation.
4. Modern life requires (високий рівень підготовки) in any field of human
activity.
5. (Всебічний розвиток) is possible only in a free democratic society.
6. My sister graduated from our Medical University several years ago. Her
notes and books (дуже корисні/допомагають) for me now.
7. I’m good at natural sciences. I’m going (займатись дослідницькою
роботою) in Biology.
8. The University (ступеневі програми) includes junior specialists, Bachelors,
and Masters.
9. Those students who have a good command of English (мають
можливість) to participate in numerous student exchange programs.
10.It’s very important to have someone who can (поділитись своїм досвідом)
in medical profession.
11.Bukovyna is very (різноманітна) concerning nationalities living here.
12. – Do you know who the Amish are? These are people residing in North
America refusing from (сучасних зручностей) and living a natural life.
13.I’m proud to be a member of our friendly and multinational (студентської
спільноти).
 14.Many University students take part in (аматорських гуртках/гуртках
художньої самодіяльності).
15.The University Palace “Academichnyi” is the place to organize different
conferences, symposia, concerts and other (урочисті події).
III. MAKE UP A DIALOGUE AND ACT THE FOLLOWING
SITUATIONS
1. You are for the first time at the University administrative building.
Ask information about the Dean’s offices and departments which are
located there.
2. You are in the downtown. Ask how to get to the hostel № 1, 2, 3, 5
from the University administrative building.
3. You need to pay a tuition fee and bring the receipt to the accounting
department. Ask a senior student how to manage it or ask him to assist
you.

4. You are the first year student. Ask a teacher about the University
Requirements you need to keep to.

5. Ask the tutor of the group about the University scientific and amateur
societies to be enrolled to.

IV. WRITE A SHORT LETTER TO YOUR FRIEND ABOUT YOUR

STUDY AT THE UNIVERSITY
Key words and phrases: hostel, self-catering, classes, academic hours,
tuition fee, academic staff, to encounter, to mug up, fall behind, to be overwhelmed
with, chargeable, record book, schedule, shoe covers, lab coats, to call a list, to
miss classes, to take an exam, to pass/fail the exam, receipt, permission, Dean’s
office.
V. MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING ENGLISH PROVERBS AND
SAYINGS ON THE TOPIC:
Don’t judge a book by its cover. – Зустрічають по одягу, проводжають по
розуму.
Practice makes perfect. – Повторення – мати навчання.
Live and learn. – Вік живи — вік учись.
Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. – Не відкладай на завтра те,
що можеш зробити сьогодні.
 MEDICAL EDUCATION IN UKRAINE AND IN GREAT BRITAIN

The systems of medical education in

the UK and in Ukraine are in many ways similar though there are some
differences. In Ukraine applicants are accepted by the results of their External
Independent Testing (EIT) in Biology, Chemistry, Physics or Mathematics and the
Ukrainian language. In the UK pupils at the age of 16 take examinations on 6-8
subjects to get General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). After that they
study for two years preparing for A-levels exams on 3-5 subjects to get General
Certificate of Education (GCE) on an advanced level. It gives the right to enter a
higher educational institution. GCE is an equivalent of Ukrainian EIT.
The course of study in medical institutions of Ukraine lasts 6 years except
stomatological and pharmaceutical ones. In the preclinical years the curriculum is
uniform for the students of practically all faculties and departments. Beginning
from the third year special clinical subjects are introduced, namely, all branches
of Therapy, Surgery, Cardiology, Gynecology, Ophthalmology, Infectious diseases
and others. Senior students have a lot of practical work in clinics, hospitals and
polyclinics. On completion of their studies students pass the final state
examinations and receive their diploma. Then they have a period of internship
under direct supervision of experienced specialists. Medical graduates in
Ukraine can apply for the postgraduate program, prepare a thesis, defend it and
get Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy), which is an equivalent of the previous Candidate
of Medical Science.
 Medical education in the UK lasts five years consisting of two years of basic
sciences and three years of clinical work. After clinical studies students obtain
degrees of Bachelor of Medicine (BM) and Bachelor of Surgery (BS). These
degrees give the right to registration as a medical practitioner. At the end of five
years students take final examinations or finals in Medicine, Surgery, Obstetrics
and Gynecology, Pathology, history taking and diagnosing. After the finals,
graduates work for a year as interns, and then 1 or 2 years in residency. Residency
trains highly qualified specialists in a definite field: Gynecology, Urology,
Neurology etc. If a postgraduate writes a thesis based on original work they are
given the degree of Doctor of Medicine (DM). Such degree in Surgery is termed a
Mastership (MS). Until 1998 British students did not have to pay for their studies
at the university. Now they must pay about 20 000 pounds a year as a tuition fee.
Many students, whose parents do not earn much money, are given a grant from
the local education authority. Some students borrow money from the bank.
Many people combine their studies with work. They can study two days a week or
for two months a year. The British Government is very enthusiastic about such
training schemes and supports students in different ways. Nevertheless the
National Health Care System in the UK experiences great crisis due to great
costs on higher medical education and a long period of training for it. 
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
in many ways similar схожий у багатьох відношеннях
to take examinations здавати екзамени
to pass examinations здати екзамени
on an advanced level на підвищеному рівні
enter a higher educational institution вступити до вищого навчального
закладу
uniform curriculum однаковий навчальний план
clinical subject клінічний предмет
to introduce вводити, включати, знайомити
junior students студенти молодших курсів
senior students студенти старших курсів
on completion по завершенню
to receive diploma отримати диплом
under direct supervision під прямим наглядом
experienced specialist досвідчений фахівець
medical graduate випускник-медик
to apply for подавати заяву
postgraduate program післядипломна програма, програма
аспірантури
to prepare a thesis готувати дисертацію
to obtain a degree отримати ступінь (диплом)
at the end of в кінці чогось
to train specialist готувати спеціаліста/фахівця
tuition fee плата за навчання
to earn money заробляти гроші
to give a grant надавати грант (субсидію)
local education authorities місцеві органи освіти
to borrow money from the bank брати позику в банку
to be enthusiastic about захоплюватись чимось
to support students підтримувати студентів
in different ways по-різному
to experience great crisis переживати глибоку кризу
due to завдяки; внаслідок; в результаті
great costs великі затрати, недешево

Note: 1) mind the difference between “institute” (інститут) and “institution”

(заклад, установа; синонім - establishment)
2) remember plural of nouns of Latin and Greek origin:
a curriculum – curricula (навчальний план)
a thesis – theses (теза, положення, дисертація)
a crisis – crises (криза)
3) at the end of – в кінці чогось; in the end – в кінці кінців

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How to enter a medical university in Ukraine/UK?
2. What exams are to be taken in both countries?
3. What is the duration of studies in both countries?
4. What clinical subjects are introduced at the third year of study?
5. When do student take their finals in Ukraine and UK?
6. What is the difference between medical training in Ukraine and UK?
7. How to get Bachelor Degree in the UK?
8. How to become a medical practitioner in the UK?
9. What specialists does Residency train?
10.Can you combine medical education and work in Ukraine?
11.What is the tuition fee for medical education in Ukraine and Great Britain?
12.Is it reasonable to remove any subject from curriculum in order to simplify
the study?
13. Where do you get information? Are libraries still necessary for getting
information?
II. MATCHING

intern a person who has recently become a member of a university

sophomore a graduate or former student of an educational institution
Bachelor a student who is in his or her first year at university
alumnus a student in the second year of college or high school.
university a graduate in a professional field gaining supervised practical
applicant experience
freshman a person who has received a degree from a university usually
after four years of study
 III. FILL IN PREPOSITIONS WHERE NECESSARY (of, for, under,
on, in, to, out, with, at)
1. Last year my sister entered … Chernivtsi National University.
2. … completion … my University studies I’m going to apply … a
postgraduate course.
3. We are happy to master our professional skills … the supervision of this
Professor.
4. Students take their exams … the end of each term.
5. I realized that she was right … the end.
6. He must be very enthusiastic … the project we suggest.
7. Our teachers are always ready to share … their experience … students.
8. He did not participate in the last sport competitions due … a knee injury.
9. Our parents try to support us … different ways.
10.The guide will be … great assistance to the tourists.
11.They carry … their research in the field of virology.
12.This hotel can provide guests … additional conveniences for extra pay.

IV. A SRUDENT’S VIEW.

ELEN, A MEDICAL SRUDENT FROM GREAT BRITAIN
DESCRIBES HER COURSE.
Read the text and compare systems of medical education in Ukraine
and Great Britain.
- What would you like to change in the system of Ukrainian education?
- What are advantages of group-work?

I’m just finishing my first year of Medicine. What I like about this course is
that you’re involved with patients from the very beginning. Even in our first
year, we spend time in hospitals. Much of the course is problem-based learning
(PBL). We have two 2-hour sessions a week where we work in groups of eight
to ten solving clinical problems. We decide together how to tackle the problem,
look up books and online sources, make notes and discuss the case together. It’s
a great way of learning and getting to know the other students. In the past,
medical students had lectures with the whole class taking notes from lectures
from 9.00 to 5.00, but now it’s mainly group work, although we do have some
lectures and seminars, where we work in small groups with a tutor. I like all of
it, even the dissection. We get to cut cadavers from the second month of the
course.
V. MAKE A SHORT REPORT ON THE TOPICS:
1. What is the most prospective field of medicine?
2. What branch of medicine will be chosen for your future work?
3. What is the future of medicine?
4. Can the doctors be substituted by robots?
5. What are the essential qualities of a good doctor?
 THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 

The World Health Organization (WHO)

is an international organization which is responsible for giving direction on
international health issues, setting standards, and providing information for
governments to make decisions. One of the principles of its constitution reads as
follows: “The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of
the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion
or political belief, economic or social condition.” It means that everyone has the
right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health which
includes access to all medical services. According to the World Health
Organization, a well-functioning health care system requires a strong financing
mechanism; a well-trained and adequately-paid workforce; reliable
information on which to base decisions and policies; and well maintained health
facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies.
 Recommended by the WHO an idealized health care system should
include primary, secondary and tertiary medical services.  The primary care
includes general practitioner (GP) or family doctor services. GPs treat common
diseases and prevent them. They also offer counseling and monitor your health.
In most countries secondary care is provided in the place where a primary care
person such as a doctor refers a patient to a specialist. Secondary care providers
typically do not have the type of continuous contact with patients that general
practitioners do, but provide specialized consulting and treatment in the hospitals
and polyclinics. And finally, tertiary care includes specialized care, often hospital
care, in great specialized centers which require expensive equipment and highly
trained professionals. It includes Cardiosurgery, Neurosurgery, Eye Surgery,
Oncology etc.
Nowadays, Ukraine is facing deep changes and reforms in healthcare
system targeted to establishment and support of strong postgraduate programs for
training in family medicine. The Ministry of Health of Ukraine continues a
fundamental transformation of the national healthcare system to prepare and
introduce insurance medicine. Nevertheless many people still go to the state
hospitals and polyclinics for their medical needs because private medical
services cost a pretty penny for the majority of Ukrainian population.
Health care systems are organizations established to meet
the health needs of the population. The access to health care may vary across
different countries, but the human right to health care means that hospitals, clinics,
medicines, and doctors’ services must be accessible, available, acceptable, and of
good quality for everyone.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to be responsible for бути відповідальним за
health issues питання охорони здоров’я
to provide information надавати інформацію
to make decisions приймати рішення
highest attainable standard найвищий досяжний стандарт
fundamental rights основні/фундаментальні права
distinction різниця, відмінність, розходження
access to medical services доступ до медичних послуг
adequately-paid workforce відповідно оплачувана робоча сила
reliable information  достовірна інформація
health facilities можливості; кошти; виробничі
об'єкти в сфері охорони здоров’я
general practitioner лікар загальної практики, терапевт
to treat common diseases лікувати загальні захворювання
to prevent diseases запобігати захворюванням, вести
профілактику захворювань
to offer counseling надавати консультування
to monitor health моніторити, відслідковувати здоров’я
to provide specialized consulting надавати спеціалізоване
консультування
expensive equipment дороге/вартісне обладнання
to face deep changes зустрічатись з глибокими змінами
to be targeted to бути спрямованим на
to introduce insurance medicine впроваджувати страхову медицину
to cost a pretty penny коштувати круглу копійчину
to meet the health needs задовольняти потреби охорони
здоров’я
accessible доступний; досяжний
available наявний, що є у розпорядженні,
дійсний
acceptable прийнятний, підходящий
of good quality хорошої якості

Note: mind the following abbreviations: WHO, GP.

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What kind of organization is the WHO?
2. What is the task of the WHO?
3. What are the principles of the WHO?
4. What does a well-functioning health care system require?
5. Who can get access to all medical services according to the WHO?
6. What does the healthcare system recommended by the WHO consist of?
7. What does the primary care include?
8. What does the secondary care consist of?
9. What does the tertiary care include?
 10.How to transform national healthcare system in Ukraine (your ideas)?
11.What is health insurance?
12.What medical services are to be covered by health insurance?

II. SAY WHETHER THE FOLLOWING IS TRUE OR FALSE. COMMENT

AND CORRECT WRONG STATEMENTS
1. The WHO is a powerful economical organization.
2. The WHO was founded in Ukraine.
3. Human health is the greatest treasure.
4. Medical professionals in Ukraine are adequately paid.
5. The WHO has its own Constitution.
6. A strong financing mechanism is essential for a well-functioning health care
system.
7. Ukraine has primary, secondary and tertiary medical care recommended by
the WHO.
8. The primary medical care includes GP services.
9. General practitioners treat common diseases and monitor people’s health.
10.The secondary medical care requires expensive medical equipment and
highly qualified specialists.
11.Doctors consulting patients in hospitals and polyclinics provide secondary
medical services.
12.Cardiosurgery, Eye Suregry, Neurosurgery are the fields of tertiary medical
care.
13. Transformation of the Ukrainian healthcare system is very successful.
14.Ukraine is facing not only deep changes in healthcare system but difficulties
as well.
15.Private medical services are accessible to all people.
 III. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES CONSIDERING
MULTIPLE MEANING (POLYSEMANTICISM) OF WORDS IN BOLD
TYPE
(Кeys: facilities – умови, засоби обслуговування, обладнання, споруди,
майданчики; reliable – надійний, достовірний; treat – лікувати, відноситись,
обробляти; face – обличчя, зустрітися віч-на-віч, бути зверненим до,
виходити вікнами на; meet – задовольняти, зустрічатись; pretty – гарненька,
симпатична (про жінку), досить, значною мірою):
1. Our town has good shopping and transport facilities.
2. Big play facilities for children are built in front of our house.
3. Our University provides good facilities for research and study.
4. He is a reliable person.
5. Is this information reliable?
6. They treat him badly.
7. Family doctors treat common diseases and prevent them.
8. They have treated the wood with a chemical that slows its destruction.
9. She is a supermodel. Her face is printed on many cover shoots.
10.My living-room faces a big park.
11.Medical systems face great problems due to world globalization.
12.I’m always happy to meet my old friends.
13.A big mistake of parents nowadays is to meet all the needs of their children
immediately.
14.She is a pretty woman.
15.I'm pretty sure I recognized her voice.
16.He paid a pretty penny for that ring.

IV. READ AN ABSTRACT. DISCUSS THE PHENOMENON OF MEDICAL

(DENTAL) TOURISM. FIND TRANSLATION OF THE WORDS IN BOLD
TYPE. WHAT IS YOUR ATTITUDE TO MEDICAL TOURISM?
Free NHS dental treatment in England.
Britain has had a National Health Service (NHS) since the late 1940s. Most
medical treatment in Great Britain is free, but charges are made for
drugs, spectacles and dental care. Free emergency medical treatment is given to
any visitor from abroad, who becomes ill while staying in the country. But those,
who come to the UK especially for treatment, must pay for it. The healthcare
system and health insurance in the UK are free at the point of use. Dental care in
the UK can be expensive and you need to pay a contribution for every treatment.
Some people are entitled to free dental treatment. You don’t pay for treatment if
you are pregnant, you are under 18 or you receive a low income benefits. When
you make an appointment tell your dentist you want NHS treatment. When you
arrive for your appointment, you'll be given a form to fill in. If you aren't sure
whether you're entitled to help, you must pay. You can claim a refund, but make
sure you keep all receipts. Refund claims must be submitted within three months
of the date on which you paid.

V. WRITE YOUR OWN RECOMMENDATIONS WHICH HELP TO

IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY, SAFETY AND QUALITY OF NATIONAL
HEALTH CARE SYSTEM IN UKRAINE.
 EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICE

Even doctors of high antiquity knew that it was

much easier to prevent a disease than to cure it. Today prophylaxis has become
one of the basic principles in the modern medical system throughout the world.
Preventive inoculations, mass-scale medical examinations and other measures
are taken to protect people's health which is the greatest treasure of everybody
and of the society on the whole. But sometimes it happens that people need urgent
medical aid.
In case of an accident or a sudden severe illness we make calls to the First
Aid Station which is on duty twenty-four hours. Emergency medical services
(EMS) help you recognize and respond to any emergency appropriately. Its goal is
to treat urgent conditions including rapid assessment, timely provision of
appropriate medical aid, and prompt transportation to the nearest health facility.
Quick, qualified and well-coordinated work of the staff is a matter of life and
death for a patient. Undoubtedly a peculiar role in ambulance team belongs to a
doctor. The ambulance doctor is an experienced and highly skilled professional
who has expanded knowledge in Emergency Surgery, Toxicology, Emergency
Therapy, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Cardiology etc.
Every First Aid Station has many ambulances with first aid equipment which
is necessary in situation demanding immediate action. The ambulances carry
apparatus for artificial respiration, blood transfusion and some of them are even
equipped with express laboratories, necessary equipment for resuscitation of the
organism. Besides they have different medicines, pain-killers, tonics and other
preparations; dressings, pincers, scalpels, syringes and others; sets of splints and
stretchers. Every first aid kit contains tweezers, alcohol swabs, antibiotics,
ointments, bandages, gauze pads, medical tape, elastic bandages, pain
relievers, instant cold pack. Regional ambulance stations have specialized teams
(brigades) which are able to give specific aid – caridological, psychiatric.
The emergency patients are taken to the admission office/room of the
emergency hospital, examined by a specialist and transported to a certain
department. Ukraine has also its 24-hour medical aviation service based in large
cities where the permanent air ambulance stations are located. The air ambulance
service has planes and helicopters, some of which are truly “flying clinics”. They
have equipment for administering all types of urgent medical aid, including an
emergency operation.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to cure a disease вилікувати хворобу
preventive inoculations профілактичні щеплення
mass-scale medical examinations  масові медичні огляди
to take measures вживати заходів
to protect people’s health захищати здоров’я людей
urgent medical aid невідкладна медична допомога
in case of у випадку
accident нещасний випадок; аварія
sudden severe illness раптове важке захворювання
to make calls дзвонити
to respond to відповідати/реагувати на (ліки)
urgent condition невідкладний стан
assessment оцінка (стану)
appropriate medical aid належна медична допомога
matter of life and death питання життя і смерті
peculiar role виключна роль
expanded knowledge широкі знання
artificial respiration штучне дихання
blood transfusion переливання крові
resuscitation реанімація
pain-killers знеболюючі
dressings ан ав’язочний матеріал
pincers пінцети
syringe шприц
set of splints набори шин
stretchers ноші
first aid kit аптечка першої допомоги
tweezers пінцет, щипці
alcohol swabs спиртові тампони
ointment мазь
bandage бинт, пов’язка
gauze pads марлеві підкладки
medical tape пластир
elastic bandage еластичний бинт
pain relievers знеболюючі
instant cold pack миттєвий холодний компрес
admission office/room приймальне відділення
emergency hospital лікарня швидкої допомоги
medical aviation service cанітарно-медична авіація
to administer medical aid надавати медичну допомогу

Note: mind the words derived from the noun doubt and cure:
1) doubt (сумнів) – doubted (сумнівний) – doubtful (нерішучий, хто
сумнівається) – undoubted (беззаперечний) – undoubtful (безсумнівний)
– undoubtedly (безсумнівно, буззаперечно)
2) cure (виліковувати, зціляти) – curable (виліковний) – incurable
(невиліковний)
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What is the basic principle of modern medical system?
 2. What is the greatest treasure of the society?
3. What are the working hours of the First Aid Station on duty?
4. When do people usually call to the emergency services?
5. What are the tasks of an ambulance team?
6. Who plays a peculiar role in the ambulance team?
7. Which fields of medicine should be in the competence of an ambulance
doctor?
8. What is the ambulance equipped with?
9. What does first aid kit contain?
10.Where are the patients taken before being transported to a certain
department?
11.What is the aviation role in the emergency medical services system?
12.Do you have a first aid kit at home? What does it contain?
13.Do you want to be an ambulance doctor? Why?

II. BUILD NOUNS FROM THE FOLLOWING VERBS BY MEANS OF

SUFFIXES –ment or –tion:
Examine, operate, treat, inoculate, transport, assess, respire, equip, resuscitate.

III. READ AN ABSTRACT ABOUT TRIAGE IN THE EMERGENCY

CARE. DISCUSS ITS NECESSITY. WHAT IS YOUR OPINION OF SUCH
KIND OF SORTING OUT?

Triage (['triːɑːʒ ], ['traɪɪʤ] in medical use) is 1) the assignment of degrees of

urgency to wounds or illnesses to decide the order of treatment of a large number
of patients or casualties; 2) the process of determining the most important people
or things from amongst a large number that require attention. In fact, triage is
sorting of patients into the groups with the purpose to determine their relative
priority for treatment. It is necessary when a large number of patients requiring
emergency care present at the same time. The patients are sorted out into three
groups: those unlikely to survive, even with treatment; those who will recover
without emergency care; and those with potentially lethal conditions who are likely
to survive if they receive timely emergency care. Patients in the last category form
the highest priority for emergency care.

IV. MATCHING (what these things are used for)

1.elastic bandages a) to remove debris such as glass, dirt, or splinters from a
wound
2.syringe b) to clean the infected or wounded area before antibiotic
ointment or bandages are placed on the area
3.medical tape c) to absorb blood
4.instant cold d) to secure gauze pads or wraps when they are being used as a
pack bandage
5.tweezers e) to keep a sprained joint immobile and reduce swelling
6.gauze pads f) to prevent swelling
7.alcohol swabs g) to inject fluids into or withdraw them from something
8.scalpel h) a strip of rigid material used for supporting and
immobilizing a broken bone when it has been set
9.pain-killer i) a smooth oily substance that is rubbed on the skin for
medicinal purposes or as a cosmetic
10.ointment j) a drug or a medicine for relieving pain
11.splints k) a knife with a small, sharp, sometimes detachable blade, as
used by a surgeon
 AT THE DOCTOR’S

When people feel unwell they usually go to see a

doctor, their GP at a local polyclinic. At the polyclinic a front desk staff asks
several routine questions to verify and update the information. A registering
clerk on duty asked your name, address, age and occupation. She wrote out a slip
to your GP or family doctor.
Usually the doctor began his examination by asking what you complain of,
about previous diseases and those diseases you had in your childhood. As a rule
children suffer from scarlet fever, chicken pox, measles and mumps. The doctor
also interviews the patient on his past medical history. Then the doctor continued
with a review of dietary habits and symptoms. In case you have cold, flu or any
other respiratory illness, the doctor gives you a thermometer to take
temperature. The thermometer is placed under the armpit for about 2 minutes.
After checking the temperature, the doctor may ask you to strip to the waist,
applies a stethoscope to your chest and listens to your heart and lungs. Then he
may ask you to lie down on an examination couch and palpate your abdomen (if
you complain of stomach ache or any intestinal disorders). The physician also
examines abdomen for the peristalsis sound. Having performed percussion,
auscultation and palpation, the doctor can make an initial diagnosis. To
confirm his diagnosis the doctor usually asks to make certain laboratory tests,
such as blood count, urinalysis, stool test etc. Laboratory findings help the
doctor to make the final diagnosis.
To prevent diseases the physician can give advice for his patients:
  a healthy diet and regular exercise;
 reduce salt and fatty food intake;
 eat smaller portions and eat slowly;
 take a walk after eating to stimulate digestion;
 give up bad habits;
 go in for sport etc.
Remember the saying: “An apple a day keeps a doctor away”.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to feel unwell почувати себе погано
to see a doctor піти до лікаря
front desk staff працівники реєстратури
to verify перевіряти, підтверджувати
to update the information оновлювати інформацію
a registering clerk on duty черговий реєстратор
occupation рід занять, професія
to complain of скаржитись на
to suffer from хворіти, страждати від чогось
scarlet fever скарлатина
chicken pox вітрянка
measles кір
mumps свинка (отит)
dietary habits особливості/режим харчування, харчові
уподобання
to have cold/flu хворіти на застуду/грип
respiratory illness захворювання дихальних шляхів
to take temperature міряти температуру
to check temperature перевіряти температуру
to strip to the waist роздягнутись до пояса
to listen to the heart/lungs слухати серце/легені
to complain of скаржитись на
stomach ache біль у шлунку
intestinal disorders кишкові розлади
peristalsis sound перистальтика
examination couch кушетка для обстеження пацієнта
percussion перкусія (вистукування)
auscultation аускультація (прослуховування)
palpation пальпація (прощупування)
to make the diagnosis ставити діагноз
to confirm the diagnosis підтвердити діагноз
to make laboratory tests робити лабораторні аналізи
blood count аналіз крові, формула крові
urinalysis аналіз сечі
stool test аналіз калу
laboratory findings результати лабораторних аналізів
to give advice давати пораду
to reduce salt intake зменшити споживання солі
to reduce fatty food intake зменшити споживання жирної їжі
to stimulate digestion стимулювати травлення
to give up bad habits кинути погані звички
to go in for sport займатись спортом

Note: 1) there are several English words describing your condition when you are
unwell – sickness, illness, disorder, ailment, disease. How to use them properly?
So, sickness – недуга, поганий стан, нудота; illness – найуживаніший
розмовний варіант, що означає погане самопочуття; disorder – порушення,
коли в організмі щось працює не так; ailment – несерйозна і швидко плинна
недуга; disease – хвороба, зазвичай конкретна, серйозна, діагностована.
2) what is the difference between ache, pain and hurt? Ache – тривалий,
негострий, тупий, ниючий біль; в залежності від частин тіла існує багато
похідних слів із ache; heartache – душевний біль; pain – гострий, раптовий а
також душевний біль; hurt – емоційна травма, поранитись, завдавати болю.
3) occupation – заняття, рід занять, професія; похідні: occupational disease –
професійна хвороба; occupational therapy – трудотерапія; occupational
hazards – професійні ризики, пов’язані з характером професії. Рrofession – рід
занять, професія; сфера діятельності. Похідні: professional contacts — ділові
контакти, professional ethics — професійна етика, professional skills —
професійні навички, in a highly professional way — на високому професійному
рівні.
4) mind the difference between complain of and complain about! Complain of –
скаржитись на самопочуття, біль, здоров’я; complain about – скаржитись на
когось або щось.
5) mind the difference between the verbs: to lie – лежати 
Дієслово «lie» — неперехідне, тобто, воно позначає лежання, знаходження в
горизонтальному положенні, яке відбувається само по собі, а не виробляється
над чимось. Не можна «лежати когось або щось», можна лише лежати
самому, або ж якийсь предмет може лежати самостійно
Відмінюється це дієслово так: lie, lay, lain, lying. 

to lay – класти Це дієслово якраз перехідне, тобто, позначає дію, яка

виконуєтсья з кимось або чимось, не заняття, а додання горизонтального
положення. Не можна просто сказати «класти», потрібно обов'язково
уточнити, ЩО саме класти.
От як воно відмінюється: lay, laid, laid, laying.

to lie – брехати Це дієслово абсолютно інше по сенсу, але його так часто
плутають з дієсловом «лежати», що варто згадати і його.  Воно відмінюється
так: lie, lied, lied, lying.

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is a front desk or registry in the polyclinic?

2. How does a doctor begin a patient’s examination?
3. What children infectious diseases do you know?
4. How to check the temperature?
5. What is necessary to make initial diagnosis for the patient?
6. What are the methods of examination?
7. What laboratory examinations do you know?
8. Why are laboratory tests necessary?
9. What are possible doctor’s recommendations to the patient?
10. What related specialist have you ever been referred to?
11.What English proverbs and saying do you know about medicine and health?

II. ACHE, PAIN, HURT EXERCISE:

1. I feel a slight head… but it’s ok, I can stand it.
2. Your endless lies … your mom’s feelings.
3. Doctor! I have a shooting … in my chest! 
4. I feel severe back… after sitting for a long time in front of my computer.
5. Her ex-boyfriend caused her nothing but heart… .
6. Penny injured her arm and felt a sharp ….
7. My toes … badly because of new shoes.
8. It is hard for my parents to cope with the … caused by my brother’s escape
from home.
9. Don’t play with scissors. You might … somebody!
10.I have been suffering from severe tooth… the whole night.
11.My granny complains of … in her joints during cold autumn months.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES USING THE PHRASES FROM

THE TEXT AND NOTES:
1. Jane (скаржиться на) a headache again.
2. She always (скаржиться на) her noisy neighbors.
3. They want (оновити) their dictionary published ten years ago.
4. His (харчові уподобання) are awful! He eats nothing but fast food.
5. He demonstrated high (професійні навички) during training.
6. Asthma is often an (професійне захворювання) of miners.
7. The doctor was not able (поставити діагноз) without laboratory tests.
8. You are flushing! You must (поміряти температуру).
9. In childhood I (хворів на кір та свинку).
10. He regularly (займається спортом).

IV. MAKE UP A DIALOGUE AND ACT THE FOLLOWING

SITUATIONS.
1. You are a family doctor. Make the examination of the patient with a stomach
ache.
2. You need to write some medical notes (a medical record). Ask the patient
about personal information (past diseases, family diseases, undergone
surgery, journeys to another countries) to collect the anamnesis.
3. You neighbor is interested in the services which are provided at the local
polyclinic. Give him a good piece of advice.
4. The student from a foreign country seeks for medical aid. Give him a piece
of advice.
5. The doctor uses four techniques for physical assessment: inspection,
palpation, percussion, and auscultation. How to perform them?
 AT THE POLYCLINIC

The basic medical unit in our country is а

polyclinic. At the polyclinic you can find therapeutic, surgical, traumatological, X-
ray and other departments. The staff of the polyclinic consists of different
specialists: therapists, neurologists, otorhinolaryngologists (ENT (ear, nose, throat)
specialists), surgeons, gastroenterologists, ophthalmologists (eye specialist),
dermatologists, infectious diseases specialists and others.
According to the latest medical reform in Ukraine, all citizens should sign an
agreement with a family doctor, therapist or pediatrician in any primary health
care institution. The provider of services for the program of medical guarantees
can be both public and private clinics, where the state-guaranteed package of
services for the patient will remain free.
According to the law, “a family doctor can serve 1,800 patients, a therapist
2,000, a pediatrician 900”. The Ministry of Health of Ukraine approved the
Procedure for the provision of primary medical care and a list of those services
that will be free, including certain laboratory and diagnostic examinations (blood
tests, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
ultrasound diagnostics (USD).
Having come to the polyclinic you go to a registry first. A registering clerk
on duty gives you a referral to a doctor.
Doctors take the patients in the consulting rooms, which have modern
apparatus and equipment for patients' examination and treatment. There is a
diagnostic laboratory for making analyses of blood, urine, gastric juice and
sputum. There are special examination rooms: an electrocardiography room,
rooms for various radiologic, radiographic, radioscopic, ultrasonic investigations
of the organs. At the procedure room and at the physiotherapeutic department
experienced nurses give the patients different procedures administered by the
doctors. They give intramuscular, subcutaneous and intravenous injections,
apply bandages and make a wide range of medical and diagnostic procedures.
Before making a diagnosis, the doctor asks about the patient's complaints.
The medical examination of a patient is carried out according to his complaints.
Physical examination (a medical examination to determine a person's bodily
fitness) includes visual examination and if it is necessary a doctor makes
percussion and auscultation and palpation of a patient’s abdomen and lymph
nodes. Besides the doctor measures the patient's blood pressure, takes his
temperature and counts his pulse rate and listens to his heart and lungs.
Now all the medical data about a patient are written into the computer
patient’s case-history. A case history is a detailed account of patient’s current
illness, findings of physical examination, the indications prescribed by the
doctor, the course of the disease, the changes in the patient's condition after the
treatment. It also includes information about his past history (anamnesis), history
of family and hereditary diseases.
Sometimes additional investigations are necessary. Nowadays doctors have
modern diagnostic apparatus at their disposal which help them to get information
required to make a proper diagnosis. If it is necessary the doctor refers the patient
to make the electrocardiogram of the heart or to make an X-ray examination.
Nurses help doctors to examine patients and to fill in their case histories.
On the basis of all the data the doctor makes a diagnosis and prescribes a
proper treatment. A patient must follow all the doctor’s prescriptions and
follow home treatment. In serious cases a doctor gives a patient a sick-leave or
refers him to a hospital. In case an additional consultation is needed the doctor will
give a patient a referral to a specialist.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
basic medical unit основний медичний підрозділ
to sign an agreement підписувати угоду
primary health care institution первинний заклад охорони здоров’я
medical guarantees медичні гарантії
state-guaranteed гарантований державою
package of services пакет послуг
provision of primary medical care надання первинної медичної
допомоги
computed tomography комп’ютерна томографія
magnetic resonance imaging магнітне резонансне зображення
ultrasound diagnostics ультразвукова діагностика
referral to a doctor направлення до лікаря
analysis of blood аналіз крові
analysis of urine аналіз сечі
gastric juice шлунковий сік
sputum мокротиння
ultrasonic investigations ультразвукове дослідження
procedure room процедурний кабінет
experienced nurses досвідчені медсестри
to give intramuscular injections робити внутрішньом’язеві ін’єкції
to give intravenous injections робити внутрішньовенні ін’єкції
subcutaneous injections підшкірні ін’єкції
to apply bandages накладати бинти/пов’язки
patient's complaints скарги пацієнта
lymph nodes лімфатичні вузли
to measure blood pressure вимірювати тиск крові
to count pulse rate рахувати частоту пульсу
case history історія хвороби
detailed account детальний звіт
physical examination медичний огляд, фізикальне
обстеження
indications показання
patient’s condition стан пацієнта
past history анамнез (попередня історія хвороб)
family diseases сімейні захворювання
hereditary diseases спадкові захворювання
additional investigations додаткові обстеження
at the disposal в розпорядженні
X-ray рентген, робити рентген
to fill in a case history заповнювати історію хвороби
to prescribe treatment призначати/прописувати лікування
to follow doctor’s prescriptions виконувати призначення лікаря
to follow home treatment лікуватись вдома
sick-leave лікарняний (відпустка по хворобі)

Note: 1) word-building: prescribe (прописувати, виписувати) – prescription

(призначення, рецепт); indicate (вказувати) – indication (показання),
contraindication (протипоказання)
2) condition(s) – стан, умови (patient’s condition – стан пацієнта, under
favourable/unfavourable conditions – за сприятливих/несприятливих умов)
3) ENT specialist, ENT diseases – ЛОР лікар, ЛОР хвороби (тобто, хвороби
вуха, горла, носа)

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What specialists does the staff of the polyclinic include?
2. What are the main points of the medical reform in Ukraine?
3. What free medical services in Ukraine are guaranteed by the state?
4. How many patients can a family doctor serve? Do you think it’s many/few?
5. What are the main departments at the polyclinic?
6. Where can the patients take different procedures administered by the
doctors?
 7. What procedures do nurses carry out?
8. Describe the process of the patient’s examination by a doctor.
9. What does the case history include?
10.What examinations can be indicated by the doctor?
11.Why does the doctor indicate certain additional examinations?
12.When do patients follow the home treatment?
13.In what cases does a doctor give the patient a referral to a specialist?

II. REVIEW ABBREVIATIONS FROM THE PREVIOUS TEXTS

AND WRITE THE FOLLOWING IN FULL:
WHO, BSMU, GP, EIT, GCE, Ph.D., BM, BS, DM, ENT, CT, USD, MRI.

III. ADD THE MISSING WORDS AND PHRASES TO THE FOLLOWING

SENTENCES. TRANSLATE THEM
1. His (фізичний стан) is desired to be better.
2. People in big industrial areas live (в несприятливих умовах).
3. This week our company (підписала угоду) with a big computer-producing
corporation.
4. The Ukrainian medicine provides (гарантований державою пакет
послуг) for our citizens.
5. The patient’s (стан) is poor. He should be hospitalized.
6. As for me, (внутрішньовенні ін’єкції) are very unpleasant (процедура).
7. The majority of (щеплень) are (підшкірні ін’єкції).
8. А persons who is on (лікарняний) should follow a bed regimen. 
9. My granny is an (досвідчений педіатр). She worked for more than 30
years!
10.They say that (досвідчені медсестри) are the hands of a (хірурга) during
operations.
11. I have a splitting (головний біль)! Can you (поміряти мені тиск)?
12.The doctor has been listening to old lady’s (скарги) for half an hour and
then (прописав) her complete silence.
13. Modern hostels with (сучасними зручностями) are (в розпорядженні) of
the University students.
14. At the end of the year our manager asked for a (детальний звіт) of the
work completed.
15.You will never recover in case you do not (виконуватимеш призначення
лікаря).

IV. MATCH THE FOLLOWING PROFESSIONS WITH THEIR

DEFINTITIONS
1) Therapist A) a medical practitioner specializing
in children and their diseases
2) Pediatrician B) a doctor who deals with disorders of
the stomach and intestines
3) Surgeon C) a doctor who specializes in the heart
and its diseases
4) Gastroenterologist D) a doctor who studies the structure,
function, and diseases of the nervous
system
5) Cardiologist E) a doctor who specializes in the study
of skin and the treatment of skin
diseases
6) Physiotherapist F) a medical doctor who specializes in
diseases and problems affecting
people's eyes
7) Nurse G) a specialist who deals with the
physiology and diseases of the kidneys
8) Dermatologist H) a medical practitioner treating
common diseases
 9) Neurologist I) a doctor who deals with the functions
and diseases specific to women and
female reproductive system
10) Infectious diseases specialist J) a doctor who is specially trained to
perform surgery
11) ENT specialist K) a person who treats people by
means of exercises and massage
12) Eye specialist L) a medical practitioner specializing in
infectious diseases
13) Gynecologist M) a doctor who treats diseases of the
ear, nose, and throat
14) Nephrologist N) a person trained to care for the sick
or infirm, especially in a hospital

V. TEXT FOR THE CURIOUS

Do you know where does the name X-ray originate from? Read the text and
find the answer.
On November 8, 1895, German physics professor Wilhelm Röntgen  noticed
that when he shielded the tube with heavy black cardboard, the green fluorescent
light caused a platinum-barium screen nine feet at away to glow – too far away to
be reacting to the cathode rays as he understood them. He determined the
fluorescence was caused by invisible rays originating from the Crookes tube he
was using to study cathode rays (later recognized as electrons), which penetrated
the opaque black paper wrapped around the tube. Further experiments revealed that
this new type of ray was capable of passing through most substances, including the
soft tissues of the body, but left bones and metals visible. One of his earliest
photographic plates from his experiments was a film of his wife Bertha's hand,
with her wedding ring clearly visible. Röntgen's discovery occurred
accidentally in his Wurzburg, Germany, lab, where he was testing whether
cathode rays could pass through glass when he noticed a glow coming from
a nearby chemically coated screen. He named it X-radiation to signify an
unknown type of radiation. Spellings of X-ray(s) in English include the variants x-
ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s).

MY FUTURE SPECIALTY
 No profession on earth is so responsible, so important and necessary to people as
the one of a doctor. This is one of the oldest and most demanding professions in
the world. 
Doctors in many countries take the Hippocratic Oath. Hippocrates who is
often called the father of medicine was known in the 5-th century BC as an
excellent Greek doctor and a teacher of medicine. He established medical schools,
wrote several books, many case histories and created medicine on the basis of
experience.
The Hippocratic Oath is a collection of promises, which forms the basis of the
medical code of honor. The Oath of Hippocrates contains many of his basic
thoughts and principles. Here there is a small fragment of it: "I swear by Apollo
Physician ... by all the gods and goddesses ... that I will carry out according to my
ability and judgment this oath. I shall use treatment to help the sick but never
with a view of injury and wrongdoing. I shall enter any house for the good of the
patient. I shall not do my patients any harm. I will keep myself from all
intentional ill-doing.
All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or outside
of my profession, which must not be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will
never reveal.
 If I keep to this oath faithfully may I enjoy my life and "practice my art,
respected by all men and in all times, but if I swerve from it or violate it may the
reverse be my lot".
This oath must become the motto of doctor's everyday life and work.
Medicine cannot exist without heroism. Medical men of different epochs and
lands experimented with the vaccines of cholera, plague, yellow fever and others
upon themselves. Heroism and deep humanism of the medical profession induced
the famous Dutch medical man of the Renaissance Van Tulp to propose the motto
of a doctor, "Allis inserviendo ipse consumor".
A doctor must be a highly qualified specialist because he deals with the most
delicate, complicated and perfect instrument - a human organism. He should be
a well-cultured, many-sided person in a general sense as well.
A good doctor must not and may not be indifferent to his profession, to his
patient. It is not enough to only have deep knowledge of a particular field of
medicine to be a good doctor. He must love people and have a kind heart. He must
give all his knowledge, all his abilities, all his talent and all his time to people, to
the protection of their health.
Medical students should understand well all the difficulties of future profession.
They must remember that often it will be difficult to diagnose a disease.
Sometimes it will be even more difficult to cure it. But a good doctor will always
do his best to gain his patient's confidence. The confidence of a patient in his
doctor is a "valuable remedy". The profession of a doctor is a great art but not an
ordinary trade. It is one of the professions, which requires not only a vast set of
skills and abilities but also a real calling for it.

Note: 1) mind the differences in pronunciation Hippocrates [hɪˈpɒkrətiːz] and

Hippocratic [͵hıpəʹkrætık]
2) mind the formation of nouns in plural from adjectives by means of the article
the: the sick – хворі (люди), the good – добро, the poor – бідняки, the rich –
багатії
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
demanding затребуваний
to take the oath
to keep to the oath
to carry out the oath
to violate the oath
to swerve from the oath
to establish medical school
on the basis of experience
medical code of honor
ability
judgment
with a view of
wrongdoing
to do harm
to keep oneself from
intentional ill-doing
in the exercise of
to keep secret
to reveal secret
motto
cholera
plague
yellow fever  жовта лихоманка
to induce
to deal with
delicate
complicated
perfect
to have deep knowledge
to do one’s best
to gain patient’s confidence
приймати клятву
дотримуватись клятви
виконувати клятву
порушити клятву
відхилитись від клятви
заснувати медичну школу
на основі досвіду
медичний кодекс честі
здатність, спроможність, здібність
судження, думка, здоровий глузд
з наміром
поганий вчинок, провина
завдавати шкоди
утримуватись від
навмисне злодіяння
при здійсненні чогось
тримати в секреті/таємниці
відкрити таємницю
девіз
холера
чума
спонукати
мати справу з, займатись
тендітний, вишуканий, витончений
складний
досконалий
володіти глибокими знаннями
робити все можливе
завоювати довіру пацієнта
valuable remedy цінний цілющий засіб
real calling справжнє покликання

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How can you characterize medical profession?
2. Who was Hippocrates? What do you know about him?
3. What is the Hippocratic Oath?
4. What are the most important principles in the Hippocratic Oath for you?
5. What examples of heroism in medical profession do you know?
6. How can you characterize the human organism?
7. What qualities should a good doctor possess?
8. What does the motto "Allis inserviendo ipse consumor" mean?
9. How do you understand the patient’s confidence in his doctor?
10.What does the medical profession require?
11.Is medical profession honorable nowadays?

II. FIND A CORRECT OPTION TO COMPLETE THE STATEMENTS

1. Hippocrates was an excellent … doctor.
a) Roman
b) Greek
c) German
2. Hippocrates is often called …
a) Olympic God
b) founder of medicine
c) father of medicine
3. Hippocrates created medicine on the basis of…
a) experiments
b) his knowledge
c) experience
4. The Hippocratic Oath is…
 a) a motor of a doctor’s everyday life and work
b) medical law
c) a medical code of honor
5. Cholera, plague and yellow fever are…
a) children infectious diseases
b) very dangerous infectious diseases
c) not found nowadays any more
6. The profession of a doctor requires ….
a) real calling
b) deep knowledge only
c) knowledge of the Hippocratic Oath
7. The confidence of a patient in his doctor …
a) is a secret
b) helps in the process of treatment
c) is an example of heroism

III. FILL IN THE PREPOSITIONS WHERE NECESSARY (in, on, for,

of, with, out)
1. This scientific study was published … the basis … our experience.
2. I think every profession must have its own code … honor.
3. They have been carrying … the experiment days and nights.
4. The whole summer the students of Pharmaceutical Faculty were collecting
different plants … a view … making the herbarium.
5. – Do you know the man who has just entered … the hall? – Yes. He’s our
Professor of Biology.
6. It’s so difficult to keep oneself … trying tasty dishes during holidays.
7. She is very much talkative. I’m not sure she can keep … secret.
8. He is dishonest. I don’t like to deal … him.
9. Any kind of profession requires a real calling … it.
 IV. TASK FOR THE CURIOUS
Read some interesting facts about Hippocrates and answer what innovations he
introduced in ancient medicine
1. Hippocrates was born on the island of Cos, in Greece. He lived between 460
BC and 377 BC. His father was a physician and priest. Some scientists
suggest that Hippocrates’ family originated from the legendary Asclepius.
2. Hippocrates was the first to separate medicine from superstitions and
witchcraft. He believed that illness was a physical condition, and it was not
the result of gods’ punishment or evil spirits.
3. Hippocrates believed that the body is an integral system and must be treated
as a whole but not its separate parts. He was the first to accurately describe
the symptoms of pneumonia, epilepsy in children, clubbing of the fingers
(today known as “Hippocratic finger”) – an important diagnostic sign of
many diseases including pulmonary infection and cancer, Graves’ disease,
liver cirrhosis, heart valve infection etc.
4. Hippocrates emphasized on the healing power of nature. In addition to
medicines he recommended a good diet, cleanliness, fresh air and rest. He
was the first to notice that different people cope with the same illness in a
different way.
5. Before Hippocrates doctors thought that the heart is the place for human
thought, emotions and feelings. Hippocrates suggested that all our mental
processes are located in the brain, and it was a very revolutionary concept at
that time.
6. Hippocrates required from his pupils at the medical school on the island of
Cos to observe and carefully record their findings concerning a disease,
family history and environment in a clear, objective and professional
manner, so that these records could easily be passed down to other
physicians.
7. Hippocrates was the first to introduce such terms as chronic, acute, endemic,
epidemic, relapse, crisis, resolution and exacerbation. His manuscript The
 Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of over 60 works written by him and his
pupils.

ANATOMY
Note: before reading the text learn the names of the following medical
sciences:
Human Anatomy анатомія людини
 Animal Anatomy (Zoology) зоологія
Plant Anatomy (Phytology, Botany) ботаніка
Embryology ембріологія
Comparative Anatomy порівняльна анатомія
Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy) макроанатомія
Microscopic Anatomy (Histology) гістологія
Topographic Anatomy топографічна анатомія
Superficial Anatomy (Surface Anatomy) пластична анатомія
Plastic Surgery реконструктивна хірургія
Cytology цитологія
Anatomical Pathology (Morbid Anatomy) патологічна анатомія

Anatomy is the branch of Biology that deals with the structure of living
things. The study of Anatomy goes back over 2,000 years, to the Ancient Greeks.
It is a general term that can include Human Anatomy, Animal Anatomy (Zoology)
and Plant Anatomy (Phytology or Botany).
In some of its areas Anatomy is closely related to Embryology,
Comparative Anatomy and Comparative Embryology.
 Anatomy is subdivided into Gross Anatomy (or Macroscopic Anatomy) and
Microscopic Anatomy (Histology). In medicine, Gross Anatomy (Macroanatomy)
and Topographic Anatomy refers to the study of the biological structures that are
visible to the naked eye. The study of Gross Anatomy may involve dissection or
noninvasive methods. The aim is to collect data about the larger structures of
organs and systems of organs. Anatomy uses such methods of examination as
endoscopy, angiography, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, X-
ray, etc.
Gross Anatomy also includes the branch of Superficial Anatomy or Surface
Anatomy, which is the study of the external features of the body. Surface
Anatomy is a descriptive science. These are the form and proportions of the
human body and the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures
hidden from view, both in static pose and in motion. Surface Anatomy is an
important subject for Plastic Surgery.
There are eleven systems in the human body: the integumentary system
(including skin, hair, nails, etc.), skeletal system, muscular system, lymphatic
system, respiratory system, digestive system, nervous system, endocrine system,
cardiovascular system, urinary system, and reproductive system. Although these
systems have different names, they all work interdependently.
Microscopic Anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted
with microscopes. Actually it includes Histology (the study of the organization of
tissues), and Cytology (the study of cells).
Anatomy should not be confused with Anatomical Pathology (also called
Morbid Anatomy), which is the study of the gross and microscopic appearances of
diseased organs.
Human Anatomy, including Gross Human Anatomy and Histology, is
primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body.
Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics,
physiotherapists, nurses and medical students learn Gross Anatomy and
Microscopic Anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, anatomical specimens,
textbooks, diagrams, photographs during lectures and practical classes/tutorials.
The study of Microscopic Anatomy (or Histology) can be aided by practical
experience examining histologic specimens under the microscope. In addition,
medical students can study Gross Anatomy with practical experience of dissection
and inspection of cadavers (dead human bodies).
Human Anatomy is a fundamental medical science especially essential for
those who want to become surgeons.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

area (тут: сфера діяльності)

visible to the naked eye видимий неозброєним оком

dissection розтин

noninvasive method неінвазивний метод

to collect data збирати дані

external feature зовнішня риса

descriptive science описова наука

landmark орієнтир, розпізнавальна точка в

анатомії

to correspond to відповідати (дійсності)

hidden from view прихований від зору

in static pose в нерухомому положенні

in motion в русі

to work independently працювати самостійно

minute structure крихітна структура

diseased organ хворий орган

specimen зразок, препарат

under the microscope під мікроскопом

cadaver труп

fundamental science фундаментальна, теоретична наука

Note: 1) plural from Latin a datum – data (дане – дані); 2) mind the homographs:
minute [maɪ'n(j)uːt] (крихітний) and minute ['mɪnɪt] (хвилина)

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How old is Anatomy as a science?
2. What are the three main branches of Anatomy?
3. What does Human Anatomy study?
4. What does Botany study?
5. What does Zoology study?
6. What does Gross Anatomy deal with?
7. What methods of examination does Anatomy use?
8. What systems of organs do you know?
9. What does Microscopic Anatomy study?
10.What does Anatomical Pathology deal with?
11.What is the best way to get practical experience in Anatomy?

II. MATCH THE DEFINITION WITH THE METHOD OF STUDY

dissection visual examination of the interior of a hollow body

organ by use of an endoscope
endoscopy electromagnetic radiation of extremely short
wavelength (beyond the ultraviolet), which pass
through matter to varying degrees depending on its
density
angiography cutting or separation of a whole into its parts for study
magnetic resonance a method of examining body organs by scanning them
imaging (MRI) with X-rays and using a computer to construct a series
of cross-sectional scans along a single axis
computed tomography a method of obtaining an X-ray of blood vessels
(CT)
X-ray a diagnostic method of examining the inside of the
body, tissues, or organs using radio waves to produce
maps or images

III. TRUE, FALSE OR MAYBE

1. Human Anatomy is a modern science.
2. Gross Anatomy uses a microscope for its investigation.
3. Dissection of dead bodies was the only method of examination in ancient
Anatomy.
4. Biology studies the structure and functions of animals and compares them
with plants.
5. Another name for Microscopic Anatomy is Histology.
6. Histology studies the structure and functions of tissues.
7. Cytology the structure and functions of embryos.
8. Anatomical Pathology deals with changes caused in the organs by various
diseases and pathological processes.
9. Dissection is the best method to get practical experience in Histology.
10.Development of Histology depended on discovery of a microscope.
IV. BODY SYSTEMS
Which body systems are the following terms connected with?

(Key words: nervous, digestive, muscular, cardiovascular, skeletal, endocrine,

urinary, respiratory, reproductive, integumentary, lymphatic)
1. movement, bone, cartilages, tendons _________________________
2. ova, menstruation, semen, testes ____________________________
3. hair, sweat glands, nails, moles _____________________________
4. thyroid, hormones, adrenals, pineal gland_____________________
5. artery, vein, aorta, heart, capillary __________________________
6. chewing, swallowing, absorption ___________________________
7. urine, kidney, bladder, urea _______________________________
8. striated, smooth, cardiac, contraction ________________________
9. nodes, spleen, bone marrow, infection _______________________
10.brain, nerves, senses _____________________________________

11.nose, bronchi, ventilation, lungs ____________________________

ANATOMICAL POSITION
 Owing to the fact than man walks erect but animals go
on all fours, confusion sometimes arises in the use of terms describing parts of the
human and animal body. To avoid confusion, anatomists standardize the way in
which they view the body. The standard anatomical position is the following: the
body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward.
The upper limbs are at each side, and the palms of the hands face forward.
The terms denoting the location of organs or parts of the body are definite
and precise. They are: anterior (toward the front), ventral (abdominal), posterior
(toward the back), dorsal (relating to the back), superior (above or higher),
inferior (below or lower); lateral (toward the side of the body), medial (toward
the middle of the body), superficial (on or near the surface), deep (distant from the
surface), proximal (nearest to the point of attachment), and distal (farthest from
a point of attachment).
The four planes most commonly used in anatomical and medical imaging
are the sagittal, midsagittal, frontal (or coronal), and transverse plane. A plane
is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body.
The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right
and left sides. The midsagittal plane divides the body or an organ into the right and
left halves. The frontal or coronal plane is the plane that divides the body or an
organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (back) portion. The transverse
plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ horizontally into upper and
lower portions.
 ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

owing to завдяки чомусь

to walk erect ходити прямо

to go on all fours ходити на чотирьох

to arise (arose, arisen) здійматись, виникати

to avoid confusion уникати плутанини

to standardize стандартизувати, нормувати

at shoulder width на ширині плечей

palm of the hand долоня руки

to face forward дивитись вперед

definite визначений

precise точний

ventral черевний, вентральний

dorsal спинний, дорсальний

lateral латеральний, бічний

medial серединний

point of attachment місце/точка прикріплення

two-dimensional двомірний
superficial поверхневий

proximal найближчий до місця прикріплення,

проксимальний

distal віддалений від центра, дистальний

sagittal стрілоподібний, сагітальний

midsagittal серединний

anatomical imaging анатомічне зображення

to divide horizontally ділити горизонтально

REMEMBER PRONUNCIATION OF THE FOLLOWING ANATOMICAL

TERMS. MIND THE DIFFERENCE WITH THEIR LATIN
EQUIVALENTS!

anterior [æn'tɪərɪə] передній

posterior [pɔs'tɪərɪə] задній

superior [s(j)uː'pɪərɪə] верхній

inferior [ɪn'fɪərɪə] нижній

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. Why does confusion arise in the use of terms describing the parts of the
human and animal bodies?
2. How did anatomists manage to avoid confusion in the use of terms?
3. What is the standard anatomical position? Describe it.
4. What is the term denoting below or lower?
5. What is the term denoting toward the middle of the body?
6. What is the term denoting on or near the surface?
7. What is the term denoting toward the side of the body?
8. What is the term denoting farthest from a point of attachment?
9. How many planes are mostly used in anatomical imaging?
10.What is a plane?
11.What plane divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides?
12.What plane divides the body or an organ horizontally into upper and lower
portions?
13.What plane divides the body or an organ into an anterior and a posterior
portion?

II. CHOOSE THE BEST OPTION:

1. In the standard anatomical position the feet …
a) are by the sides
b) are at the shoulder width
c) are at the shoulder width and parallel
2. Anatomists developed the anatomical position in order to …
a) make the difference between species in the wild nature
b) avoid confusion in the use of anatomical terms
c) avoid confusion
3. In the anatomical position the arms are …
a) parallel and face forward
b) located by the sides with palms looking forward
c) by the sides, parallel
4. Anterior means …
a) toward the back
b) relating to the back
c) toward the front
5. Superficial means …
a) nearest to the point of attachment
b) on or near the surface
 c) farthest from a point of attachment
6. Lateral means …
a) toward the side of the body
b) to the right side
c) relating to the back
7. Proximal means …
a) above or higher
b) distant from the surface
c) nearest to the point of attachment
8. The planes most commonly used in anatomical imaging are:
a) sagittal, coronal and frontal
b) sagittal, midsagittal, coronal and transverse
c) sagittal, frontal (or coronal), and transverse
9. The plane that divides the body vertically into right and left sides is:
a) frontal
b) coronal
c) sagittal
10.The plane that divides the body into an anterior and a posterior portion is:
a) frontal or coronal
b) transverse
c) midsagittal
11.The transverse plane  divides the body or an organ …
a) vertically
b) horizontally
c) into two halves
12.A plane is …
a) an imaginary two-dimensional surface
b) an imaginary three-dimensional surface
c) an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body
13.The term denoting toward the middle of the body is …
 a) sagittal
b) medial
c) midsagittal

III. FILL IN THE NECESSARY WORDS FROM THE TEXT AND

TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES
1. The football match was cancelled (через) bad weather.
2. The majority of apes can (ходити прямо) and (на всіх чотирьох).
3. They are twins. I always (плутаю) them.
4. He was (спантеличений) by many difficult questions during exam.
5. The surgeon, (оглянувши) the wound, ordered his patient instantly to bed.
6. One could hardly (уникнути) infection in crowded places.
7. It was very difficult to come to a (конкретний) understanding during
negotiations.
8. Researchers must be (точний, педантичний) while conducting scientific
investigations.
9. His knowledge of basic sciences is rather (поверхневий).
10.Tumor cells began to (ділитись) out of control.

STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY

 Man belongs to the vertebrate group of animals. This group includes
fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The mammals to which man
belongs are characterized by the possession of mammary glands, which are
specialized to secrete milk for the nourishment of the young.
The structure of the human body is rather complicated. There are three chief
parts of the human body: the head, the trunk, and the extremities (limbs).
The neck and head extend above the trunk and are continuous with it. The
head consists of two parts: the skull which contains the brain, and the face which
consists of the forehead, the nose, the eyes, mouth with the lips, tongue and teeth,
the cheeks, the ears and the chin.
The trunk is the central part of the body. The trunk consists of two main
cavities, namely the thorax and the abdomen. The principal internal organs
contained in the thorax are the heart, the lungs and the esophagus. The abdomen is
the largest cavity in the body. It consists of two parts: the abdominal cavity proper
and the pelvic cavity. The principal organs in the cavity are the stomach, the
small and large intestines, the liver, the gallbladder, the pancreas, the spleen,
the kidneys and the ureters.
The pelvic cavity, or pelvis, lies below the abdominal cavity. The contents of
the pelvis are the urinary bladder, the lower part of the large intestine, the rectum,
and some of the reproductive organs.
The man has the upper and lower extremities. The upper extremities are
attached to either side of the trunk and the lower ones extend downwards from it.
The upper extremity (the arm) is connected with the chest by the shoulder.
Each arm consists of the upper arm, the forearm, the elbow, the wrist, and the
hand with fingers. The lower extremity (the leg) consists of the hip, the knee, the
calf, the ankle and the foot with toes.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
vertebrate group хребетна група
mammal ссавець
mammary gland молочна залоза
to be specialized спеціалізуватись
to secrete milk виділяти молоко
nourishment вигодовування, харчування
complicated складний
extremity (limb) кінцівка
skull череп
trunk тулуб
to consist of складатись з
brain головний мозок
forehead чоло
tongue язик
ear вухо
cheek щока
chin підборіддя
thorax грудна клітка
abdomen живіт, черево
principal organ основний орган
esophagus стравохід
pelvic cavity тазова порожнина
abdominal cavity черевна порожнина
stomach шлунок
small intestine тонкий кишечник
large intestine товстий кишечник
kidney нирка
spleen селезінка
gallbladder жовчний міхур
pancreas підшлункова залоза
liver печінка
ureter сечовід
urinary bladder сечовий міхур
reproductive organs репродуктивні органи
to be attached прикріплюватись
shoulder плече, плечовий суглоб
upper arm плечова кістка, верхня частина руки
forearm передпліччя
elbow лікоть
wrist зап'ясток
hip стегно, бік
knee коліно
calf (pl. calves) литка
ankle щиколотка
finger палець на руці
toe палець на нозі
Note:1) mind the pairs of words
Informal Scientific term Translation
Skull Cranium Череп
Chest Thorax Грудна клітка
Belly Abdomen Черево, живіт
Limb Extremity Кінцівка
Lower jaw Mandible Нижня щелепа
Upper jaw Maxilla (pl. -ae) Верхня щелепа
Shoulder blade Scapula (pl. -ae) Лопатка
Collarbone Clavicle Ключиця
Breastbone Sternum Грудина
Mouth Oral cavity Рот, ротова порожнина
Gullet Esophagus Стравохід

2) mind the difference between vertebrate and vertebral. Both are translated into
Ukrainian as “хребетний”. But vertebrate means “хребетний, той що має
хребет” and vertebral means “хребетний, той що складається з хребців”. Thus,
vertebrate animal – хребетна тварина; vertebral column – хребетний стовп.
3) it’s interesting to know that the word “trunk” has several meanings and some
of them are: стовбур (дерева, судини, нерва), валіза, магістраль, хобот слона,
хоботок комах, вентиляційна шахта.
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What animals does the vertebrate group include?

2. What kind of animals are mammals?
3. What are three chief parts of the human body?
4. What is the structure of the head?
5. What is the structure of the trunk?
6. What are the principal organs of the thorax?
7. What are the main organs of the abdomen?
8. What is the content of the pelvis?
9. What is the structure of the arm?
10. What is the structure of the leg?
II. SUPPLEMENT THE NECESSARY WORDS AND PHRASES FROM
THE TEXT TO COMPLETE THE SENTENCES. TRANSLATE THEM
1. Turtles, crocodiles and lizards are … .
2. Frogs and salamanders are … .
3. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals belong to the … group.
4. The trunk consists of … .
5. The largest cavity in the human body is … .
6. The heart and lungs are located in the … .
7. Tubular structures of the abdomen are … .
8. Paired organs of the human body are: … .
9. The function of the mammary glands is … for … .
10.The brain is protected by the … .
11.The organs of the oral cavity … enable people to speak.
12.The elongated, prehensile nose of an elephant is called … .

III. BODY AND MIND FUNNY QUOTES

(Read and translate funny quotations containing parts of the body. Which of
them do you like best and why?)
1. I have finally discovered what is wrong with my brain: on the left side there
is nothing right, and on the right side there is nothing left!
2. I’m not old! I woke up, I lifted my arms, I moved my knees, I turned my
neck…Everything made the same sound: crrrrrraaaaaacckk! I came to a
conclusion: I’m not old, I’m crispy!
3. I watch people and wonder how some of them found their way out of the
birth canal!
4. It is better to have a friend with two artificial chins than to have one with
two artificial faces.
5. I’m not fat. I’m just easy to see.
6. Wrinkles mean you laughed, grey hair means you cared, and scars mean you
lived!
7. If it is true that stress brings on weight loss, why am I not invisible?
8. Young at heart, slightly older in other places!
9. I have a brain like the Bermuda Triangle – information goes in, and never to
be found again.
10.They say the eyes are the mirror of the soul and there is lot of truth in it.
11.A person’s face is like an open book that describes his inner nature,
personality, health and character.
12.All parts of the human body get tired eventually – except the tongue.
13.Man consists of two parts, his mind and his body. Only the body has more
fun.
14.What a beautiful world it would be if people had hearts like dogs.
IV. LABEL THE BODY PARTS
 The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, tendons and
ligaments of the body that support and give shape to the body and body structures.
The skeleton of an adult man consists of 206 bones.
The primary functions of the skeleton are to provide a rigid, internal
structure that can support the body weight against the force of gravity, to
provide a frame to which muscles are attached to produce movements of the
body, and to maintain the posture. The lower portion of the skeleton is
specialized in providing stability during walking or running. The upper skeleton
has greater mobility and ranges of motion, features that allow you to lift and carry
objects or turn your head and trunk.
In addition to providing support and movements of the body, the skeleton
performs protective and storage functions. The bones of the skeleton serve as the
primary storage for important minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. The bone
marrow found within the bones stores lipids and houses the blood-cell
producing tissue of the body.
The skeleton is subdivided into two major parts – the axial and appendicular.
The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes the
bones of the head, neck, chest, and back. It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord,
heart, and lungs. The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, including the
bones of the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. The skull is
formed by 22 bones and additional seven bones, including the hyoid bone and the
ear ossicles. The vertebral column consists of 33-34 vertebrae. The thoracic cage
includes the 12 pairs of ribs, and the sternum.
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs
or extremities, and the bones of the joints or articulations attaching each limb to
the axial skeleton. The upper limb (arm) consists of the shoulder girdle, upper
arm (humerus), forearm, elbow, wrist and hand with fingers. The lower limb
(leg) consists of the pelvic girdle, thigh or femur, knee, tibia, fibula, ankle, and
foot with toes. There are 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton of an adult.
Each bone may be considered an organ. According to their shape the bones
may be long or tubular, short, flat and irregular. They are made up mainly of
osseous tissue.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
cartilage хрящ
tendon сухожилок
ligament зв’язка
to provide a rigid structure забезпечувати пружну структуру
body weight вага тіла
force of gravity сила земного тяжіння
to produce movements створювати рухи
to maintain the posture підтримувати поставу
to be specialized in спеціалізуватись
mobility рухливість, мобільність, жвавість
range of motions діапазон рухів
in addition to крім
protective function захисна функція
storage function функція накопичення/зберігання
to perform function виконувати функцію
bone marrow кістковий мозок
to store зберігати, накопичувати
to house (тут: містити, містити в собі)
blood-cell producing tissue кровотворна тканина
axial skeleton осьовий, аксіальний скелет
appendicular skeleton апендикулярний скелет
joint/articulation суглоб
shoulder girdle плечовий пояс
upper arm плечова кістка, плече
forearm передпліччя
elbow лікоть
wrist зап'ясток
pelvic girdle тазовий пояс
thigh/femur стегно, стегнова кістка
knee коліно
tibia велика гомілкова кістка
fibula малогомілкова кістка
ankle щиколотка
spinal cord спинний мозок
vertebral column хребетний стовп
thoracic cage грудна клітка, каркас
hyoid bone під’язикова кістка
ear ossicle кісточки вуха, слухові кісточки
vertebra (pl. - ae) хребець (хребці)
rib ребро
tubular трубчастий
irregular неправильної форми
osseous tissue кісткова тканина
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What structures does the skeletal system include?
2. What are the primary functions of the skeleton?
3. What are additional functions of the skeleton?
4. How many bones are there in the human body?
5. What portions is the skeleton subdivided into?
6. What is the lower portion of the skeleton specialized in?
7. What does the upper part of the skeleton provide?
8. What is the role of the bone marrow?
9. Which bones does the axial skeleton include?
10.What does the appendicular skeleton consist of?
11.What do these numbers refer to: 206, 80, 22, 33-34, 12, 126?
12.What does the vertebral column consist of?
13.What is the structure of the upper extremity?
14.What is the structure of the lower extremity?
15.How are the bones divided according to their shape?
16.What tissue are the bones made up?

II. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH THE WORDS:

Appendicular, arm, articulations, axial, brain, extremities, foot, forearm, hand,
heart, hyoid, joints, leg, ligaments, lungs, muscles, pelvic girdle, ribs, shoulder
girdle, skull, sternum, tendons, thigh, trunk, vertebrae, vertebral column.
1) The skeleton supports and protects the more delicate organs of the body such
as the ________, ________ and ________, affords places of attachment for
________, ________ and________.
2) The skeleton is divided into the ________ and ________ portions.
3) The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the________.
4) The axial skeleton comprises the bones of the _______, _______and________.
5) The bones of the upper extremity include the bones of the________, ________,
________ and ________.
6) The bones of the lower extremity include the bones of________, ________,
________ and ________.
7) The bones of the trunk include the 33 ______, the ______and the 24 ________.
8) The vertebrae are united to form the________.
9) The places of contact between bones are called ________or _______.

III. TRUE OR FALSE? COMMENT YOUR ANSWERS

1. The upper portion of the skeleton maintains stability during walking or
running.
2. The lower portion of the skeleton helps us to lift different objects.
3. The main function of the skeleton is to support the body.
4. The skeleton is subdivided into three major divisions.
5. The vertebral column consists of 22 bones.
6. All bones of the upper and lower limbs belong to the appendicular skeleton.
7. The skull is formed by 24 bones.
8. The brain is protected by the hyoid bone.
9. The skull is the part of the appendicular skeleton.
10.Ear or auditory ossicles help to produce sound.
11.Calcium and phosphorus are blood-producing tissue.
12.People may have different number of vertebrae.
13.The thoracic cage is formed by the ribs and sternum.
 IV. FILL IN THE TABLE

Informal Scientific term Translation

Limb Кінцівка
Joint Суглоб
Upper arm Плече
Thigh Стегно
Shin bone Велика гомілкова кістка
Calf-bone Малогомілкова кістка
Backbone Хребет
Wrist Зап'ясток
Toes, fingers Пальці (фаланги)
Knee cap Колінна чашечка
Edgebone Крижова кістка
Forearm + Передпліччя

V. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES AND TRANSLATE THEM

1. He has broken his (зв’язки) during the previous sport competitions.
2. She always keeps to different diets to control her (вагу тіла).
3. If it were not for (сила тяжіння) people would not be able to walk.
4. Going in for sport helps (підтримувати статуру).
5. (Кальцій та фосфор) are essential for our bones and teeth.
6. Sound is produced by the vibrations of the (слухових кісточок).
7. Strong economy (підтримує стабільність) of the whole society.
8. Our scientific laboratory (спеціалізується) research of new antimicrobial
substances.
9. Naturally athletes possess greater (діапазон рухів) in their (суглобах).
10.The gallery (вміщує) about 800 works of modern art.
11.(Рух) means life!
12.I always feel sorry for animals in the Zoo kept in (клітках).
13.Our University (вважається) one of the best in Ukraine.
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is composed of all the muscles in the body. Most
sources state that there are over 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, although
some figures go up to as many as 840. They make approximately 42% of a person's
body weight and are composed of long, slender cells known as fibers. Muscle
fibers are of different lengths and shapes and vary in colour from white to deep
red. Each muscle consists of a group of fibers held together by the connective
tissue and enclosed in the fibrous sheath or fascia.
There are three types of muscles in the human body: cardiac, smooth and
skeletal/striated. Cardiac muscle makes up the wall of the heart and is responsible
for the forceful contraction of the heart and pumping of blood. Smooth muscles
make up the walls of the hollow organs, intestine, the uterus, blood vessels, and
internal muscles of the eye. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones and in some
areas to the skin (muscles in our face). Contraction of the skeletal muscles helps
limbs and other body parts move. Generally, smooth muscles are not included with
the total number of muscles since most of them are at cellular level and number
in the billions. In terms of the cardiac muscle, we only have one of that – the
heart.
Due to the conscious control from the site of the nervous system the
muscles are divided into voluntary and involuntary. Skeletal muscles are
responsible for voluntary movements. Smooth and cardiac muscles are
involuntary. Their activity does not depend on our will or desire.
The main characteristic of muscle tissue is its ability to contract. The
following is a list of the primary functions of the muscular system:
1. Muscles are responsible for movement. The types of movement are locomotion,
flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, propulsion of
substances through tubes as in circulation and digestion, and changes in the size of
openings as in the contraction and relaxation of the iris of the eye.
2. Muscles help to maintain posture by means of a continual partial contraction of
skeletal muscles. This process is known as tonicity.
3. Muscles help to produce heat through the chemical changes involved in
muscular action.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
muscle м’яз
muscular м’язовий
to be composed of складатись з
slender тонкий, стрункий, слабкий
muscle fiber м’язове волокно
connective tissue сполучна тканина
to enclose оточувати, обмежувати, вставляти
fibrous sheath волокниста оболонка
fascia фасція, смуга
cardiac серцевий (про м’яз)
smooth гладкий(про м’яз)
skeletal скелетний(про м’яз)
striated посмугований(про м’яз)
forceful contraction сильне скорочення
to pump the blood качати кров
hollow organ порожнистий орган
intestine кишечник, кишка
uterus матка
blood vessel кровоносна судина
at cellular level на клітинному рівні
to number in billions нараховувати мільярдами
in terms of по відношенню до
conscious control свідомий контроль
voluntary довільний, що довільно скорочується
involuntary мимовільний, рефлективний
to depend on the will залежати від волі
locomotion пересування
flexion згинання
extension розгинання, витягування
abduction абдукція, відведення (м'яза)
adduction аддукція, приведення (м'яза)
circumduction обертальний (обертовий) рух
propulsion проштовхування, поступальний рух
circulation циркуляція, кровообіг
relaxation послаблення, розслаблення
iris of the eye райдужка ока
to maintain posture підтримувати поставу
tonicity тонус (м'язів)
to produce heat продукувати тепло
chemical changes хімічні зміни
to involve залучати, втягувати, уплутувати

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How many skeletal muscles are there in the human body?
2. What do muscles consist of?
3. How are muscular fibers held together?
 4. How many types are the muscles subdivided into?
5. Where is the cardiac muscle located?
6. What is the function of the cardiac muscle?
7. What do the smooth muscles make up?
8. How do the smooth muscles differ from other types of muscles?
9. What are the skeletal muscles attached to?
10.What is the function of the smooth muscles?
11.What are the skeletal muscles responsible for?
12.What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles?
13.What types of movements do you know?
14.What other functions do muscles perform?

II. WORD HUNT. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS TO THE

FOLLOWING UKRAINIAN WORDS AND PHRASES
Складатися з (два синонімічні вирази); більшість джерел стверджують;
числа піднімаються до; приблизно; різної довжини і форми; відрізнятись за
кольором; темно-червоний колір; скріплювати; утворювати стінки
порожнистих органів; внутрішні м’язи ока; прикріплений до кісток;
скорочення м’язів; допомагати кінцівкам рухатись; довільні рухи; мимовільні
рухи; основна характеристика; здатність скорочуватись; первинні функції;
типи рухів; травлення; безперервне часткове скорочення.

III. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. The muscular system is composed of ….
2. Skeletal muscles make approximately 42% …
3. Each muscle consists of a group of ...
4. There are three types of muscles….
5. Cardiac muscle makes up …
6. Contraction of the skeletal muscles helps …
7. The smooth muscles number in ...
8. Due to the conscious control the muscles are divided …
9. Skeletal muscles are responsible for …
10.The activity of the smooth and cardiac muscles does not depend on ...
11.Contraction of the smooth muscles helps propulsion of …
12.A continual contraction of skeletal muscles is known as …
13.Muscles help to produce heat through …

IV. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES USING WORDS FROM THE

TEXT, TRANSLATE THEM
1. The policeman did not want to reveal his (джерела) of information.
2. In autumn leaves on the trees (різні за кольорами) from yellow to (темно-
червоних).
3. He is directly (відповідальний за) the efficient running of the office.
4. These three huge stones (утворюють/складають) the whole wall.
5. The water for the house (качається) up from a deep well.
6. More (м’язи обличчя) are required to frown than to smile.
7. Have you (включив) our neighbors in the list of guests?
8. The modern world (поділився на) the idle rich and the labouring poor.
9. Results of any work (залежить від волі і бажання) of workers.
10.Every country has its own national (характерні риси).
11.Combination of these substances provokes considerable (хімічні зміни).
12.Many chemical reactions in the human body can (виробляють тепло).
13.Unfortunately, he (був залучений) into an unsuccessful project.

V. LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM (BONES AND MUSCLES): WORD

BULDING (use the word in capitals to form an adjective)
1. Tendons connecting muscles to bone are ______________, allowing the
body to move. FLEX
2. Bone is more _______________than cartilage. RESIST
3. The skull consists of the _________________ and ________________
skeleton CRANIUM
FACE
4. A bone has a tough ____________ outer membrane. COLLAGEN
5. The hollow ______________ shape of the femur resists stress. TUBE
6. Bones and muscles perform a __________ function. PROTECT
7. The elbow, wrist and hip are ____________ joints. MOVE
8. ____________ contraction changes their length. MUSCLE
9. Ligaments connecting the bones of the lower limb are very ___________
POWER
10.The spinal column is also known as the ___________ column. VERTEBRA

VI. FILL IN THE NECESSARY PREPOSITION (of, in, up, to, at, on, by)
1. At the end of the year, prices go … considerably.
2. The traditional Ukrainian borsch is composed … many ingredients.
3. They vary … their opinions.
4. A football team consists … eleven players.
5. Their marriage is held together … children.
6. He presented her a wedding ring enclosed … the original box.
7. We need an experienced someone builder to make … a broken wall.
8. On the way to our hotel we attached … a group of tourists.
9. Our Professor always lectures … the highest level.
10.The victims of COVID-19 are numbered … millions now.
11.What will you need … terms … equipment?
12.Our flight was delayed due … thick fog and strong wind.
13.Ancient Romans supplied water to cities … means … aqueducts.
 HISTOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

The term "histology" originates from two Greek words: "histos" (tissue)
and "logos" (science). Histology is the study of the structure of tissues by means of
sectioning and special staining techniques combined with light and electron
microscopy. Sectioning involves cutting tissue into very thin slices so they can be
examined. Histological stains, mainly hematoxylin or eosin, are added to
biological structures, such as tissues, to add colors or to enhance colors so they
can be more easily distinguished when they are examined, especially if different
structures are next to each other.
The notion "tissue" was first introduced into Biology by the French
scientist Marie Xavier Bichat (1771-1802). In 1819 the German researcher Karl
Meyer (1787-1865) introduced the term "histology".
Histology studies microscopic structure, development and function of cells,
tissues, organs and systems and body as a whole. The cell is an elementary
structural and functional unit of the human body. There are more than 200 kinds
of cells in the human organism which perform certain functions. The cells and their
products form the tissue – the junction of cells and their cellular substances
differentiated in one direction.
The tissues organize functional units in the form of organs and system of
organs. The study about cells (Cytology), Microscopic Anatomy and Embryology
are the components of Histology. Historical development of Histology depended
on the development of optic auxiliary means. The most important methods of
investigation in Histology are: light and electron microscopy. The method of light
microscopy induced the appearance of phase-contrast, polarizing and
fluorescence microscopy. Electron microscopy includes radioscopic and
scanning microscopy. The working methods of Histology are: histochemistry,
radiography, immunohistology.
Histology is essential for better understanding and advancement of
medicine. Histological slides are used in teaching labs to help students who are
learning microstructures of biological tissues. Tissue samples, or biopsies, are
taken from patients and sent to the lab for analysis by a histologist. The
microscopic study of biological tissues can help explain a cause of an unexpected
death in Forensic Medicine. During autopsy in forensic investigations,
biological tissues from deceased people and animals can be analyzed, so that
researchers may better understand the causes of death and help in criminal
investigations.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to originate from виникати з, походити від
(to) section розтин, розріз, зріз; розтинати
special staining technique спеціальна техніка забарвлення
light microscopy світлова мікроскопія
electron microscopy електронна мікроскопія
histological stain гістологічний барвник
hematoxylin гематоксилін
eosin еозин
to enhance color підсилювати колір
to distinguish розрізняти
next to сусідній, що знаходиться поряд
to introduce into представляти, пропонувати, вводити
cell клітина
tissue тканина
as a whole в цілому
elementary unit елементарна одиниця
structural unit структурна одиниця
functional unit функціональна одиниця
junction of cells з'єднання/об'єднання/поєднання клітин
cellular substance клітинна речовина
to differentiate in диференціювати, відрізняти в
optic auxiliary means оптичні допоміжні засоби
investigation дослідження, розслідування
to induce appearance спонукати/стимулювати появу
phase-contrast фазово-контрастний
polarizing поляризаційний
fluorescence флюоресценція; флюоресцентний
radioscopic рентгеноскопічний
scanning сканувальний
histochemistry гістохімія
radiography радіографія, рентгенографія
immunohistology імуногістологія
advancement просування, успіх, прогрес
teaching lab навчальна лабораторія
tissue sample/biopsy зразок тканини/біопсійний матеріал
to explain a cause пояснювати причину
unexpected death неочікувана смерть
Forensic Medicine судова медицина
autopsy розтин трупа, автопсія
forensic investigation судово-медичне дослідження
criminal investigation кримінальне розслідування

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What does the word “histology” originate from?
2. Who were the first researchers in the field of histology?
3. What does sectioning involve?
4. Why are histological stains added to biological structures?
5. How can you characterize a cell?
6. How many kinds of cells are there in the human body?
7. What is the tissue?
8. What did historical development of Histology depend on?
9. What are optic auxiliary means?
10.What is the difference between light and electron microscopy?
11.What are the methods applied in Histology?
12.How do medical students study Histology?
13.What is the use of Histology for forensic and criminal investigations?

II. TRUE or FALSE

1. There are more than 240 kinds of cells in the human organism.
2. Histology is an ancient science.
3. Histology is the study of the structure of tissues.
4. Light and electron microscopy are the most important methods of
investigation in histology.
5. Hematoxylin and eosin are the major stains added to intensify color of
histological samples.
6. Gross Anatomy is a part of Histology.
 7. Electron microscopy includes phase-contrast, polarizing and
fluorescence microscopy.
8. Radioscopic and scanning microscopy was induced by light microscopy.
9. Histology is an integral part of medicine as a whole.
10.Junction of cells constitutes organs.
11.Medical students study histological samples in the course of Forensic
Medicine.
12. In other words tissue samples are autopsy.
13.Histology helps in criminal and other investigations.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. The term "histology" originates from ... 

2. The notion "tissue” was first introduced …
3. In the year of 1819...
4. The cell is...
5. The cells and their products form...
6. Historical development of histology depended on...
7. The working methods of histology are…
8. The most important methods of examination in Histology are …
9. Histology is essential for …
10.Electron microscopy includes …
11.Light microscopy includes …
12.Sectioning involves …
13.The study of biological tissues can help …

IV. LOOK FOR THE EQUIVALENTS FROM THE TEXT TO THE

FOLLOWING WORDS, FIND THE SENTENCES WITH THEM AND
PEREPHRASE THEM USING SYNONYMS:
Cutting, to come from, to intensify, to differentiate, occurring nearby, to carry
out/fulfill, necessary, dead, sudden.

V. THE TASK FOR THE CURIOUS. YOU SHOULD CONSULT

ADDITIONAL SOURCSE TO FIND THE ANSWERS

1. What do you know about the French scientist Marie Xavier Bichat?
2. What do you know about the German researcher Karl Meyer?
3. When was the first microscope invented? Who was the inventor?
 CELL. TISSUE

Cell is the basic unit of all living organisms, which can reproduce itself
exactly by means of mitosis. Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a single
cell produces two genetically identical daughter cells. It is the way in which new
body cells are produced for both growth and repair.
Each cell is bounded by a cell membrane of lipids and proteins, which
controls the passage of substances into and out of the cell. Cells
contain cytoplasm in which there is a nucleus and other
structures (organelles) specialized to carry out particular activities in the cell.
Complex organisms are built up of millions of cells that are specially
adapted to carry out particular functions. The process of cell
differentiation begins early during development of the embryo, and cells of a
particular type always give rise to cells of the same type. For example, blood cells
produce blood cells, liver cells – liver cells etc. Each cell has a particular number
of chromosomes in its nucleus. In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, for a total of 46. Twenty-two of these pairs look the same in both
males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differs between males
and females.
Tissue is a collection of cells specialized to perform specialized functions. The
cells may be of the same type (e.g. in the nervous tissue) or of different types (e.g.
in the connective tissue). There are four basic types of tissues in the
body: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous. 
Epithelial tissue covers the body surface and forms the lining for most internal
cavities.  The major functions of epithelial tissue include protection, secretion,
absorption, and filtration.  The skin is an organ made up of epithelial tissue
which protects the body from dirt, dust, bacteria and other microbes that may be
harmful.  Connective tissue is the most abundant and the most widely distributed
of the tissues.  Connective tissues perform a variety of functions including support
and protection.  The following kinds of connective tissues are found in the human
body, loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous tissue, cartilages,
bones, blood, and lymph, which are all considered connective tissue.  There are
three types of muscular tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Nervous tissue is
composed of specialized cells which not only receive stimuli but also conduct
impulses to and from the brain to all parts of the body.  The nerve cells are termed
neurons.
Each of the four basic tissues has several subtypes of cells named for
their shape: thin, flat, cubic or elongated in the epithelial tissue; long and string-
like in the nerve tissue. 

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to reproduce oneself exactly точно себе відтворювати
mitosis мітоз, каріокінез
cell division поділ клітини
genetically identical генетично ідентичний (однаковий)
daughter cell дочірня клітина
growth ріст
repair відновлення
to be bounded by бути обмеженим (оточеним)
membrane мембрана, оболонка
protein білок
passage of substances проходження речовин
cytoplasm цитоплазма
nucleus (pl. -i) ядро
organelle органела, органоїд
to carry out particular activity виконувати певну діяльність
to adapt адаптувати(ся), пристосовувати
cell differentiation диференціація, спеціалізація клітин
to give rise давати початок, викликати
chromosome хромосома
male чоловік, особа чоловічої статі
female особа жіночої статі; жінка
epithelial епітеліальний
connective сполучний
nervous нервовий
lining покрив
protection захист
secretion виділення, секреція
absorption поглинання, абсорбція
filtration фільтрація
bacterium (pl. - a) бактерія
harmful шкідливий
abundant розповсюджений, поширений
loose connective tissue пухка сполучна тканина
adipose tissue жирова тканина
dense fibrous tissue щільна волокниста/фіброзна тканина
to consider вважати, враховувати
to receive stimulus отримувати стимул/подразник
to conduct impulses проводити імпульси
elongated витягнутий, подовжений
string-like струноподібний
Note: mind the plural of certain nouns of Greek and Latin origin: a nucleus –
nuclei; a bacterium – bacteria; a stimulus – stimuli; a mitochondrion –
mitochondria; a reticulum – reticula; an apparatus – apparatus (apparatuses).

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How do cells reproduce themselves?
2. What kind of cell division is mitosis?
3. What is each cell bounded by?
4. What is the function of the cellular membrane?
5. What does the cytoplasm contain?
6. When does the cell differentiation begin and what is it?
7. How many chromosomes do human cells contain?
8. What is tissue?
9. What are the basic types of tissues in the body?
10.What are major functions of the epithelial tissue?
11.What kind of tissue is the skin?
12.What is the most abundant tissue in the body? What does it include?
13.What are the functions of the nervous tissue?
II. WORD-BUILDING.
1. Form nouns from the following verbs by means of appropriate suffixes
(-tion, -ment, -sion), translate them:
Protect, divide, filter, develop, differentiate, secrete, acknowledge, absorb.
2. Form adjectives from the nouns by means of suffixes –ful and –less,
translate them:
Harm, use, pain, hope, help, care.
 3. Mind that not all the words can accept both suffixes. Do the following
exercise applying – ful or –less; translate the sentences:
1) How could you be so care… as to lose your wallet?
2) The weather was beauty… so we went for a walk (-y- should be changed).
3) Yesterday we had a wonder… dinner at a Chinese restaurant.
4) Mane people give some clothes to the home… before Christmas.
5) That little boy is absolutely fear …! He isn’t afraid of anything.
6) Thank you so much! You were really help… to me.
7) A little girl looked help … in the center of a big square. She was crying.
8) I passed all of my exams. I was success… for the first time!
9) They bought a hair … cat. It is Sphynx.
10) That man is completely friend … . He hasn’t got any friends at all.
11) I spent a sleep … night worrying about you!
12) Be care … whenever you cross the street.
13) This is a very peace … town. I would like to live here.

III. MATCHING:

1) living organism a) продукувати клітини

2) complex organisms b) внутрішня порожнина
3) to carry out function c) шкідливі мікроби
4) to control passage d) покривати поверхню тіла
5) development of the embryo e) захищати від бруду та пилу
6) particular type f) плоскі клітини
7) to produce cells g) контролювати переміщення
8) to cover the body surface h) виконувати функцію
9) internal cavity i) живий організм
10) harmful microbes j) складні організми
11) widely distributed k) розвиток ембріона
12) flat cells l) особливий тип
13) to protect from dirt, dust m) широко розповсюджений
 IV. TRUE OR FALSE

1. Cell is the basic unit of all dead organisms, which can reproduce itself
exactly by means of mitosis.
2. Each cell has a particular number of lipids and proteins in its nucleus.
3. Tissue is a collection of cells specialized to perform specialized functions.
4. Differentiation of cells begins after birth.
5. Each cell contains 23 chromosomes.
6. Males and females have the same number of chromosomes.
7. The skin covers the body and belongs to the connective tissue.
8. The four basic types of tissues in the body are: epithelial,
connective, muscular and fibrous.
9. The most abundant and the most widely distributed of the tissues is the
connective one.
10.Blood and lymph belong to the connective tissue.
11.The nerve cells receive stimuli from the brain.
12.The nerve cells are termed neurons.
13.Thin, flat, cubic, elongated, long and string-like cells are found in the
epithelial tissue.

V. COMPLETE THE STATEMENTS

1) Each cell is bounded by a____________________, which controls the passage
of_________ into and out of the cell.
2) _________of tissues constitute organs.

3) Each _____ has a particular number of __________ in its nucleus.

4) Complex organisms are _______of millions of cells that are specially adapted
_________particular functions.
5) There are four basic types of tissue in the body: ______________________.
 CELL. CELL DIVISION.

Аll living organisms are composed of cells. All cellular life forms on Earth
can be divided into two types based on the structure of their cells:
• prokaryotes (pre-nuclear) organisms - simpler in structure, appeared
earlier in the process of evolution. The cells do not possess, in contrast to
eukaryotes, decorated cell nucleus and other internal membrane organoids.
• eukaryotes (nuclear) organisms - more complex, appeared later. The cells
have a cell nucleus delimited from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope. These
cells make up the human body.
The science that studies the structure of a cell and its functions is called
Cytology. The cell is the living unit of the human body. The entire body contains
about 100 trillion cells which are classified into about 200 different cell types
based on specific variations in structure and function.
Although many cells of the body often differ markedly from one another,
most of them have three major subdivisions: 
– the plasma membrane, which encloses the cell. It separates the cell from the
external environment (the extracellular fluid - ECF),
– the cytoplasm, the intracellular fluid (ICF). Cytoplasm consists of hyaloplasm
(cytosol) - a liquid substance; cell inclusions (optional cell components);
organelles (permanent cell components); cytoskeleton - a cell frame,
– the nucleus is the most important part of the eukaryotic cell. The nucleus
consists of a two-membrane nuclear envelope with pores through which
substances can get from the nucleus into the cytoplasm and vice versa. Inside the
nucleus there is the nuclear sap (karyoplasm), in which the nucleoli and the
chromosomes (the basic structures of the nucleus, carriers of cell genetic
material – deoxyribonucleic acid, i.e. DNA) are located.
Materials can pass between the ECF and ICF without damaging the cell
membrane or reducing its effectiveness as a barrier. That property of the cell
membrane is called permeability.
Сell division may be fulfilled in three types :
Amitosis is a direct cell division observed in cells with reduced mitotic
activity: these are senescent or pathologically altered cells, often doomed to
death (mammalian germ cells, tumor cells, etc.). It occurs less frequently than
mitosis.
Meiosis or reduction cell division is division of the nucleus of a eukaryotic
cell with a halving of the number of chromosomes.
Mitosis is an indirect cell division, the most common way of reproducing
eukaryotic cells. The biological significance of mitosis lies in the strictly equal
distribution of chromosomes between daughter nuclei, which ensures the formation
of genetically identical daughter cells and maintains continuity in a series of cell
generations.
The reproduction of cells in the human body occurs by mitosis, i.e. by
indirect division. As a result, the daughter organism receives the same set of
chromosomes as the maternal one. Chromosomes, carriers of the hereditary
properties of the organism, are transmitted from parents to offspring.
The life of a somatic cell is a cyclic process divided into two periods: mitosis
and interphase. They are called as cell cycles.
Mitosis is the process of cell division by which somatic cells divide. It
consists of four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Interphase is a period between two divisions of the cell.
 Such succession of phases of the cell cycle does not always take place.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY:

prokaryotes прокаріоти
eukaryotes еукаріоти
decorated cell nucleus сформоване ядро клітини
to delimit визначати межі
nuclear envelope оболонка ядра
to differ markedly значно відрізнятись
cell inclusions клітинні включення
optional необов'язковий
pore пoра
vice versa (Lat.) навпаки
sap сік (рослин), живиця
carrier носій
genetic material генетичний матеріал
nucleolus (pl. -i) ядерця
permeability проникність, прохідність, провідність
amitosis амітоз
senescent старіючий
pathologically altered патологічно змінений
doomed to death приречений на смерть
germ cells зародкові клітини
meiosis мейоз
to maintain continuity підтримувати наступність, цілісність
hereditary property спадкова властивість
to transmit передавати
offspring нащадок
succession послідовність
 I. FIND IN THE TEXT ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS TO THE
FOLLOWING WORDS AND WORD-COMBINATIONS:

Складатися з, життєва форма, процес еволюції, на противагу, містити,

характерний (специфічний) різновид, відрізнятися від, оточувати,
внутрішньоклітинна рідина, позаклітинна рідина, постійний компонент,
пошкоджувати, знижувати ефективність, забезпечувати/гарантувати,
покоління, відтворення/розмноження клітин, соматична клітина, відбуватись.

II. MATCH THE SYNONYMS:

1.ensure a) descendant
2. maintain b) emerge
3. receive c) the whole
4. offspring d) inner
5. appear e) get
6. internal f) support
7. entire g) change
8. liquid h) lower
9. alter i) provide
10.reduce j) fluid

III. WORD-BUILDING. READ AND TRANSLATE THE

FOLLOWING WORDS, EXPLAIN THEIR STRUCTURE:
1. cell – cellular – intracellular – extracellular
2. carry – carrier
3. permeable – impermeable – permeability – impermeability
4. continue – continued – continual – continuance – continuant –
continuation
5. distribute – distributing – distribution – distributive – distributor –
distrubutable – distributary
 IV. ADD NOUNS TO THE FOLLOWING ADJECTIVES:

cellular –
maternal –
hereditary –
constituent –
nuclear –
inclusive –
porous –
permeable –

V. GIVE THE FULL FORM OF THE FOLLOWING

ABBREVIATIONS:
1. ECF –
2. DNA –
3. ICF –
VI. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What are the 2 types of all the living organisms according to the structure of
their constituent cells?
2. What is the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
3. What science studies the structure of a cell?
4. How many cells does the entire human body contain?
5. What are the major parts of a cell?
6. What constituents of a cell are the carriers of the genetic material?
7. What types of cell division take place in a cell?
8. Is the reproduction of cells in the human body fulfilled by indirect division?
9. What two periods does cell cycle include?

VII. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES:

1. Prokaryotes do not have … .
2. The cells of eukaryotes have a cell nucleus delimited from the cytoplasm by
the … .
3. A large variety of cells in the human body are classified into … .
4. Three major subdivisions of cells are: … .
5. Materials can pass between different parts of a cell without … .
6. There are three types of cell division. They are: … .
7. Mitosis is an … . It consists of four phases: … .
8. The science that studies the structure of a cell and its functions is …
9. … appeared earlier in the process of evolution.
10.The property of the cell membrane to pass material between the ECF and
ICF is …
11.The nucleus is the most important part … .
12.Chromosomes are carriers of …
13.Interphase is a period between … .
 DNA. CHROMOSOME THEORY OF HEREDITY

At the basis of the transfer of hereditary traits of all living things (plants,
animals and humans) are primarily the laws of inheritance discovered by G.
Mendel in 1866. They made it possible to formulate the chromosome theory of
heredity, according to which the continuity of properties in a series of generations
is determined by the continuity of their chromosomes in the nucleus of cells and
containing all the genetic information.
Mendel studied inheritance of a number of well-defined traits and was able to
deduce general rules for their transmission. He observed patterns of inheritance
and came to the conclusion that each trait is determined by a pair of inherited
factors, which later will be called genes.
The carrier of hereditary information is the substance – deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Hereditary (genetic) information is found in DNA in the coded form.
Most of DNA is in the nucleus of the cell. DNA molecule consists of two
poly-nucleotide chains, twisted one around the other into a spiral.
Chains are constructed from a large number of monomers of 4 types -
nucleotides. The combination of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA strand is the
genetic code.
 DNA is accurately reproduced in cell division, which ensures the transfer
of hereditary traits and specific forms of metabolism in a series of generations of
cells and organisms.
There are 3 basic types of DNA tested by ancestry DNA tests today:
1. paternal DNA ( Y-DNA),
2. maternal DNA (mtDNA),
3. autosomal DNA (atDNA)
Y-DNA:  paternal lineage
Only males have the Y-chromosome which is passed on almost unchanged
from father to son. You can trace a direct line between male members on your
paternal side.
The Y-DNA test can only be taken by males. Women who want to trace their
paternal side have to ask their brother, father, paternal uncle, paternal grandfather
or paternal cousin to take the test for them.
mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA):  maternal lineage
Only mothers can pass mtDNA to her children. This means that by testing
mtDNA in one female and comparing it to that of another female, one can
determine how they are related, which is why mtDNA is used to trace your
mother’s side of the family. Because a mother passes mtDNA to both male and
female children, both men and women can get value from this test.
Autosomal DNA 
It refers to the remaining 22 numbered chromosomes except for your 23rd,
sex chromosome (X-Y). Unlike Y-DNA and mtDNA, autosomal DNA is inherited
from both parents. So you can use it to trace either side of your family.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

to transfer передавати
hereditary trait спадкова риса
law of inheritance закон успадковування
chromosome theory хромосомна теорія
heredity спадковість
continuity безперервність, наступність
genetic information генетична інформація
to deduce a rule виводити правило
transmission передача , розповсюдження
pattern зразок, приклад, шаблон
gene ген
coded form закодована форма
poly-nucleotide chain полінуклеотид ний ланцюжок
to twist into a spiral закрутитись у спіраль
monomer мономер
adjacent прилеглий
DNA strand ланцюжок ДНК
to ensure забезпечувати
ancestry DNA test тест ДНК на встановлення спорідненості
to pass on передавати (від старшого до молодшого)
to trace прослідковувати, встановлювати
paternal side батьківська лінія
lineage походження, родовід
to get value отримати цінну інформацію

I. MATCH THE FOLLOWING WORDS WITH THEIR MEANING

1. the laws of inheritance a) нерозривність властивостей

2. carrier of information
3. paternal lineage
4. cell division
5. almost unchanged
6. maternal lineage
b) по лінії матері
c) отримати значення тесту
d) дійти висновку
e) вижити
f) закони спадковості
 7. the continuity of properties g) майже не змінений
8. to survive h) носій інформації
9. come to the conclusion i) по лінії батька
10.get value from thе test j) поділ клітини

II. TRANSLATE AND REMEMBER THE FOLLOWING WORD-

FAMILIES. PAY ATTENTION TO THE SUFFIXES THAT
TRANSFER WORDS INTO NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND
PARTICIPLES 1 OR PARTICIPLES 2.

To inherit – inherent – inheritable – inheritance – inherited – inheritor –

inheritress
To relate – related – relation – relational – relationship – relative – relatively –
relativity
To continue – continued – continuity – continuous
To transfer – transferable – transferal – transferee – transference
To refer – referable to – referee – reference – referent – referred pain

III. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES

1. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a
small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is
called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
2. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of
those bases are the same in all people. 
3. An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. 
4. Our genes are inherited from our parents, and the different combinations of these
genes make us unique.
5. Genetic disorders are caused by DNA mutations that can occur when the normal
sequence is interrupted through an omission, substitution or deletion in the DNA.
IV. FIND ANSWER TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN THE TEXT:
1. What is the essence of the chromosome theory of heredity?
2. Who discovered the laws of inheritance?
3. What rules did Mendel deduce?
4. What is gene?
5. What substance is the carrier of hereditary information?
6. Where is DNA located?
7. What is the structure of DNA molecule?
8. What is called the genetic code?
9. What are 3 basic types of DNA? 
10. What is the difference between paternal DNA (Y-DNA), maternal
DNA (mtDNA), and autosomal DNA (atDNA)?
11. Characterize these types of DNA tests explaining their difference.
12. What is the practical value of DNA tests?

V. SUPPLY THE MISSING WORD FROM THE BOX

(in each set of three sentences the same word is missing)
mutation, DNA, chromosome, gene, inherited, Down’s syndrome, inheritance,
genetic, dominant

1. Each ____________ has another one exactly like it. It’s the sex ________
which determines the individual’s sex. The Y_____________ is responsible
for male characteristics.
2. _________________ is caused by an extra chromosome. A foreshortened
head, upward slanting eyes and a flat nasal bridge are some of the
characteristic physical features of ________________ . The chance of a
woman having a baby with ___________________ increases with age.
3. ______ is enclosed in the central nucleus of the cell. The whole nature of a
cell depends on the kinds of _______. During cell division _______
duplicates itself.
4. Brown eyes are ____________ over blue eyes. If one parent has a ________
characteristic from both parents, he/she must pass it on to his/her children.
Gregor Mendel discovered that tall pea plants were ______________.
5. Each individual has a unique set of genes _____________ from the parents.
Sickle cell disease is an ______________ disease of the blood. There is a
chance of 1 in 4 that cystic fibrosis will be ____________ by a child.
6. Some diseases tend to appear in families without observing any known rules
of ______________. With some diseases the effects of ____________ and
environment cannot always be distinguished. The material from which
chromosomes are formed governs __________________.
7. The child of normal parents may be affected by _____________ in an ovum
or a sperm. A sudden change in the genetic makeup of an organism is known
as ______________. ______________ leads to birth of people with defects.
8. A sex-linked __________ transmits hemophilia. Sickle-cell anemia is the
result of a defective recessive __________. In Britain, the commonest
disease due to a single pair of recessive _______s is cystic fibrosis.
9. The chance that a child will be born with a serious __________ defect is 1 in
50. Some ___________ disorders can be cured. ____________ engineering
has provided a plentiful supply of insulin.
 GENES, GENOTYPE AND KARYOTYPE

DNA regions responsible for the formation of a particular protein are called
genes. Certain signs of cells, organs, systems of organs depend on the properties of
protein which participate in their work.
The gene is a group of adjacent nucleotides that encodes a single protein that
defines one characteristic. Genes do not carry in themselves the signs and
properties of future organisms, but only the potentialities of their development.
The number of genes is very high: in the human body there are about 35
thousand genes. The same gene can influence the development of a number of
traits, just as several genes can influence the formation of one characteristic.
One gene copy (called an allele) specifying each trait is inherited from each
parent. Alleles are the two copies of a gene on a pair of chromosomes. They may
contain exactly the same or different information.
Alleles may be either dominant or recessive. A dominant allele is always
expressed, even if only one copy is present. Dominant alleles are represented by a
capital letter, for example, A. A recessive allele is only expressed if the individual
has two copies and does not have the dominant allele of that gene. Recessive
alleles are represented by a lower case letter, for example, a.
Homozygous alleles are both identical for the same characteristic, for example
AA or aa. A homozygote is an individual who has identical alleles for a particular
gene. Heterozygous alleles are both different for the same characteristic, for
example Aa. A heterozygote is an individual who has different alleles for a
particular gene. Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting,
rather than a single gene.
The totality of all human genes is called the human genome. A set of those or
other variants of genes for each particular person is a genotype.
DNA in the nucleus of the cell is not in a free form, but is associated with
proteins and is called chromatin. When the cell prepares for division, the chromatin
is shortened, compacted, spiraled and is now called the chromosome.
Each species of plants and animals has its own quantitative set of
chromosomes. In all organisms of the same species, each gene is located in the
same place of a strictly defined chromosome.
A set of chromosomes of cells of a particular species is called a karyotype.
Human karyotype consists of 46 chromosomes. Almost all the chromosomes in the
set are represented in pairs. Each of the 22 pairs contains equal in size identical
chromosomes. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes involved in the determination
of sex: in women it consists of identical chromosomes XX, and in men XY.
If the human chromosomes are more or less than 46 or the chromosomes
are changed, then developmental anomalies (defects), which are called
chromosomal diseases, arise.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to encode кодувати
to define визначати
potentialities потенційні можливості
allele алель
to specify уточнювати, встановлювати
to contain information містити інформацію
to express виражати
capital letter велика літера
lower case letter маленька літера
multiple genes interacting взаємодія чисельних генів
to be associated with бути поєднаним з
to shorten укорочувати, скорочуватися
to compact ущільнювати, стискати
to spiral закручуватися в спіраль
species вид, види
quantitative set кількісний набір
developmental anomaly аномалія розвитку
to arise виникати

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:

1. What are the DNA regions responsible for?

2. What do the signs of organs depend on?
3. What do genes carry in themselves?
4. What is the number of genes in the human organism?
5. What is allele? What does it specify?
6. What are the types of allele?
7. What is the difference between dominant and recessive alleles?
8. What is the human genome and genotype?
9. What is homozygote?
10.What is heterozygote?
11.What is DNA associated with in the nucleus?
12.How does a chromosome appear?
13. What is called a karyotype?
14. When do the developmental anomalies arise?

II. MATCH THE FOLLOWING TERMS WITH THEIR

DEFINITIONS

1. Gene a) chromosomes that determine gender.

Human females have two
chromosomes (XX) and males have an X and Y
(XY)
2. Allele b) the sum of all genetic input to a
particular individual or group
3. Chromosome c) the transmission of genetic
characteristics from ancestor to
descendant through the genes
4. DNA d) one or two (or more) slightly different
forms of a gene
5. Genotype e) having two identical alleles, such as
BB or bb
6. Dominant f) a condition, such as a hereditary
diseases, that can be traced to an
individual’s genetic makeup
7. Recessive g) having two different alleles – for
example, Bb
8. Sex chromosomes h) in genetics, a term for a trait that can
manifest in the offspring when
inherited from only one parent. Its
opposite is recessive
9. Heterozygous i) a unit of information about a particular
heritable trait. Usually stored on
chromosomes and contains
specifications for the structure of a
particular polypeptide or protein
10.Homozygous j) the control center of a cell, where DNA
is stored.
11.Heredity k) deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule in all
cells that contains genetic codes for
inheritance
12. Genetic disorder l) a DNA-containing body, located in the
cells
13. Nucleous m) in genetics, a term for a trait that can
manifest in the offspring only if it is
inherited from both parents. Its
 opposite is dominant

Read and translate the additional text. Do the tasks after it.
HEREDITARY TRANSFER OF TRAITS FROM PARENTS TO
OFFSPRING

Genes control the development and metabolism of the body. Hereditary

transfer of traits from parents to offspring is a conservative process, but this
conservatism is not absolute, since evolution would otherwise be impossible.
Each newborn carries in itself a complex of genes not only of its parents, but
also of distant ancestors, i.e. he has peculiar only to him a great hereditary fund or
hereditary predetermined biological program, through which arise his individual
qualities
Acquired in life skills and properties are not inherited, but every child born
has a huge arsenal of potentialities, the development of which depends on the
conditions that his parents or surrounding people create. The impact of various
climatic, geophysical and other factors can also significantly change the character
of the hereditary information which can be realized partially or fully.
The question of the correlation of genetic and environmental components in
the development of human intelligence and how our genetic heritage affects
intellect is the main issue that researchers have been solving for more than a
century.
Among geneticists there is a point of view that intelligence also seems to be
inherited, because in a number of cases the intellectual caliber of children
resembles that of their parents. Some tendencies to commit crime also are reported
to be inherited, as evidences by case-studies.
This theory has now been criticised in numerous ways. Firstly, we see that
many exceptions take place. Children of bright intelligent persons are not always
bright. Criminals do not always beget criminals. Secondly it ignores the effect of
environment. Role of environment is equally important.
 As a result of the research, genetic scientists came to the conclusion that our
genes affect mental abilities, and the percentage of influence can vary from 40 to
80 percent.

MEMORIZE THE WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS

offspring нащадок
otherwise інакше
ancestor предок
peculiar притаманний
acquire набути
impact вплив
correlation співвідношення
issue питання, проблема
a point of view точка зору
intelligence інтелект
the intellectual caliber інтелектуальна якість
to commit crime вчинити злочин
affect впливати, діяти на
vary варіювати, змінюватись

I. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS TO THE TEXT:

1. Is hereditary transfer of traits from parents to offspring a conservative

process?
2. What do the potentialities of the child depend on ?
3. What question is the main issue that researchers try to solve ?
4. Are intelligence and tendencies to commit crime obligatory to be inherited?
5. What is the percentage of influence of genes on mental abilities?

II. Translate and memorize the following word families.

bacterium – bacteriologist – bacteriology – bacteriolysis
cancer – cancerous – canceroid
occur – occurrence
access – accessary – accessibility – accessible – accession –
accessorial – accessory – accessary
inflame – inflammability – inflammable – inflammation inflammatory

III. CHOOSE 2 SYNONYMS TO THE FOLLOWING WORDS FROM

THE LIST BELOW:
Intelligence, environment, ancestor, evolution, potentialities

Opportunity, conditions, brainpower, antecedent, mind, development,

surroundings, predecessor, ability, progress

IV. BRING YOUR PROS AND CONS OF THE HEREDITY OF

INTELLIGENCE. USE THE FOLLOWING AS PHRASE-
OPENINGS:

In my opinion,
To my mind,
I don’t believe that…,
I am against the statement that…
 PHYSIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Before reading the text mind the translation of the branches of Physiology:
(Normal) Physiology фізіологія, нормальна фізіологія
Human Physiology фізіологія людини
Plant Physiology фізіологія рослин
Animal Physiology фізіологія тварин
Comparative Physiology порівняльна фізіологія
Evolutionary Physiology еволюційна фізіологія
Environmental Physiology екофізіологія, фізіологія довкілля
Cell Physiology клітинна фізіологія
Emergency (Adaptation) Physiology адаптивна фізіологія
Pathophysiology (Physiopathology) патофізіологія
LOOK AT THE FIGURE BELOW AND TELL WHAT IS
PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION) OF EVERY ORGAN LABELED

The term "physiology" was first used in its modern sense by the French
physician Jean Fernel in 1552. It is derived from the Greek “physioloqikos” which
means " enquiry into nature". Physiology is the branch of Biology that deals with
the normal functions of healthy living organisms and changes which occur during
their activity. In its widest sense it embraces all the animal and plant kingdoms.
 Physiology is an experimental science, that is, our knowledge is based on
direct experimental evidence. However, where such direct evidence is not
available, the function of a certain organ in man has to be deduced from the
behaviour of that organ in the higher mammals and other animals closely related
to man.
According to the classes of organisms, the science can be divided into many
branches. For example, Human Physiology is a sub-discipline of Biology, focusing
on how human organisms, systems, individual organs, cells,
and biomolecules carry out their chemical and physical functions. Plant
Physiology is a sub-discipline of Botany concerned with the functioning,
or physiology of plants. Animal Physiology is the scientific study of the life-
supporting properties, functions and processes of animals or their parts. The
discipline covers key homeostatic processes, such as the regulation of
temperature, blood flow and hormones. Cell Physiology is the biological study of
the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive on a small scale. Cellular
activities characterize the larger systemic units of the organism – such activities as
respiration, excretion, absorption of food, and movement. Comparative
Physiology is a sub-discipline of Physiology that studies and exploits the diversity
of functional characteristics of various kinds of organisms.
Comparative Physiology is closely related to Evolutionary Physiology and
Environmental Physiology. Evolutionary Physiology is the study of the
biological evolution of physiological structures and processes; that is, the manner
in which the functional characteristics of individuals in a population of organisms
have responded to natural selection across multiple generations during the
history of the population. Environmental Physiology is concerned with
the environment's influence on the physiological function and performance of
living organisms. It contributes to the improvement of techniques of animal
husbandry and agriculture. Emergency Physiology or Adaptation Physiology is
concerned with the adjustment of the activities of the tissue cells when conditions
surrounding them get beyond their adaptive span and become dangerously
harmful. For example, when the climate suddenly is extremely dry or wet, or hot or
cold, when water is lacking, or when such notable events as general or local
disturbances in circulation, fever, bruises, injuries, or infections happen within
the body. Pathophysiology (Physiopathology), a convergence
of Pathology with Physiology, is the study of the disordered physiological
processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with
a disease or injury. 

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
modern sense сучасне значення
to derive утворювати, отримувати, виникати
enquiry розпитування, питання, запит
to embrace охоплювати, включати
experimental evidence експериментальні дані, факти
to deduce from виводити, робити висновок
be related to пов'язаний, споріднений з
to focus on зосереджувати(ся) (увагу)
be concerned with причетний, зайнятий, що має відношення
biomolecule біомолекула
life-supporting property життєво підтримуюча властивість
to cover покривати, охоплювати, стосуватися
regulation of temperature регуляція температури
blood flow кровотік
to keep alive підтримувати, зберігати, залишатись живим
on a small scale в маленькому масштабі
to exploit використовувати, розробляти
diversity розмаїтість, різноманіття
manner метод, спосіб, спосіб дій, манера
population of organisms популяція організмів
to respond to реагувати на
natural selection природний відбір
multiple generations чисельні покоління
environment's influence вплив довкілля (зовнішнього середовища)
performance дія, вчинок, поведінка
animal husbandry скотарство
adjustment пристосовність, адаптація, звикання
surrounding conditions навколишні умови
to get beyond виходити за межі
adaptive span адаптивний інтервал, проміжок, обсяг
notable event відчутна подія
disturbance порушення
bruise синець
to happen within відбуватися всередині
convergence конвергенція, зближення
disordered physiological processes порушені фізіологічні процеси
to result from бути результатом чогось
otherwise інакше, іншим способом
Note: 1) mind the difference between “to result from” – (бути результатом
чогось) and “to result in” – (призводити до);
2) antonyms “convergence” – (конвергенція, зближення) and “divergence” –
(дивергенція, розбіжність; відхилення; відмінність) built from “to converge” –
(зводити воєдино, зосереджуватися) and “diverse” – (різний, різноманітний).

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What do you know about Jean Fernel? (Use additional sources)
2. What is the name “physiology” derived from? What does it mean?
3. What kind of science is Physiology?
4. What is physiological knowledge based on?
5. What are the branches of Physiology? Characterize them.
6. What branches of Physiology do medical students study?
 II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. The term "physiology" was first used in its modern sense by the French
physician Jim Beam in 1552.
2. Physiology is the study of the functions of healthy living organisms and
changes which occur during pregnancy.
3. Cellular physiology is a term applied to the individual cells themselves, as
they live out on a small scale.
4. Emergency physiology is concerned with the environment's influence on
the physiological function and performance of living organisms.
5. Human physiology is concerned with activities taking place
in animal body.
6. Another name of Emergency Physiology is Environmental Physiology.
7. Environmental Physiology is very valuable for the development of
agriculture.
8. Any changes associated with a disease or injuries are studied by
Pathophysiology.
9. The study of the biological evolution of physiological structures and
processes is Evolutionary Physiology.
10. Comparative Physiology is closely related to Adaptation Physiology.

III. FILL IN THE NECESSARY WORDS IN THE GAPS

1) Physiology is the study of _______of healthy living organisms and

________which occur during activity.

2) Physiology is an __________science, that is our knowledge is based on

______________evidence.

3) _________Physiology is concerned with activities taking place in animal body.

4) Comparative Physiology __________________ to Evolutionary Physiology and

Environmental Physiology.
5) Pathophysiology (Physiopathology) is ________ of Pathology with Physiology.

6) Physiology is divided into several branches according to ______________ .

7) Plant Physiology is ______________ Botany ____________ the functioning,

or physiology of plants.

8) __________ is the study of the biological evolution of physiological structures

and processes.

9) Cellular activities characterize the larger systemic units of the organism – such
activities as _________________________________.

IV. FIND THE SYNONYMS TO THE WORDS IN BOLD TYPE IN THE

TEXT AND TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES:
1. The drug is obtained from an African plant.
2. On the basis of our experiment we concluded that the substance possesses
antimicrobial properties.
3. All her energy was concentrated upon bringing up her children.
4. We all have certain duties and jobs to fulfill.
5. The police react to emergencies in just a few minutes.
6. That's the best thing that has ever occurred to me.
7. We have noticed a remarkable resemblance between him and his father.
8. Sometimes it is necessary to use your opponent's weakness.
9. I should go shopping as we don’t have enough food at home.
10.The police were asking for information in all the neighbouring pubs.
11.His report mainly deals with the latest achievements in space engineering.
12.The effect of this drug is unknown.
13.First-year students need a period of adaptation to new life.

(Key words: focus on, derive from, carry out, adjustment, exploit, respond to, lack,
influence, deduce from, happen, enquire, be concerned with, notable)
 V. WORD FORMATION (USE THE WORDS IN ITALICS TO
BUILD DERIVATIVES)
1. He was one of the founders of our new … school. experiment
2. Students ignoring the University … will be penalized. regulate
3. In Biology, tissue is a … organizational level between cells cell
and a complete organ.
4. His life was saved thanks to artificial … apparatus respire
connected in time.
5. In living organisms … is the process of eliminating or excrete
expelling waste matter.
6. Nearly all … in the body is the result move
of muscle contraction.
7. A … analysis is an essay in which two things are compared compare
and contrasted.
8. The world has a rich … of cultures. diverse
9. Now the humanity is facing deep … changes. environment
10. He won the first prize for the best … of a male part. perform
11. When we take antibiotics to treat an infection of … harm
bacteria, we also kill … bacteria.
12. Sorry for making … . disturb
13. COVID-19 is a … infectious disease. danger
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consists of the

alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal includes the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The
accessory organs are the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, hard and soft palates,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
The organs of the digestive system are covered with the serous coat, the
peritoneum. It has the visceral and parietal layers. Important structures of the
mouth are the tongue which contains the organs of taste (taste buds) and the teeth
which divide and mix food. The process of digestion begins in the oral cavity,
where the three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva and prepare food for further
digestion. The oral and laryngeal portions of the pharynx serve as a channel for
the passage of food and air. Our food passes through it from the mouth to the
esophagus and air from the nasal pharynx to the larynx.
The esophagus conveys food from the pharynx to the stomach. The stomach
is a dilated portion of the alimentary canal. It lies in the upper abdomen under the
diaphragm. It is a retaining and mixing reservoir in which the process of
digestion continues. The glands of the fundus and body are very important in the
secretion of gastric juice.
The small intestine is a thin walled muscular tube about 7 meters long. It
has three portions, such as duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The large intestine is
about 1.5 meters long and includes caecum, colon and rectum. The liver secretes
bile and fulfills many other important functions, such as stimulation of red bone
marrow, production of fibrinogen, glycogenetic function and others. The
pancreas forms an external secretion important in digestion and an internal
secretion, insulin, concerned with carbohydratic metabolism.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
elementary canal травний, аліментарний канал
accessory organ додатковий орган
pharynx глотка
esophagus стравохід
stomach шлунок
small intestine тонкий кишечник
large intestine товстий кишечник
salivary glands слинні залози
hard palate тверде піднебіння
soft palate м’яке піднебіння
gallbladder жовчний міхур
pancreas підшлункова залоза
serous coat серозний шар
to be covered with бути покритим чимось
peritoneum очеревина
visceral layer вісцеральний листок
parietal layer парієтальний листок
taste bud смаковий сосочок
to divide food подрібнювати їжу
to mix food перемішувати їжу
saliva слина
laryngeal portion гортанна частина
passage прохід, протока, хід
nasal pharynx носоглотка
larynx гортань
to convey food транспортувати, передавати їжу
dilated portion розширений відділ
retaining reservoir утримуючий резервуар
mixing reservoir перемішуючий резервуар
fundus дно (шлунку)
secretion (internal, external) секреція (внутрішня, зовнішня)
duodenum дванадцятипала кишка
jejunum порожня кишка
ileum клубова кишка
ceacum сліпа кишка
colon ободова кишка
rectum пряма кишка
to secrete bile секретувати жовч
to fulfill function виконувати функцію
gastric juice шлунковий сік
thin walled tube тонкостінна трубка
red bone marrow червоний кістковий мозок
production of fibrinogen продукування фібриногену
glycogenetic function функція глікогену
to concern with стосуватись чогось
carbohydratic metabolism засвоєння вуглеводів

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What are the two main parts of the digestive system?
 2. What does the alimentary canal consist of?
3. What accessory organs do you know?
4. What are the digestive organs covered with?
5. What are the functions of the teeth and tongue?
6. How can people feel the taste?
7. How does our food pass through the alimentary canal?
8. Where does the process of digestion begin?
9. What is the function of the esophagus?
10.Where is the stomach located?
11.Where is gastric juice secreted?
12.How long is the small and large intestines?
13.What are the portions of the small intestine?
14.What are the portions of the large intestine?
15.What functions does the liver perform?
16.What does the pancreas secrete?

II. MATCHING

1. to consist of a) орган смаку

2. important structure b) верхня частина черевної
порожнини
3. organ of taste c) містити, вміщувати
4. the process of digestion d) складатись з
5. prepare food e) важлива структура
6. serve as a channel f) під діафрагмою
7. upper abdomen g) відділ
8. under the diaphragm h) служити каналом
9. portion i) процес травлення
10. to contain j) підготовляти їжу
 II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal.

2. The urinary bladder belongs to the alimentary canal.

3. The organs of the digestive system are covered with the serous coat.

4. The oral portion serves as a channel for the passage of food.

5. The esophagus conveys food to the abdomen.

6. The process of digestion begins in the stomach.

7. Ceacum is a portion of the small intestine.

8. The small intestine is a thick-walled muscular tube about 1,5 meters long.

9. Taste buds are found in the tongue.

10. The teeth help to digest food by dividing and mixing it.

11. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas.

12. The liver produces red bone marrow.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

l. The digestive system consists of...

a) alimentary canal and accessory organs

b) muscular tubes

c) alimentary canal

2. The organs of the digestive system are covered with the...

a) red bone marrow

b) serous coat

c) gastric juice

3. The esophagus conveys food...

a) from the nose to the larynx

b) from the pharynx to the stomach

c) from the intestine to the abdomen

4. The small intestine is a muscular tube about...

a) 7 meters long

b) 5 meters long

c) 1 meter long

5. The large intestine is...

a) 5 meters long

b) 7 meters long

c) 1.5 meters long

6. The small intestine consists of...

a) duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

b) rectum, colon and jejunum

c) colon, caecum and rectum

7. The liver secretes...

a) bile

b) insulin

c) gastric juice
8. Accessory organs of the oral cavity…
a) are very important for secretion of digestive juice
b) prepare food for further digestion
c) are responsible for taste
9. The gland of internal and external secretion is…
a) salivary
b) nasal pharynx
c) pancreas
10. The peritoneum consists of the…
a) large and small portions
b) visceral and parietal layers
c) thin-walled muscular tube
IV. PICK OUT THE WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE STORY
BELOW DESCRIBING A DIGESTIVE DISORDER. TRANSLATE THEM
You’re hungry. You’re in a restaurant and the waiter brings you the food you
have ordered. You smell it. It stimulates your appetite – you start eating. Your
mouth waters filling with saliva. You take a bite of the food. It tastes good and you
chew it and swallow it. You eat more, but then suddenly you taste something
unpleasant. You feel nauseous. You rush to the toilet, and get there just in time
before vomiting all the food you’ve eaten. Something has disagreed with you.
1) Find English equivalents in the text for the following:

Відчувати голод/ бути голодним, замовляти їжу, нюхати, стимулювати

апетит, у вас потекла слина, відкусити шматочок, мати гарний смак, жувати,
ковтати, скуштувати щось неприємне.
 2) How do you think what kind of digestive disorder is described?
3) What two human senses are mentioned in the story?
4) Complete the sentences with necessary words. Look up the text to
help you.
1. When I eat solid food, I have to … it for a long time before I can … it.
2. I have no … and I’ve lost five kilos in the last week.
3. The garden is full of flowers, but my sense of … disappeared and I can’t
enjoy the perfume.
4. Many passengers … while travelling by sea.
5. At the sight of tasty dishes on the table his mouth … .
6. After climbing the mountain the whole day the tourists were very … and
were happy to eat anything.
7. Your … buds are the little points on the surface of your tongue which enable
you to recognize the flavour of a food or drink.
8. The cake was delicious, but she only took a small … of it. They say she
keeps to a diet.
9. … helps to evacuate the stomach in case you have eaten something bad.
10.Spicy food … with me and usually causes pain.
 STOMACH

The stomach is a dilated portion of the digestive tract, situated between the
esophagus and duodenum. Topographically it is located in the upper part of the
abdomen under the diaphragm and the liver. Three fourths of the stomach are in
the subcostal region, one fourth – in the epigastric region. The structure of the
stomach includes the anterior and posterior walls. The walls have the mucous,
muscular and serous membranes. The place where the esophagus enters the
stomach is called the cardiac opening. To the left from the cardiac opening there
is the fundus. The right part of the stomach, which is rather narrow, is called
pylorus. The fundus, pyloric part and the pylorus itself constitute the body of the
stomach.
The size of the stomach varies depending on its content. A moderately
filled stomach is about 24-26 cm, an empty stomach is about 18-20 cm long. An
average capacity of the stomach of the adult man is about 3 liters (1,5 - 4.0L). The
stomach of a newborn is cylindrical in shape or looks like a horn. Its capacity is
about 50 cm3, the length - 5 cm, and the width - 3 cm. At the age from 7 to 11 the
stomach reaches the size of that of an adult. The shape of the stomach changes
depending on its functional state.
The stomach serves as a reservoir for food. The glands of the stomach
secrete gastric juice. It contains digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid (HC1),
and other active physiological substances. Gastric juice is able to hydrolize
(break down) proteins, fats (partially) and possesses an antibacterial action. The
mucous membrane of the stomach also secretes compound substances influencing
upon the blood formation.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
dilated portion розширений відділ
topographically топографічно
subcostal region підреберна область
epigastric region надчеревна область
mucous membrane слизова оболонка
serous membrane серозна оболонка
cardiac opening кардіальний отвір
fundus (pl. – fundi) дно (шлунку)
pylorus (pl. – pylori) пілорус, воротар
pyloric part пілорична частина
content вміст, обсяг, місткість
moderately filled помірно наповнений
empty stomach порожній шлунок
on empty stomach натще
average capacity середня ємність, літраж, потужність
newborn новонароджений
cylindrical in shape циліндричної форми
horn ріг, ріжок
to reach the size досягати розміру
functional state функціональний стан
reservoir for food резервуар для їжі
to secrete gastric juice
digestive enzyme
hydrochloric acid
physiological substance
to hydrolize (break down)
to possesses an antibacterial action
compound substance
blood formation
продукувати/секретувати шлунковий сік
травний фермент
соляна кислота
фізіологічна речовина, субстанція
розщеплювати, гідролізу вати, руйнувати
володіти антибактеріальною дією
складна речовина
кровотворення, гемопоез

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. Where is the stomach situated?
2. What is topographical location of the stomach?
3. Where is the greater part of the stomach located?
4. What does the structure of the stomach include?
5. What are the membranes of the stomach?
6. What parts of the stomach constitute its body?
7. What is pylorus?
8. How does the capacity of the stomach vary?
9. What is the shape of the stomach at birth?
10.When does the stomach reach the size of that of an adult?
11.What do the glands of the stomach secrete?
12.What substances does gastric juice contain?
13.What are the properties of gastric juice?

II. MATCHING
1) Esophagus a) резервуар
2) Subcostal region b) середня ємність
3) Epigastric region c) фермент (ензим)
4) Cardiac opening d) підреберна область
5) Serous membrane e) соляна кислота
6) Mucous membrane f) серозна оболонка
7) Average capacity g) кардіальний отвір
8) To depend on h) залежати від
9) Reservoir i) стравохід
10) to secrete gastric juice j) секретувати шлунковий сік
11) Enzyme k) надчеревна область
12) Hydrochloric acid l) слизова оболонка

III. COMPLETE THE STATEMENTS

1) The stomach is a ________of the digestive tract, situated between the
________ and duodenum.
2) The ______of the stomach secrete gastric-juice.
3) At the age from 7 to 11 the stomach ___________of that of an adult.
4) The _________of the stomach varies depending on its content.
5) The stomach of a ______is cylindrical in shape or looks______________.
6) One fourth of the stomach is located in the ____________________.
7) Three fourths of the stomach are located in the _________________.
8) The place where the esophagus enters the stomach is called ____________.
9) The ___________ of the stomach, which is ___________, is called pylorus.
10) Gastric juice is able to hydrolize (_________) _______, _____
(partially) and possesses an ______________________.

IV. FILL IN THE NECESSARY WORDS FROM THE TEXT.

TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES
1. His face was white, his eyes (розширені).
2. (Три чверті) of my group-mates are from different regions of Ukraine.
3. The scientific world (вступив, розпочав) on a new age with the splitting of
the atom.
4. Any citizen of Ukraine who finished secondary school is able (поступити)
higher educational institution of one’s own choice.
5. Volunteers (складають, становлять) more than 95% of our charity
center's work force.
6. You shouldn’t take these medicines (натще).
7. An (середня потужність) of our plant has considerably increased in the
previous decade.
8. She works at the unit of (новонароджені) of our regional maternity home.
9. Many rhinoceros were violently killed because of their (роги).
10.The majority of children go to school (у віці) of 7.
11.Antibiotics possessing (антибактеріальна дія) kill both harmful and
harmless bacteria.
12.You will (зруйнуєш себе, своє здоров’я) if you work too hard.
13.Her mood changes (залежно від) weather.
 LIVER, GALLBLADDER AND PANCREAS

Three important accessory organs of the digestive system are the liver,
gallbladder and pancreas. Although food does not pass through these organs,
they play a crucial role in the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients.
The liver located in the right upper quadrant (RUQ) of the abdominal
cavity, manufactures thick, yellowish-brown, sometimes greenish, fluid called
bile. Bile contains cholesterol (a fatty substance), bile acids, and several bile
pigments. One of these bile pigments is called bilirubin. Bilirubin is a waste
product produced when hemoglobin (from destroyed red blood cells) is broken
down in the liver. The liver then combines bilirubin with bile and both are excreted
through the digestive system in the feces.
Bile is released continuously from the liver and travels down the hepatic
duct to the cystic duct. The cystic duct leads to the gallbladder, a pear-shaped
sack under the liver, which stores and concentrates bile for later use. After meals,
in response to the presence of foods in the stomach and duodenum, the gallbladder
contracts, forcing the bile up the cystic duct and into the common bile duct,
which joins with the pancreatic duct just before the entrance to the duodenum.
The duodenum receives a mixture of bile and pancreatic juice.
The pancreas is the organ belonging to the digestive and endocrine systems.
Thus, on the one hand, it is an exocrine gland, and on the other hand, it is an
endocrine one. It is located behind the stomach. As an endocrine gland it secretes
insulin, glucagon and other hormones. As an exocrine gland it produces pancreatic
juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains
digestive enzymes which break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates entering the
duodenum from the stomach.
The liver, in addition to producing bile, performs many other vital and
important functions in the body. Some of these are:
1. keeping the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood at a normal level;
2. manufacturing protein substances;
3. destruction of worn-out red blood cells;
4. removal of poisons or toxins from the blood, and formation of antibodies to
fight disease;
5. production of urea, which is a waste product of protein breakdown. 

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to play a crucial role відігравати вирішальну роль
proper digestion належне травлення
absorption of nutrients поглинання поживних речовин
right upper quadrant правий верхній квадрант
thick fluid густа рідина
bile жовч
cholesterol холестерин
bilirubin білірубін
bile acid жовчна кислота
bile pigment жовчний пігмент
waste product продукт розпаду, відходи
hemoglobin гемоглобін
destroyed red blood cells зруйновані червоні кров’яні клітини
feces фекалії, кал
to release continuously постійно вивільнювати
hepatic duct печінкова протока
cystic duct міхурова протока
common bile duct загальна жовчна протока
pancreatic duct протока підшлункової залози
pear-shaped sack грушовидний мішок
in response to у відповідь на
to force змушувати, примушувати силою
in addition to окрім
to perform vital functions виконувати життєво важливі функції
to keep at a normal level утримувати на нормальному рівні
to manufacture виготовляти, виробляти
to destroy руйнувати
warn-out red blood cells зношені червоні кров’яні клітини
to remove poisons/toxins усувати отрути/токсини
to form antibodies формувати антитіла
to produce urea виробляти сечу
protein breakdown розклад/руйнування білків
exocrine gland залоза зовнішньої секреції
endocrine gland залоза внутрішньої секреції
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What are the three important accessory organs of the digestive system?
2. Where is the liver located?
3. What does liver manufacture?
4. What does bile contain?
5. What is bilirubin?
6. When and how is bile released?
 7. What are the functions of the gallbladder?
8. When does the gallbladder contract?
9. What vital functions does the liver perform?
10. Where is the pancreas located?
11.What kind of gland is the pancreas?
12.What substances does the pancreas secrete?
13.What substances does the pancreatic juice break down?

II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. Our food passes through the accessory organs of the digestive system and is
better digested.
2. Bile is thin colorless fluid manufactured by the liver.
3. The liver is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen.
4. Bilirubin is one of the bile acids.
5. Bilirubin is a waste product of hemoglobin destruction.
6. Bile is released in response to the presence of food in the stomach.
7. Bile is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder.
8. After gallbladder contraction bile passes to the cystic duct and then to the
common bile duct.
9. The mixture of bile and pancreatic juice in the stomach helps proper
digestion.
10.Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by the pancreas.
11.Pancreatic juice passes from the pancreatic duct to the duodenum.
12.Digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas are able to remove toxins.
13.Urea is a waste product of protein breakdown.

III. MATCHING (some of the Ukrainian equivalents are unnecessary)

1. accessory organ a) приймати мікстуру
2. yellowish-brown fluid b) подорожувати вниз
3. fatty substance c) рівень цукру в крові
4. to excrete in feces d) отримувати суміш
5. to travel down e) для пізнього використання
6. for later use f) додатковий орган
7. before the entrance to g) жирна речовина
8. after meals h) для використання пізніше
9. to receive mixture i) проходити вниз
10.on the one hand j) білкові речовини
11. on the other hand k) з іншої руки
12. amount of sugar in the blood l) жовто-коричнева рідина
13.protein substances m) перед входом у
n) після прийому їжі
o) виділяти з калом
p) з одного боку
q) з іншого боку
IV. CHOOSE THE RIGHT VARIANT
1. There are...important accessory organs
a) 2
b) 3 
c) 5
2. Food... through accessory organs
a) does not pass
b) passes
c) will pass
3. The liver is located in...
a) left upper quadrant of the abdomen
b) right lower quadrant of the abdominal cavity
c) right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity
4. Bile contains...
a) waste products
b) bile acids
 c) pancreatic juice
5. The duodenum receives...
a) bile pigments
b) cholesterol
c) bile and pancreatic juice
6. The functions of the liver are...
a) production of hemoglobin
b) formation of blood corpuscles
c) removal of toxins from the blood 
7) The gallbladder is...
a) a pear-shaped sac
b) a cystic duct
c) a hepatic duct
8. The pancreas secretes...
a) insulin
b) gastric juice
c) urea
9. Cholesterol is …
a) a fatty substance contained in the bile
b) a waste product
c) one of the bile pigments
10. Bile is released continuously from …
a) the pancreas
b) the duodenum
c) the liver

V.DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

What is the doctor describing to the patient? Choose from the keys.
Key words: cholangitis, hepatitis, appendicitis, cirrhosis, pancreatitis, gastritis,
abdominal hernia, peptic ulcer.
1. Excessive assumption of alcohol and smoking has caused inflammation of
the stomach mucous membrane.
2. The liver has been seriously damaged by too much alcohol.
3. High concentration of acid and pepsin in the stomach has perforated its wall.
4. A gall stone from the gallbladder has blocked the narrow tube and caused
infection of the bile duct.
5. Since the muscles of the diaphragm and abdomen are weak, a small part of
the intestine has come through it.
6. Sudden pain that begins on the right side of the lower abdomen. Pain that
worsens if you cough, walk or make other movements. Nausea and vomiting
may occur.
7. Constant pain in your upper belly that radiates to your back. This pain may be
disabling. Diarrhea and weight loss because your pancreas isn’t releasing
enough enzymes to break down food.
8. Uncontrolled use of medications and work at a chemical industrial plant
caused fatigue, abdominal pain, yellow skin and eyes, dark urine and pale
stool.
 THE URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is the system which excretes the largest part of the
waste products of the body. It consists of the right and left kidney, the ureters, the
bladder and the urethra.
The kidneys are placed one on each side in the lumbar region of the spine, on
the posterior abdominal wall, at the level of the twelfth thoracic and first-second
lumbar vertebrae. A kidney weights about 150 grams. The kidney is covered by
membranes. The connective tissue membrane which directly adheres to the kidney
is called the fibrous capsule. This capsule is surrounded by the adipose capsule.
The capsules protect and support the kidneys. The kidneys contain one million
small tubules (glomeruli), which filter the blood and control the concentrations of
most of the constituents of body fluids. These small tubules make up the
parenchyma of the kidney. They are very fine and may be of various shapes.
The inner margin of the kidney is known as the hilum. The ureter originates
from it. It is a tube about 30 cm long. After leaving the hilum the ureter descends
along the posterior abdominal wall into the cavity of the pelvis where it perforates
the wall of the bladder and opens into its cavity.
The urinary bladder is a reservoir for urine. It is situated in the cavity of the
pelvis. The bladder has three parts: the superior part or apex, the middle part or
body, and the inferior part or fundus. The wall of the bladder consists of three
coatings – mucous, muscular and connective tissue. The mucous membrane of the
bladder forms numerous folds. When the bladder fills the folds of the mucous coat
extend. The muscular coat consists of three layers of smooth muscles extending in
different directions. The capacity of the bladder of an adult is about 350 – 500ml.
The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that
conveys urine from the fundus of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening of
the outside is the external urethral orifice. The internal urethral sphincter
surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the urinary bladder.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
urinary system сечовидільна система
ureter сечовід
(urinary) bladder міхур (сечовий)
to adhere to приєднуватися до
fibrous capsule фіброзна оболонка, капсула
hilum (pl. - hila) хілус, ворота органа
urethra сечівник
lumbar region поперекова область
spine хребет
adipose capsule жирова капсула
constituents складові частини
glomerulus (pl. glomeruli) клубочок (клубочки)
parenchyma паренхіма
to originate from виникати, відходити з
inner margin внутрішній край, грань
to descend опускатися
to perforate перфорувати, проникати
numerous folds чисельні складки
passageway прохід
urethral orifice отвір уретри
sphincter сфінктер

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What function does the urinary system perform?
2. What is the structure of the urinary system?
3. Where are the kidneys located?
4. What is the kidney covered by?
5. What does kidney contain?
6. What is known as hilum?
7. Where do the ureters originate from?
8. What is the function of the ureters?
9. Where is the urinary bladder located?
10.How many parts does the urinary bladder have?
11.What does the wall of the bladder consist of?
12.What is the capacity of the urinary bladder?
13.What is the function and structure of the urethra?

II. TRUE, FALSE OR MAYBE

1. The urinary system consists of two kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the
urethra.
2. A kidney weights about 150 -200 grams.
3. The connective tissue membrane of the kidney is called the adipose capsule.
4. The kidneys are placed one on each side in the lumbar region of the abdomen.
5. The inner margin of the kidney is known as the hilum.
6. The kidney is covered by the adipose tissue.
7. The adipose and fibrous capsules perform a protective function.
8. The glomeruli excrete urine.
9. The wall of the bladder consists of two coatings.
10. The capacity of the bladder of an adult is about half a liter.

III. MATCH THE ORGANS WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. Kidneys
2. Urethra
3. Bladder
4. Ureters
5. Glomeruli
6. Adipose capsule
7. Urethral sphincter
a) it serves as the passageway through which urine is discharged from the body
and in males it also serves as the duct through which semen is ejaculated;
b) they transport the urine from the renal pelvis of the kidney to the bladder;
prevent the back flow of urine when pressure in the bladder is high during
urination;
c) it regulates involuntary control of urine flow from the bladder to outside;
d) they act as very efficient filters for ridding the body of waste and toxic
substances, and returning vitamins, amino acids, glucose, hormones and other vital
substances into the bloodstream;
e) these filters help remove waste and excess fluid from the blood;
f) it stores urine to its elimination from the body;
g) a layer of adipose tissue surrounding the renal capsule that protects and supports
the kidney.

IV. FILL IN THE PREPOSITIONS WHERE NECESSARY. TRANSLATE

THE SENTENCES (Keys: to, on, in, at, by, up, to, into)
1. The notice was placed … the door for everyone to see it.
2. The conference was organized … the highest level.
3. Don't judge a book … its cover.
4. The weather was rainy and cold, and mud adhered … our shoes.
5. The speaker stood surrounded … a crowd of listeners.
6. The board of directors is made … of experienced specialists.
7. The reference book contains … a great deal of useful information.
8. The door of the room opens … a large balcony on the southern side.
9. Ulcer perforated … the wall of the stomach and the patient was operated on
urgently.
10. The cold weather extended … March.

V. FILL IN THE MISSING VERBS FROM THE BOX. DON’T FORGET

TO CHANGE THEM INTO SIMPLE PRESENT PASSIVE
Call, situate, store, surround, convey, feel, transport, eliminate

In the urinary system wastes … by the kidneys. The kidney consists of about
1 million units which … nephrons. The glomeruli and proximal convoluted tubules
… in the renal cortex. The glomerulus is a coiled mass of capillaries which … by
specialized cells. Urine … in the ureters from each kidney to the bladder where it
… . When the volume of urine reaches between 200 and 300 ml a desire to void
urine … . Urine … from the bladder to the exterior vie the urethra.
 KIDNEYS

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are

located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are
about 10-12 centimeters (5 inches) long. In adult males, the kidney weighs
between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115
and 155 grams.  Average renal size is 146 cm3 on the left and 134 cm3 on the
right.
The kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into
the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to the ureter, a tube that carries
excreted urine to the bladder. The kidney has a convex and a concave border. A
recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal
artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. On the top of each
kidney there is the adrenal gland.
In humans, the kidneys are located at a slightly oblique angle. The
asymmetry within the abdominal cavity is caused by the position of the liver,
therefore, the right kidney is slightly lower and smaller than the left one. The right
kidney is located just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left
kidney is located below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen.
 The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. The position of
the left kidney is next to the spleen in the left upper quadrant. Sometimes the left
kidney and spleen can be confused by an inexperienced doctor. The spleen is
mobile with respiration, and the kidney is not. The spleen is dull to percussion,
and the kidney is resonant due to overlying gas.
The chief function of the kidneys is to make urine and purify the blood. The
blood is filtered by glomeruli. In 24 hours the human glomeruli are known to filter
between 150 and 200 litres. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test used to
check how well the kidneys are working. The test estimates how much blood
passes through the glomeruli each minute. Normal GFR is 125 mL/min/1.73m2 in
men and 90–120 ml/min/1.73m2 in women. 
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
bean-shaped бобоподібний
vertebrates хребетні
retroperitoneal space заочеревенний простір
average renal size середній розмір нирки
renal artery ниркова артерія
renal vein ниркова вена
to exit into виходити в
convex border опуклий край, межа
concave border увігнутий край, межа
recessed area заглиблена ділянка, частина
adrenal gland наднирникова залоза
at an oblique angle під косим кутом
pole полюс
adjacent to прилеглий, суміжний, сусідній
mobile with respiration рухомий при диханні
dull to percussion притуплений, приглушений при перкусії
resonant резонуючий, дзвінкий
overlying gas розміщений зверху газ
to purify очищати
glomerular filtration rate(GFR) швидкість клубочкової фільтрації (ШКФ)
to estimate оцінювати, давати оцінку

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. Where are kidneys located?
2. What is the shape of kidneys?
3. What is the difference between male and female kidneys?
4. How does blood enter and exit the kidneys?
5. What are the kidney borders?
6. Where are the adrenal glands located?
7. What is the asymmetry of kidneys caused by?
8. What is the position of the right kidney?
9. What is the position of the left kidney?
10.How to differentiate between the kidney and spleen during examination?
11.What is the chief function of the kidneys?
12.How much fluid do glomeruli filter in 24 hours?
13.What is GFR?

II. WHAT ARE THESE NUMBERS STAND FOR?

10-12, 125-170, 115-155, 146, 134, 150-200.

III. TRUE OR FALSE

1. The kidneys are pear-shaped organs.
2. The kidneys are located on the left in the retroperitoneal space.
3. The adrenal gland is located on the top of each kidney.
4. The renal arteries supply blood to the kidneys.
5. The kidneys are located symmetrically within the abdominal cavity.
6. The kidneys are located at a slightly oblique angle.
7. The right kidney is located below the diaphragm and anterior to the liver.
 8. The hilum is located on the convex border of the kidney.
9. Both kidneys are located under the diaphragm.
10.The right kidney is slightly lower and smaller than the left one.
11.The kidneys are mobile with respiration.
12.Glomerular filtration rate is a test used to check how well the kidneys are
working.
13.The size and GFR of women are larger than those of men.

IV. READING FOR PURPOSE. READ THE TEXT AND FIND THE
ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
Urinalysis
1) How and where is urinalysis made?
2) What can be found under the microscope?
3) Why are plus signs used? What do they mean?
Urinalysis is the analysis of urine. Simple screening tests of the urine are
carried out with reagent strips, for example, Clinistix/Clinistrip (trade mark) for
the detection of glucose. More detailed tests are carried out in a laboratory on a
specimen of urine. Typical specimens are a midstream specimen of urine
(MSU) and a catheter specimen (CSU). Microscopic examination may reveal the
presence of red blood cells, pus cells, or casts. Casts are solid bodies formed by
protein or cells. Plus signs are used in case notes to indicate abnormal findings. A
small amount (+) is described as a trace. For a large amount (+++), the words
gross or marked can be used, for example, gross hematuria. When there is
nothing, the word nil is common.

Case note pattern. There is no sugar, a trace of protein and gross hematuria.
Sugar nil
Protein +
Blood +++
Try to find Ukrainian equivalents to the words in bold type from the text:
Сеча для аналізу, еритроцити, клітини гною, осад, аномальні результати
аналізів, не виявлено, сліди, виражений/помітний, середня порція сечі,
аналіз сечі взятий катетером, індикаторні смужки, бланк аналізу

Describe the findings of the urinalysis report in words:

Blood +
Protein +++
Casts nil
 STONES IN KIDNEYS AND GALLBLADDER

A kidney stone is a hard, crystalline mineral material formed within the

kidney or urinary tract. Kidney stones are a common cause of blood in the urine
(hematuria) and often severe pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. Kidney stones
are also called renal calculi. The condition of having kidney stones is termed
nephrolithiasis.
Urinary tract stones are more common in men than in women. Most urinary
stones develop in people from 20 to 49 years of age, and those who are prone to
multiple attacks of kidney stones usually develop their first stones during the
second or third decade of life.
Kidney stones are formed when there is decrease in urine volume and/or an
excess of stone-forming substances in the urine. The most common type of
kidney stone contains calcium in combination with either oxalate or phosphate.
The majority of kidney stones are calcium stones.
 Dehydration is a major risk factor for kidney stone formation. People with
certain medical conditions, such as gout, and those who take certain medications
or supplements are at risk for kidney stones.
A gallstone is a stone formed within the gallbladder out
of bile components. The term cholelithiasis may refer to the presence of gallstones
or to the diseases caused by gallstones. Most people with gallstones (about 80%)
never have symptoms. When a gallstone blocks the bile duct, a cramp-like pain
in the right upper part of the abdomen, known as biliary colic (gallbladder
attack) can result. This happens in 1–4% of those with gallstones each year. 
Complications of gallstones may include inflammation of the gallbladder
(cholecystitis), inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis), jaundice, and infection
of a bile duct (cholangitis). Symptoms of these complications may include pain of
more than five hours duration, fever, yellowish skin, vomiting, dark urine, and
pale stools.
Risk factors for gallstones include birth control pills, pregnancy, a family
history of gallstones, obesity, diabetes, liver disease, or rapid weight loss. 
The bile components that form gallstones include cholesterol, bile salts,
and bilirubin. Gallstones are mainly formed from cholesterol are
termed cholesterol stones, and those mainly from bilirubin are termed pigment
stones. 

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
сrystalline кристалічний, прозорої структури
hematuria гематурія
severe pain сильний біль
flank бік
groin пах
renal calculus (pl. calculi) нирковий камінь
nephrolithiasis нирковокам'яна хвороба
urinary tract сечовивідні шляхи
to be prone to бути схильним до
(to) decrease зменшення, зменшуватись
stone-forming substance речовина, що сприяє утворенню каменів
gout подагра
dehydration зневоднення, дегідратація
supplement допоміжний засіб, добавка
to be at risk перебувати під ризиком
gallstone жовчний камінь
cholelithiasis жовчокам’яна хвороба, холелітіаз
to block the bile duct блокувати жовчну протоку
cramp-like судомоподібний
biliary colic жовчна коліка
gallbladder attack напад жовчної коліки
jaundice жовтяниця
pale stool бліді випорожнення
birth control pills протизаплідні пігулки
pregnancy вагітність
obesity ожиріння
diabetes діабет
rapid weight loss швидка втрата ваги

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What condition is termed nephrolithiasis?
2. What can kidney stones cause?
3. Who is mostly prone to kidney stones?
4. What are the causes promoting formation of kidney stones?
5. What do kidney stones contain?
6. What is the most common type of kidney stones?
7. What conditions are major risk factors of kidney stone formation?
8. What are the symptoms of cholelithiasis?
 9. What is cholelithiasis commonly caused by?
10.When does biliary colic occur?
11.What are complications of gallstones?
12.What are risk factors for gallstones?
13.What do gallstones contain?

II. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. A kidney stone is a hard, crystalline mineral material…
2. Kidney stones are formed when there is…
3. The majority of kidney stones are…
4. Symptoms of a kidney stone include…
5. The term cholelithiasis may refer to the presence of…
6. Complications of gallstones may include…
7. Risk factors for gallstones include birth control pills…
8. Gallstones are mainly formed from cholesterol are termed …
9. Gallstones are mainly formed from bilirubin are termed …

III. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINITION

Gout, jaundice, diabetes, obesity, hematuria, nephrolithiasis, cholelithiasis, biliary
colic, pregnancy

a) a disease in which the body’s ability to produce or respond to the hormone

insulin is impaired, resulting in abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates and
elevated levels of glucose in the blood;
b) the state of being grossly fat or overweight;
c) also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring
develops inside a woman;
d)  is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red,
tender, hot, and swollen joint. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal
intensity in less than 12 hours. The joint at the base of the big toe is affected in
about half of cases.
e)  the presence of blood in urine;
f)  is a yellowish or greenish pigmentation of the skin and whites of the eyes due
to high bilirubin levels;
g) the presence of stones in the kidney causing pain and blood in the urine;
h) pain resulting from obstruction of the gallbladder or common bile duct, usually
by a stone;
i) formation of gallstones.

IV. WHAT DO THE PREFIXES MEAN?

Choose from the keys. You will have to use two of them twice.
Key words: fat, milk, potassium, sodium, starch, stone, sugar, water
№ Prefix Example Meaning
1 hydro- hydrotherapy treatment with _____________
2 lact- lactation formation of ___________
3 sacchar- saccharine like ______________
4 amyl- amylase enzyme for digesting _________
5 steat- steatohepatitis degenerating into _________
6 adip- adipose containing _________
7 glyc- glycoside derivative of ____________
8 natr- hypernatremia excess of ___________ in blood
9 kal- kaliuresis secretion of __________ in urine
10 calc- calculus formation of ___________

V. CHANGE THE WORDS OF ORDINARY ENGLISH (IN ITALIC

TYPE) INTO THE SYNONYMIC MEDICAL TERMS FROM THE
TEXT. TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES.
1. Nowadays stones in kidneys are successfully broken down by means of
laser.
2. Urinalysis findings indicated the presence of blood in urine.
3. The patient was suffering from severe cramp-like pain in the right side the
whole night.
4. Stones in your kidneys are the result of chronic lack of water.
5. Stones in the gallbladder were found by means of ultra-sound diagnostics.
6. Stones in the kidneys were diagnosed after examination.
7. The diet rich in fats can result in inflammation of the gallbladder.
8. Alcohol abuse is often a cause of inflammation of the pancreas.
9. A small stone blocking the passage provoked inflammation of the bile duct.
 CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEM

The circulatory system is the group of organs concerned with the

transportation of fluid from one part of the body to another. The organs of the
system are a series of tubular structures which convey the fluid for long
distances. The two parts of the system are the cardio-vascular and the lymphatic
systems.
The organs of the cardio-vascular system are the heart, arteries, veins and
capillaries. The heart is enclosed within the pericardium. The base of the heart is
directed backwards. The apex is directed forwards, downwards, and to the left.
The walls of the heart are made up of epicardium, myocardium and
endocardium.
 Veins enter the atria and arteries leave the ventricles. Valves keep the blood
flowing in the proper direction. These are the atrioventricular and the semilunar
valves. The arteries carry the blood away from the heart. The veins carry the blood
to the heart. The capillaries convey the blood from the arteries to the veins.
Exchanges between the blood and surrounding tissues spaces take place through
the capillary wall.
In the pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood is carried away from the
right ventricle, to the lungs, and then oxygenated blood passes to the left atrium
and ventricle of the heart.  Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle, into the aorta, from which it is distributed to all parts of the body,
and is then returned to the right heart. The fetal circulation differs from the adult
in the pulmonary and digestive circuits, and in its connections with the placenta.
The lymphatic system consists of networks of lymphatic capillaries which
collect lymph from the intercellular spaces, a system of vessels which eventually
connect with the venous system and lymph nodes. The spleen is the largest
collection of lymphoid tissues in the body. Lymphocytes are differentiated in the
spleen and erythrocytes are destroyed. The thymus consists of the lymphoid
tissue.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
circulatory циркуляційний, кровоносний
to concern with стосуватись, мати відношення
series of tubular structures ряд трубчастих структур
to convey fluid передавати, транспортувати рідину
capillary капіляр
pericardium перикард, навколосерцева сумка
directed backwards спрямований назад
directed forwards спрямований вперед
directed downwards спрямований вниз
epicardium епікард (зовнішня оболонка серця)
endocardium ендокард (внутрішня оболонка серця)
myocardium міокард (м’язева тканина серця)
ventricle шлуночок
valve клапан
atrioventricular передсердно-шлуночковий
semilunar півмісяцевий
surrounding tissue прилегла тканина
capillary wall стінка капіляра
pulmonary circulation мале коло кровообігу
systemic circulation велике коло кровообігу
oxygenated кисненасичений
deoxygenated позбавлений кисню
aorta аорта
fetal circulation кровообіг плода
to distribute розподіляти
placenta плацента
intercellular space міжклітинний простір
lymphatic system лімфатична система
lymphatic capillary лімфатичний капіляр
lymph node лімфатичний вузол
lymphoid tissue лімфоїдна тканина
spleen селезінка
erythrocyte еритроцит
lymphocyte лімфоцит
thymus зобна залоза, тимус

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What are the two parts of the circulatory system?
2. What are the organs of the cardio-vascular system?
3. Where is the heart enclosed?
4. Where is the base of the heart directed to?
5. What are the walls of the heart made of?
6. What are the functions of the arteries and veins?
7. What function do the valves perform?
8. What is the role of capillaries in circulation?
9. What is pulmonary circulation?
10.What is systemic circulation?
11.What is the difference between the fetal and the adult circulation?
12.What is the largest collection of lymphoid tissues in the body?
13.What does the lymphatic system consist of?

II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. The apex of the heart is directed upwards.
2. The walls of the heart are made of three layers of tissue.
3. The myocardium is an external layer of the heart.
4. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels.
5. The arteries carry the blood to the heart.
6. The veins distribute blood from the heart to the whole body.
7. Valves keep the blood flowing in the proper direction.
8. The atrioventricular and semilunar valves are the only valves in the cardio-
vascular system.
9. In the pulmonary circulation deoxygenated blood absorbs oxygen in the
lungs.
10.   Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the right ventricle, into
the aorta, from which it is distributed to all parts of the body.
11.The spleen is the largest collection of lymphoid tissues in the body.
12.Erythrocytes are produced in the spleen and lymphocytes are differentiated.
13.The lymphatic system consists of the network of lymphatic capillaries.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. The circulatory system is the group of organs…
2. The organs of the system are a series of…
3. The base of the heart is directed…
4. The apex of the heart is directed…
5. The walls of the heart are made up of…
6. The valves of the heart keep…
7. The arteries carry the blood…
8. The veins carry the blood…
9. The fetal circulation…
10. The spleen is the largest collection of…
11. The thymus consists of…
12. In the systemic circulation blood is distributed …

IV. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS

1. pericardium 6. aorta
2. endocardium 7. capillary
3. myocardium 8. artery
4. epicardium 9. vein
5. spleen 10. heart
a) an abdominal organ involved in the production and removal of blood cells in
most vertebrates and forming part of the immune system;
b) the membrane enclosing the heart, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and an
inner double layer of serous membrane;
c) a hollow muscular organ that pumps the blood through the circulatory system by
rhythmic contraction and dilation;
d) the muscular tissue of the heart;
e) the thin, smooth membrane that lines the inside of the chambers of the heart and
forms the surface of the valves;
f) any of the fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the
arterioles and venules;
g) a serous membrane that forms the innermost layer of the pericardium, attached
to the muscles of the wall of the heart;
h) the main artery of the body, supplying oxygenated blood to the circulatory
system;
i) any of the tubes forming part of the blood circulation system of the body,
carrying mainly oxygen-depleted blood towards the heart;
j) any of the blood vessels of the circulation system by which oxygenated blood is
conveyed from the heart to all parts of the body.

V. REWRITE THE SENTENCES USING SYNONYMS TO THE

WORDS IN BRACKETS FROM THE TEXT.
1. Blood circulates in two circuits, one is (supplying only the lungs), the other is
(supplying the rest of the body).
2. The main mass of the heart is formed by (its muscular tissue) lined internally by
the (thin, smooth membrane which lines the inside of the chambers of the heart)
and covered externally by the (serous membrane).
3. Exchanges between the blood and surrounding tissue spaces take place (via) the
capillary wall.
4. Valves keep the blood (stream) in the proper direction.
5. The apex (extends) downwards, forwards and to the left.
6. In the systemic circulation, the blood passes from the left side of the heart into
the (biggest arterial vessel), from which it is distributed (throughout) the body.
7. The spleen is the largest (accumulation) of lymphoid tissue in the body.

VI. DO YOU KNOW THAT (Read and translate a short text below.
What additional information have you got?)
You should differentiate between the words lymph, lymphatic and lymphoid
in order to use them appropriately
Lymphatic (system) is the network of vessels through which lymph drains from the
tissues into the blood.
Lymph node is each of a number of small swellings in the lymphatic system where
lymph is filtered and lymphocytes are formed.
Lymphoid tissue is responsible for the production of lymphocytes and antibodies.
It occurs as discrete organs, in the form of the lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and
spleen, and also as diffuse groups of cells not separated from surrounding tissue.

HEART
 The heart is the pump which keeps the blood in circulation through the
blood vessels and provides an adequate supply to all organs of the body. The
heart is a hollow, muscular, cone-shaped organ. The greater part of it is situated
in the left half of the thoracic cavity. The heart is about the size of a person’s fist
and weights about 350 g.
The cavity of the heart is divided longitudinally into two parts by a thick
septum. Each side contains two chambers. There are two atria and two ventricles.
The two largest veins, which carry venous blood from all parts of the body (except
the heart walls) empty into the right atrium. Four pulmonary veins which convey
arterial blood from the lungs to the heart open into the left atrium.
 The pulmonary trunk (pulmonary artery), through which venous blood
flows to the lungs, arises from the right ventricle. The largest arterial vessel, the
aorta, which carries arterial blood for the entire organism, arises from the left
ventricle.
Valves exist between the atria and the ventricles and between the ventricles and
the aorta and the pulmonary artery. The left atrioventricular valve has two cusps
and is termed the mitral valve. The right atrioventricular valve known as the
tricuspid valve has three cusps; so also have the aortic and pulmonary valves.
The heart lying in the thorax resembles an inverted cone. The superior aspect
of the heart, where the vessels enter, is called its base. The extremity of the
ventricles is termed the apex. The two atria and two ventricles of the heart lie side-
by-side. When the heart is beating, the atria contract simultaneously, then, after a
short pause, both ventricles contract. There is a longer pause during which time the
whole heart is in a state of relaxation.
The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, and such muscle has the inherent
property of rhythmicity. That is, the muscle fibers contract and relax alternately
in a rhythmical manner.
The heart lies in a conical sac known as the pericardium. This consists of an
inner serous pericardium and outer fibrous pericardium. The inner serous
pericardium is composed of two smooth layers, the visceral and parietal layers,
one attached to the heart and the other to the fibrous sac. These two smooth layers
allow the heart to beat in the mediastinum of the thorax with the minimum
friction.
The pericardium is attached to the diaphragm, and when the heart beats, it
behaves as if the apex were relatively fixed.
The heart beats continuously for the whole of a person’s life and its only rest is
after each contraction (systole), during diastole. When the heart rate speeds up as
it does in exercise or emotional excitement, it does so mainly at the expense of
diastole which becomes shorter.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
(to) pump качати, насос
to provide an adequate supply забезпечувати достатнє постачання
hollow порожнистий
cone-shaped конусоподібний
person’s fist кулак людини
longitudinally поздовжньо
thick septum щільна перегородка
chamber камера
atrium (pl. - atria) передсердя
to empty into впадати в
venous blood венозна кров
arterial blood артеріальна кров
to convey переносити
pulmonary trunk легеневий стовбур
pulmonary artery легенева артерія
pulmonary vein легенева вена
to arise from відходити, витікати
mitral valve мітральний, двостулковий клапан серця
tricuspid valve тристулковий клапан
cusp стулка
inverted cone перевернутий конус
extremity кінець, край, кінцівкa
to contract скорочуватись
inherent property вроджена властивість
rhythmicity ритмічність
simultaneously одночасно
alternately по черзі, поперемінно
in a rhythmical manner ритмічно
fibrous pericardium волокнистий/фіброзний перикард
serous pericardium серозний перикард
smooth layer гладкий шар/листок
visceral layer вісцеральний листок
parietal layer паріетальний листок
mediastinum середостіння
minimum friction мінімальне тертя
relatively fixed відносно зафіксований, закріплений
diastole діастола
systole систола
to speed up прискорювати(ся)
emotional excitement емоційне збудження
at the expense of за рахунок чогось/когось
Note: 1) serous ['sɪərəs] – cерозний; serious ['sɪərɪəs] – серйозний;
2) artery ['ɑːtərɪ] – артерія, atrium ['eɪtrɪəm] – передсердя;
3) artery – arterial [ɑː'tɪərɪəl]; vein – venous ['viːnəs];
4) lie (lay, lain) – лежати; lay (laid, laid) – покласти.
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of the heart?
2. What is the size of the heart?
3. How does the heart work?
4. Where is the heart situated?
5. How many chambers does the heart consist of?
6. What blood do pulmonary veins carry?
7. What blood is conveyed by the pulmonary trunk?
8. Where do valves exist?
9. What is the name of the left atrioventricular valve? How many cusps doe it
contain?
10.How many cusps does the right atrioventricular valve have?
11. How is the heart beating?
12.What is the structure and function of the pericardium?
13.What happens when the heart rate speeds up?
 II. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES
1. The heart is the pump which keeps the blood in circulation…
2. The heart is about the size…
3. The cavity of the heart is divided longitudinally into…
4. Valves exist between the atria and the ventricles and…
5. The heart pumps the blood round two circuits…
6. The heart beats continuously for the whole of a person’s life and its only rest
is…
7. The heart lies in a conical sac known as…
8. The heart is composed of…
9. The largest arterial vessel, the aorta, which carries…
10.Blood flows into the right atrium from…

III. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS

1. valve 6. atrium
2. apex 7. ventricle
3. base 8. systole
4. septum 9. diastole
5. cusp 10. mediastinum

a) flaps (leaflets) that act as one-way inlets for blood coming into a ventricle
and one-way outlets for blood leaving a ventricle;
b) the tip of the left ventricle, opposite the base of the heart directed downward,
forward, and to the left;
c) a pocket or fold in the wall of the heart or a major blood vessel that fills and
distends if the blood flows backwards, so forming part of a valve;
d) that part of the heart that lies opposite the apex, formed mainly by the left
atrium but to a small extent by the posterior part of the right atrium; it is
directed backward;
e) a partition separating two chambers, such as the chambers of the heart; 
f) a division of the thoracic cavity containing the heart, thymus gland, portions
of the esophagus and trachea, and other structures;
g) the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood
from the chambers into the arteries;
h) each of the two upper cavities of the heart from which blood is passed to the
ventricles;
i) the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the
chambers to fill with blood;
j) a part of the heart that pumps blood to the arteries.

IV. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH THE NECESSARY

WORDS FROM THE TEXT AND TRANSLATE THE THEM
1. Assuring (достатнє постачання/забезпечення) of cadaveric organs will
help to solve urgent issues of transplantology.
2. Living things cannot (існувати) without oxygen.
3. The two brothers (схожі) their father in character.
4. We must stand (поруч) in this trouble and help each other.
5. He clenched his (кулаки) with anger.
6. The rain (бився) against the windows the whole night.
7. Reading books is a kind of (полегшення, розрядка) for my mind.
8. He was very much (прив’язаний) to her.
9. There'll probably be some (розбіжності, тертя) with the administration.
10. (Емоційні збудження) is contraindicated for this patient.
11.If you go mountain climbing without proper training, you can do it only (за
рахунок) your health.

V. FILL IN THE MISSING WORDS IN THE TEXT BELOW.

CHOOSE FROM THE FOLLOWING
Arteries, atria, beats, chambers, close, contraction, cusps, heart, pulse, pump,
 pumping, relaxation, systemic, valves, veins, vessels, wall, wrist

The heart is a … with four …, two ventricles and two … . The left ventricle has
a much thicker … than the right one because it is responsible for … blood
around the … circulatory system. Blood is forced round the system by …
(systole) and … (diastole) of the heart. Each minute the heart … about 72 times.
This is known as the … rate and can be measured in the radial artery in the … .
Blood travels round the body through the blood … . The … carry blood from
the heart to all parts of the body while blood returns to the heart in … . The
pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the …, while the aorta carries
blood to all parts of the body from the … . The pulmonary and aortic … control
the exits from the ventricles. Each one has three …, except the mitral one. The
sound of the heart is heard when they … .
What additional information have you got from the text?

HEART ATTACK (INFARCTION)

 A heart attack is an injury
to the heart muscle caused by a loss of blood supply. It usually occurs when a
blood clot blocks the flow of blood through a coronary artery – a blood vessel
that feeds blood to a part of the heart muscle. Interrupted blood flow to your
heart can damage or destroy a part of the heart muscle.
Heart attacks have many variable sign and symptoms. Not all people who
have heart attacks experience the same ones or experience them to the same
degree. Many heart attacks aren’t as dramatic as the ones you’ve seen on TV or in
the movies.
For example, heart attack symptoms in women, in older adults and in
people with diabetes tend to be less pronounced. Some people have no symptoms
at all. Still, the more signs and symptoms you have, the greater the likelihood that
you may be having a heart attack.
Warning signs and symptoms of a heart attack include:
  Pressure, fullness or a squeezing pain in the center of your chest that
lasts for more than a few minutes
 Pain extending beyond your chest to your shoulder, arm, back, or even
to your teeth and jaw
 Increasing episodes of chest pain
 Prolonged pain in the upper abdomen
 Shortness of breath
 Sweating
 Impending sense of doom
 Dizziness
 Fainting
 Nausea and vomiting
A heart attack can occur anytime – at work or play, while you’re resting, or
while you’re in motion. Some heart attacks strike suddenly, but many people who
experience a heart attack have warning signs and symptoms hours, days or weeks
in advance. The earliest predictor of a heart attack may be recurrent chest pain
(angina) that’s triggered by exertion and relieved by rest. Angina is caused by
temporary, insufficient blood flow to the heart. The medical term for insufficient
blood flow to the heart is “cardiac ischemia”.
Certain factors, called coronary risk factors, increase your risk of a heart
attack. These factors contribute to the unwanted buildup of deposits
(artherosclerosis) that narrows arteries throughout your body, including arteries
to your heart. Coronary risk factors include: tobacco smoking, high blood pressure,
high blood cholesterol, lack of physical activity, obesity, diabetes, stress, alcohol,
family history of heart attack.
Years ago, a heart attack was often fatal. But today, thanks to better
awareness of signs and symptoms and improved treatments, the vast majority of
people who have a heart attack survive.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
heart attack серцевий напад, інфаркт
loss of blood supply втрата кровопостачання
blood clot кров’яний згусток, тромб
coronary artery вінцева аретрія
to feed blood забезпечувати кров’ю
variable signs різноманітні ознаки
to experience переживати, переносити
pronounced явний, певний, різко виражений
likelihood імовірність
warning sign попереджуюча, застережлива ознака
pressure стиснення
fullness відчуття наповнення
squeezing pain стискаючий біль
extending pain біль, що поширюється/сягає меж
prolonged pain тривалий біль
shortness of breath задишка
sweating потіння
impending sense of doom неминуче відчуття кончини
dizziness запаморочення
fainting непритомність
in motion в русі
to strike suddenly раптово вражати
in advance заздалегідь
predictor передвісник
recurrent chest pain періодичний/рецидивний/рекурентний
біль у грудях
angina стенокардія
to trigger ініціювати, викликати, приводити в дію
exertion напруження, зусилля
to relieve pain полегшувати біль
temporary тимчасовий
insufficient blood flow недостатній кровотік
cardiac ischemia серцева ішемія
coronary risk factor вінцеві/коронарні чинники ризику
unwanted buildup небажані нагромадження, накопичення
deposit відкладення, відстій, осад
to narrow artery звужувати артерію
lack of physical activity нестача/брак фізичної активності
fatal смертельний, фатальний
awareness обізнаність
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What is a heart attack?
2. What blood vessel supplies blood to the heart?
3. What is the main cause of a heart attack?
4. What are possible signs and symptoms of heart attacks?
5. Who has less pronounced signs and symptoms of a heart attack?
6. What are the warning signs and symptoms of a heart attack?
7. When can a heart attack occur?
8. What may be the earliest predictor of a heart attack?
9. What is angina caused by?
10.What is the medical term for insufficient blood flow?
11.What factors increase risk of a heart attack?
12.What do coronary risk factors include?
13.Is a heart attack always fatal nowadays?

II. MATCH THE FOLLOWING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS:

Injury неминуче відчуття смерті
Blood clot руйнувати
Variable тривалий біль
Likelihood ушкодження
 Prolonged pain високий кров’яний тиск
Shortness of breath відчувати, переносити
Impending sense of doom тромб
Experience різноманітний
Contribute пошкоджувати
Family history задишка
Damage сприяти
Destroy блокувати потік
High blood pressure ймовірність
Block the flow сімейний анамнез

III. INSERT THE NECESSARY WORDS OR PHRASES:

1. The earliest predictor of an attack may be … pain that’s … by exertion
and relieved by … .
2. Coronary risk factors ……. to the unwanted buildup of … .
3. A heart attack usually … when a … blocks the flow of blood
through a … .
4. Interrupted blood flow to your heart can … a part of the heart muscle.
5. Many people who … a heart attack have warning signs and symptoms
hours, days or weeks in advance.
6. The medical term for insufficient blood flow to the heart is “ … “.
7. During heart attacks people can experience pain extending beyond the chest
to the shoulder, … .
8. A heart attack can occur anytime – at work or … .
9. Unwanted buildup of deposits (artherosclerosis) … throughout your body,
including arteries to your heart.
10.Today, thanks to …, the majority of people who have a heart attack survive.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE (only one option is correct)

1. Heart attacks …
 a) are always fatal
b) have variable signs and symptoms
c) can result in atherosclerosis
2. Coronary artery is … that supplies blood to the heart muscle.
a) muscular tissue
b) blocked by unwanted deposits
c) a blood vessel
3. Less pronounced heart attack symptoms are observed in …
a) young people
b) people with diabetes and older ones
c) people with family history of a heart attack
4. Pressure and fullness in the chest, dizziness, shortness of breath may be…
a) coronary risk factors
b) predictors of cardiac ischemia
c) warning signs of a heart attack
5. Recurrent chest pain is termed …
a) cardiac ischemia
b) angina
c) atherosclerosis
6. Insufficient blood flow to the heart is known as …
a) cardiac ischemia
b) angina
c) atherosclerosis
7. Unwanted buildup of deposits in the arteries is known as …
a) cardiac ischemia
b) angina
c) atherosclerosis
8. Unwanted buildup of deposits …, including arteries to the heart.
a) narrows arteries throughout the body
b) are warning signs of a heart attack
 c) damage the heart muscle
9. Tobacco smoking, high blood pressure, lack of physical activity, obesity,
diabetes, stress are …
a) the earliest predictors of a heart attack
b) warning signs and symptoms of a heart attack
c) coronary risk factors
10.Nowadays the majority of people who have a heart attack survive …
a) because they lead a healthy lifestyle
b) because they take medicines regularly
c) due to better awareness and improved treatment of heart diseases

V. TRY TO FIND THE APPROPRIATE WORD DESCRIBING HEART

AND BLOOD DISORDERS
1. Irregularities in the heartbeat a) exertion
2. Coronary heart disease is due to … b) infarction
supply of blood to the heart
3. A healthy heart has 60-100 of these a c) pulse
minute
4. Atherosclerosis is a buildup of fatty… d) arrhythmia
5. A completely new heart! e) narrowing
6. Insufficient … and smoking can f) deposits
contribute to heart diseases
7. Chest pain caused by angina g) beats
sometimes … down the arms
8. Complete stoppage of the heartbeat h) arrest
9. Inflammation of the heart muscle i) radiates
10.Death of a part of the heart muscle j) myocarditis
due to lack of blood supply
11.Angina chest pains are usually k) insufficient
provoked by …
12.Blood cells collected on one site of l) transplant
the vessels form this.
13.The opposite of widening. m) physical activity
14.Tachycardia is a rapid … n) clot
 THE BLOOD

Blood is a liquid connective tissue composed of red blood cells

(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). It is
the conveying system of the body. Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells,
removes carbon dioxide and products of cellular metabolism, and transports
hormones and antibodies to various locations. The total volume of blood is about
one-twelfth of the body weight or about 5 liters. Approximately 55 per cent of it is
fluid, and the remaining 45 per cent is made up of red blood cells. This figure is
described as the hematocrit (HCT) or packed cell volume.
A glass tube and a centrifuge machine are sufficient to measure HCT.
After centrifugation, the components of blood separate into three distinct layers.
The layer of red blood cells (RBC) is on the bottom, the layer of white blood cells
(WBC) and platelets in the middle, and the layer of plasma at the top.
Erythrocytes are red blood cells. These cells are produced in the bone
marrow and are important in transporting oxygen from the lungs through the
blood stream to the cells all over the body. Erythrocytes contain an oxygen-
carrying compound called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex protein
containing iron. The amount of hemoglobin present in normal blood is about 15 g
per 100 ml blood. A deficiency in the number of red cells and/or in the amount of
the hemoglobin contained in them is called anemia.
 Leukocytes are white blood cells. They are transparent and colorless and
they are larger and fewer than the red cells. Leukocytes are part of the body's
immune system. They help the body fight infection, absorb foreign bodies, kill
harmful bacteria and prevent many diseases. The types of leukocytes are:
granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils), monocytes and
lymphocytes (T-cells and B-cells).
Blood platelets or thrombocytes are small, round cellular fragments that are
vital for normal blood clotting. Platelet function tests indirectly evaluate how
well a person's platelets work in helping to stop bleeding within the body. Platelets
are about one-third the size of a red blood cell. They are formed in the bone
marrow.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
erythrocyte еритроцит
leukocyte лейкоцит
platelet тромбоцит
conveying system транспортна система
to remove carbon dioxide усувати вуглекислий газ
to transport hormones транспортувати гормони
antibody антитіло
total volume сукупний/загальний об’єм
hematocrit/packed cell volume гематокритне число, об’єм осаджених
еритроцитів, гематокрит
glass tube скляна пробірка
centrifuge machine центрифуга
sufficient достатній, обґрунтований, належний
on the bottom на дні
at the top на верху
bone marrow кістковий мозок
oxygen-carrying compound сполука, що переносить кисень
complex protein складний додаток
to contain iron містити залізо
deficiency недостача, нестача, дефіцит
transparent прозорий, такий, що просвічує
colorless безбарвний
to fight infection боротись з інфекцією
to absorb foreign bodies поглинати чужорідні тіла
harmful bacterium (pl. -a) шкідлива бактерія
granulocytes гранулоцит, зернистий лейкоцит
neutrophils нейтрофіл, нейтрофільний лейкоцит
eosinophils еозинофільний
гранулоцит/лейкоцит
basophils базофільний лейкоцит/клітина, базофіл
monocytes моноцит
lymphocytes лімфоцит
cellular fragment клітинний фрагмент
blood clotting згортання крові
platelet function tests функція тромбоцитів
to evaluate оцінювати, давати оцінку
to stop bleeding припинити кровотечу
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What kind of tissue is blood?
2. What is the blood composed of?
3. What are the functions of the blood?
4. What is the total volume of the blood in the human body?
5. What is hematocrit?
6. What are the three blood layers? How are they distributed in the tube and
why?
7. What is the main compound of erythrocytes?
8. What kind of substance is hemoglobin?
9. Where are the red cells formed in?
10.What are the properties of leukocytes?
11.What are the types of leukocytes?
12.What is the role of platelets?
13.Where are the blood cells manufactured?
14.What are the largest and the smallest blood cells?

II. INSERT PREPOSITIONS OR ADVERBS WHERE NECESSARY

(Keys: of, into, for, on, at, about, through, from, by, to, in)
1. Platelets are necessary … normal blood clotting.
2. Blood is a liquid connective tissue composed … different kinds of cells.
3. After centrifugation the red blood cells are found … the bottom.
4. The total volume of blood is … one-twelfth of the body weight.
5. Erythrocytes contain … an oxygen-carrying compound called hemoglobin.
6. After centrifugation, the components of blood separate … three distinct
layers.
7. The layer of plasma can be seen … the top of a glass tube … centrifugation.
8. Erythrocytes transport oxygen … the lungs … the blood stream … the cells
all over the body.
9. Leukocytes help the body … fight infection.
10.Platelet function tests evaluate how well a person's platelets work … helping
to stop bleeding … the body.

III. TRUE OR FALSE

1. Platelets are the smallest of the three major types of blood cells. 
2. Red blood cells, most white blood cells, and platelets are produced in the
bone marrow.
3. Erythrocytes are the biggest blood cells.
4. The total volume of blood is about 55% of the body weight.
5. In fact, hematocrit is the volume of red blood cells.
6. We can see three layers of blood in a tube any time blood is taken for test.
 7. Red blood cells are the heaviest therefore they sink to the bottom.
8. Plasma forms an intermediate layer in the test tube.
9. Hemoglobin is an oxygen-carrying compound.
10.Increased amount of hemoglobin is called anemia.
11.Leukocytes, white blood cells, are white in color.
12.The main function of leukocytes is to fight infection and various diseases.
13.Platelets react to bleeding by clumping, thereby initiating blood clot
formation.
IV. BLOOD TEST
Here there is an example of blood lab report. Read it using full forms of
abbreviations and translate into Ukrainian
Value Range Unit
Full blood count (FBC)
Hemoglobin (Hb) 143 115-165 g/L
Hematocrit (HCT) 0.224 0.37-0.47 L/L
Mean cell volume (MCV) 72.5 78.0-98.0 fL
White cell count (WCC) 7.4 4.0-11.0 109/L
ESR 15 0-20 mm/hr

Note: 1) MCV – середній об’єм еритроцитів;

2) ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate – швидкість осідання еритроцитів). The
normal range is 0 to 22 mm/hr for men and 0 to 29 mm/hr for women;
3) Unit abbreviations: g/L – grams per liter; L/L – liters per liter; 109/L – times ten
to the power nine per liter; fL – femtoliters (used in units of measurement)
denoting a factor of 10-15 (утворює назву одиниць зі значенням 10- 15); mm/hr –
millimeters per hour;
4) Terms used to describe lab results are the following. In case the results are
above the normal levels doctors say “up, high, elevated, or raised”. If the results
are below normal level doctors say “down, low, or reduced”. When the results are
within the normal range doctors say “within normal limits, normal, or
unremarkable”.
BLOOD GROUPS

When a moderate hemorrhage occurs (up to 1 liter loss) the red cells are
replaced during the subsequent weeks and all that is needed is that the diet should
provide an adequate intake of iron. With a larger hemorrhage, and particularly
when the hemoglobin percentage has fallen to below 40 per cent, blood
transfusion is indicated.
If blood of an incompatible group is transfused, the cells of the given blood
agglutinate, they stick together to form clumps of red cells. Such agglutination
may have severe consequences: shock, kidney failure, circulatory collapse, and
death. Until 1900 human blood transfusions often had fatal results. Then Karl
Landsteiner (1868-1943), an Austrian biologist, physician and immunologist,
introduced the concept of blood groups, which forms the basis of modern
classification of blood groups.
The principal blood group system is based on the presence or absence of two
mucopolysaccharides known as agglutinogens, surface antigens on the
erythrocytes. These agglutinogens are termed A and B. Anyone with agglutinogen
A on all his red cells is classified as belonging to blood group A. Those with
agglutinogen B belong to group B. Those with both, A and B, belong to group AB.
Those with neither A nor B belong to group 0 (usually pronounced as letter O
rather than figure nought or zero). These blood groups are inherited from one’s
parents according to the Mendelian laws (the principles originally proposed
by Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), an Austrian biologist, in 1865 and 1866).
Agglutinogens A and B are dominants, 0 is recessive.
To safeguard against agglutination it is desirable during transfusion to give
the patient blood of the same group as his own. If this is not possible then blood
may be used that will not lead to an agglutination reaction between the donor’s
cells and the recipient’s plasma.
Thus, if the necessary group is not available, group 0 blood may be given to
any of the other three groups. Group 0 is known as “universal donor blood”.
Blood of A and B groups may be given to AB but not to 0. AB blood can only be
used for a transfusion to an AB recipient. An AB patient can receive blood from
any group and is known as a “universal recipient”. The overall distribution of
ABO and Rh (D) groups in the population studied is as follows: O – 61.82%; A –
27.44%; B – 8.93%; and AB – 1.81%.
In addition to blood groups the Rhesus factor, or Rh factor, is distinguished.
It is a certain type of protein found on the outside of blood cells. People are either
Rh-positive (they have the protein) or Rh-negative (they do not have the protein).
The designation Rh is derived from the use of the blood of rhesus monkeys in the
basic test for determining the presence of the Rh antigen in human blood. Rh factor
was discovered in 1940 by K. Landsteiner and A. S. Wiener (1907-1976), an
American immunogenetics.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
hemorrhage кровотеча, крововилив
subsequent weeks наступні тижні
adequate intake of iron достатнє споживання заліза
blood transfusion переливання крові
compatible group сумісна група
incompatible group несумісна група
to agglutinate аглютинувати, склеювати
to stick (stuck, stuck) склеюватися, зліплюватися
to form clumps формувати згустки
severe consequences важкі наслідки
kidney failure ниркова недостатність
circulatory collapse судинна недостатність
to introduce the concept запропонувати концепцію
mucopolysaccharide мукополісахарид
agglutinogen аглютиноген
surface antigen поверхневий антиген
to safeguard against запобігати, захищати
desirable бажаний, підходящий
donor донор
recipient реципієнт, одержувач
universal універсальний
distribution розподіл
to distinguish відрізняти, розрізняти
designation  знак, позначення, назва

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is a moderate hemorrhage and how can it be replaced?
2. When is blood transfusion indicated?
3. What are the consequences of an incompatible group transfusion?
4. Who introduced the concept of blood groups?
5. What is the principal blood group system based on?
6. What is the nature of agglutinogens?
7. What is the principle of distribution into the blood groups?
 8. What does your blood group depend on?
9. How to safeguard against agglutination?
10.What group is known as “universal donor blood”?
11.What group is known as “universal recipient”?
12.What is distribution of blood groups among the population?
13.What is Rhesus factor and how is it distinguished?

II. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS

1.hemorrhage a) condition when kidneys lose their
ability to sufficiently filter wastes from
blood
2. mucopolysaccharides b) a person who provides blood, an
organ, or semen for transplantation,
transfusion, etc.
3. kidney failure c) a red protein responsible for
transporting oxygen in the blood of
vertebrates
4. circulatory collapse d) an acute medical condition associated
with a fall in blood pressure, caused by
such events as loss of blood, severe
burns, allergic reaction, or sudden
emotional stress
5. donor e) bleeding or blood loss, when blood is
escaping from the circulatory system
from damaged blood vessels
6. recipient f) abnormally low blood pressure
resulting in collapsed arteries and/or
veins, leading to oxygen deprivation to
tissues, organs, and limbs
7. hemoglobin g) long chains of sugar molecules that
 are found throughout the body
8. shock h) the colourless fluid part of blood,
lymph, or milk, in which corpuscles or
fat globules are suspended
9. plasma i) a person or thing that receives or is
awarded something

III. FILL IN THE NECESSARY WORDS FROM THE TEXT AND

TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES
1. (Достатнє споживання) of carbohydrates, fats and vitamins is essential in
the diet.
2. (Наступні тижні) will be especially difficult for students as they are
having exams.
3. Uncontrolled use of medicines may lead to simultaneous use of (несумісні)
drugs, and it can result in (важкі наслідки).
4. A severe earthquake struck the area bringing (фатальні результати).
5. Aristocracy titles are still (успадковуються) in Great Britain.
6. This medicine will (захистить) you against a relapse of the disease.
7. It is (бажано) that you should be there at two o'clock.
8. This book is in great demand. It is not (доступна).
9. Members of the expert board were paid a small allowance (крім) their
normal salary.
IV. TASK FOR THE CURIOUS
The names of prominent scientists Karl Landsteiner and Gregor Johann Mendel are
mentioned in the text. What do you know about them? Here there are some
interesting facts from their biography. Guess in whose life it happened.
1.  In 1930, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. 
2. Being a student at the University of Vienna he published an essay on the
influence of diets on the composition of blood.
3. He was a scientist, meteorologist, mathematician, biologist, and abbot of St.
Thomas' Abbey in Brno (Czech Republic now).
4. He worked as a prosector in one of the hospitals in Vienna for about 12
years, and during that time he isolated the polio virus and discovered an
infectious character of poliomyelitis.
5. He gained posthumous recognition as the founder of the modern science
of genetics.
6. In the 1920s he worked on the problems of immunity and allergy at the
Rockefeller Institute in New York.
7. During his childhood, he worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping. He
carried out experiments and studied characteristics of pea plants important
for agriculture.
8. He became a monk in part because it enabled him to obtain an education
without having to pay for it himself.
 LEUKEMIA

Leukemia, which is regarded as a carcinogenic condition, is characterized

by an overproduction of leukocytes. It is classified, according to the type of
leukocytes affected, as lymphoid leukemia or myeloid leukemia. The condition
may be either acute or chronic according to its advance. The disease may occur at
any age. The acute forms are most common in children and young adults.
Although there is still no cure, the outlook in both acute and chronic leukemia has
changed considerably for the better as regards the period of survival.
The onset of acute leukemia may be in the form of infection or severe
hemorrhage following surgery or tooth extraction. The onset of chronic leukemia
is gradual. Generally there is raised temperature (a slight degree of fever). Patients
suffering from leukemia show pallor, and enlargement of the lymph nodes and
spleen. There are occasional hemorrhages from the nose, stomach, gums, or
bowels. Diarrhea also may become very troublesome. Progressive generalized
weakness and loss of weight are symptoms suggestive of malignancy.
The diagnosis is made from examination of the peripheral blood and bone
marrow. When the blood is examined microscopically, there is generally not only
an enormous increase of the white blood cells but also various forms of
immature or blast cells are found. The platelet count may be as low as 500 per
cu. mm in the severe forms of the disease. Anemia is also invariably present. The
diagnosis is confirmed by a bone marrow biopsy showing a marked increase in
blast cells.
Leukemia can be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental
factors. Risk factors include ionizing radiation, chemicals, prior chemotherapy.
People with a family history are at higher risk as well. Treatment consists of some
combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy and bone marrow transplant.
The success of treatment depends on the type of leukemia and the age of the
person. Outcomes have improved in recent years. In children under 15 the five-
year survival rate ranges from 60% to 90% depending on the type of the disease.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
carcinogenic condition канцерогенний стан
overproduction надмірне вироблення
lymphoid leukemia лімфоїдний лейкоз
myeloid leukemia мієлоїдний лейкоз
advance of disease прогресування (хвороби)
outlook точка зору, погляд
as regards що стосується
onset початок (захворювання)
tooth extraction видалення зуба
gradual поступовий
pallor блідість
bowels кишечник, травний тракт
troublesome болісний, важкий
generalized weakness загальна слабкість
loss of weight втрата ваги
suggestive of який наводить на роздуми, який нагадує
malignancy злоякісність
enormous increase жахливе/величезне зростання
immature/blast cells незрілі/недиференційовані клітини
platelet count рівень тромбоцитів
invariably незмінно
marked increase помітне зростання/збільшення
environmental factors чинники зовнішнього середовища
ionizing radiation іонізуюче випромінювання
chemicals хімічні речовини, хімікати
prior chemotherapy попередня хіміотерапія
bone marrow transplant трансплантація кісткового мозку
outcome результат, наслідок, вихід з хвороби
survival rate рівень виживаності
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What is leukemia?
2. What is leukemia characterized by?
3. How is this disease classified according to the type of leukocytes affected?
4. What are the types of the disease according to its advance?
5. What age may leukemia occur?
6. What forms are most common in children?
7. What is the onset of acute leukemia?
8. What is the onset of chronic leukemia?
9. What are the symptoms and signs of this disease?
10.How is the diagnosis made?
11.How is the diagnosis confirmed?
12.What are risk factors of leukemia?
 13.What does the success of treatment depend on?

II. USE THE WORDS IN ITALICS TO BUILD DERIVATIVES

1. Most skin cancers are completely … if detected in the early cure

stages.
2. Smoking is his … habit. cure
3. Do you believe in … after death? survive
4. Usually little children are afraid of tooth … . extract
5. Every morning she makes fresh drinks by means of juice … . extract
6. Often … of photographs reveal important changes undetected large
by the naked eye.
7. Crying is a sign of … . weak
8. … anatomy studies tiny structures of the human body. microscope
9. Viruses and bacteria can be seen only … . microscope
10. Everyone was shocked by his … death. mature
11. I think you have found a perfect color … . combine
III. USE OF SYNONYMS
The following words seem to be synonyms, but in fact their use is rater
specific. Mind the sphere of their use and do the task below.
- Onset = beginning = start (початок, напад, натиск, старт)
- Outcome = result = consequence (результат, наслідок, вихід)
- Advance = progress = improvement (просування вперед, прогрес,
досягнення, успіх)
Translate the following collocations: 1) onset of disease, onset of wind, sudden
onset; from beginning to end, the beginning of the book / lecture / lesson, since the
beginning of time; start in life, from start to finish, promising start;
2) outcome of disease, favorable / unfavorable outcome, outcome of elections; to
achieve results, final results, negative / positive results; fateful / grave / serious
consequences; unforeseeable / unforeseen consequences;
3) great advance, advance of disease, to advance furniture, advance of storm /
enemy; economic / scientific / human / slow / rapid progress, to make progress;
distinct / marked / substantial / stable improvement, improvement in work,
improvement of patient’s condition.
Fill in the necessary word:
1. This new edition of our dictionary is an … over the previous one.
2. A good … is half the battle, a good … makes a good ending.
3. The … of the election was unpredictable.
4. After strict quarantine we hope for a radical … in the epidemiological
situation.
5. The team of surgeons is sure that complicated surgery will have favorable …
6. The … of the disease was fulminant.
7. He has been working hard to obtain good … at the final exams.
8. Due to latest discoveries modern science has made a great … in many
spheres of life.
9. His grandfather has given him a … in life.
10.A severe earthquake has led to tragic … in the country.
 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration is a chemical reaction that occurs in all living cells, including

plant cells and animal cells. It is the way that energy is released from glucose so
that all the other chemical processes needed for life can be realized. Do not
confuse respiration with breathing (which is properly called ventilation).
In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside
environment to the cells within tissues, and the removal of carbon dioxide and
other waste products from the tissues. Proper functioning of the respiratory system
is perhaps the single most important factor in the sustaining of life. Interruption
of breathing for only a few minutes by suffocation or strangulation causes death.
Inhaled air contains about 20% oxygen and four hundredths of 1% carbon
dioxide. Exhaled air consists of approximately 16 % oxygen and 4% carbon
dioxide. Nitrogen which makes up about 79% of the atmosphere is not involved in
the breathing process. When air is inhaled into the lungs, a portion of oxygen is
passing into the blood and is being circulated through the body. At the same time,
carbon dioxide is being diffused out of the blood into the lungs and exhaled.
Air is breathed through either the mouth or nose into the oral cavity, or
pharynx. It then passes through the voice box, or larynx, into the windpipe, or
trachea. The trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called bronchi one is going to
each lung. The bronchi are divided into tiny passageways that are named
bronchioles, which lead to minute air sacs, or alveoli. These multiple-
branched bronchi form a bronchial tree. The respiratory tract is lined with the
layer of mucus constantly moved by cilia.
The diaphragm contracts and flattens, contributing to the extension of the
vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity and raising the ribs. Air is constantly
renewing in the lungs. The capacity of the air passages is increasing. Any
muscular effort, for example, even standing up, increases the number of breaths.
A person's respiratory rate is the number of breaths you take per minute.
The normal respiratory rate for an adult at rest is 12 to 20 breaths per minute.
A respiratory rate under 12 or over 25 breaths per minute while resting is
considered abnormal.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
respiration дихання
to release energy вивільнювати енергію
to breathe дихати
breathing дихання, придих, зітхання
breath подих;повітря,що вдихається, видихається
ventilation вентиляція, насичення крові киснем, провітрювання
to sustain life підтримувати життя
interruption тимчасове припинення, втручання, вторгнення
suffocation асфіксія, удушення (зсередини)
strangulation затискування, защемлення, удушення (зовні)
inhaled air повітря, що вдихається
exhaled air повітря, що видихається
nitrogen азот
to diffuse розсіювати, дифундувати
windpipe трахея
voice box гортань
bronchus (pl. - i) бронх (бронхи)
alveolus (pl. - i) альвеола (альвеоли)
multiple-branched сильно розгалужені
bronchial tree бронхіальне дерево
to line with вистеляти
mucus слиз
cilium (pl. - a) війка, джгутик
tiny passageway крихітний прохід, канал
minute air sac крихітний повітряний мішечок
bronchiole бронхіола
to flatten розгладжувати(ся), вирівнювати(ся)
to contribute to сприяти, робити внесок
extension розширення, подовження, розтягнення
vertical diameter вертикальний діаметр
to raise ribs піднімати ребра
to renew оновлювати(ся)
muscular effort м’язове зусилля
respiratory rate інтенсивність/швидкість дихання
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What kind of process if respiration?
2. What is respiration from physiological point of view?
3. Why is respiration valuable for living things and humans in particular?
4. What are consequences of interruption of breathing?
 5. What is the content of inhaled air?
6. What is the content of exhaled air?
7. What is the role of nitrogen in the process of breathing?
8. What is the way air passes through the respiratory tract?
9. What are bronchi?
10.What do bronchi form?
11.What is the role of diaphragm in the process of breathing?
12.What is a person’s respiratory rate?
13.What values are considered normal/abnormal respiratory rate?

II. VOCABULARY WORK

Fill in the table with missing words (you should review the previous topic
“Structure of the Human Body”)
Medical/Anatomical term Ordinary English name
Larynx
Windpipe
Throat
Cranium
Clavicle
Lower jaw
Maxilla
Shoulder blade
Femur
Spine
Breastbone
Thorax

III. MULTIPLE CHOICE (only one option is correct)

1. Respiration and breathing …
a) are similar processes
 b) constitute chemical reactions
c) mean different processes
2. During respiration energy is released …
a) from the tissues
b) from glucose to maintain chemical processes
c) to remove carbon dioxide
3. Suffocation is …
a) the act of killing someone by squeezing the throat tightly to prevent
breathing
b) cessation of breathing as a result of drowning, obstruction by a foreign
body ets. (asphyxia)
c) interruption of breathing
4. Strangulation is …
a) the act of killing someone by squeezing the throat tightly to prevent
breathing
b) cessation of breathing as a result of drowning, obstruction by a foreign
body ets. (asphyxia)
c) interruption of breathing
5. Nitrogen is a gas …
a) very important for respiration
b) constituting the largest portion of the atmosphere
c) very harmful for living things
6. Exhaled air contains less oxygen because…
a) oxygen is lost while breathing
b) carbon dioxide is very aggressive
c) a part of it is absorbed by the tissues during respiration
7. Larynx is a part of the respiratory tract…
a) branching into bronchi
b) located between the pharynx and trachea containing vocal cords
c) named windpipe
 8. Bronchioles are …
a) minute air sacs
b) tiny passageways the bronchi are divided into
c) both options are correct
9. In addition to its participation in the breathing process the diaphragm …
a) is a muscular organ separating the thorax from the abdomen in mammals
b) regulates the movement of ribs
c) does not let air penetrate into the abdomen
10.A person's respiratory rate is…
a) the number of breaths you take per minute
b) felt on the radial arteries
c) measured by means of a stethoscope

IV. FILL IN THE NECESSARY WORDS FROM THE TEXT AND

TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES (mind the multiple-meaning of words)
Keys: contribute, effort, release, capacity, tiny, single, removal, diffuse,
environment, minute, raise, involve, renew

1. She (була звільнена) from her job due to failure in duties.

2. Foreign students experience certain difficulties to adjust to a new
(оточення, довкілля).
3. This solution is very effective for (видалення, виведення) of stains from
clothes.
4. Ukrainian education system provides (єдині) standards for both Ukrainian
and foreign students.
5. The great old fortress on the hill was (огорнений, покритий) in mist.
6. He suffers from (розсіяний) sclerosis.
7. This device is able to measure very (незначні, найменші) changes of
temperature.
8. The summer evening was warm and silent, and you could hardly notice
(ледь помітні) movements of leaves on the trees.
9. Public opinion can (робити внесок, сприяти) to government decisions.
10. I'm proud of being able to (вирощувати) these beautiful flowers from
seeds.
11.The delegated (відновили, знову розпочали) their discussion after a short
break.
12. Minimal (зусилля) are required to finish this work.
13.Her (зданість) for giving care, love and attention to children seems to be
unlimited.
 LUNGS

Lungs are a pair of organs which are situated in the chest. They fulfill very
important function of vital activity known as respiration. Our lungs are conical in
shape. Their apexes project into the neck and their bases rest upon the
diaphragm. There is an anterior border behind the middle of the breastbone. There
the outer and inner surface meet and borders of the two lungs touch one another.
The right lung contains three lobes and the left has two lobes. The right lung is
bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the heart. The weight of
the both lungs is approximately 1.3 kilograms. Together the lungs contain about
500 million alveoli.
Each lung is enclosed in a pleural membrane or the pleura. It has two
layers which form the pleural cavity. This cavity is in the natural state a merely
potential space. One can see a thin layer of fluid between the two layers of the
pleural membrane. It enables them to glide with very little friction over one
another.
 The lungs expand and retract in breathing. The color of the lungs in
children is rosy-pink but adults they may be grey, dark grey or black. It is due to
deposits of dust and smoke in the lymph spaces.
During respiration air passes into and out of the air passages rhythmically.
These two movements are known as inspiration and expiration. This process
allows the blood to absorb oxygen and to give off carbon dioxide and water. The
lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood from the heart
in the pulmonary circulation for the purposes of receiving oxygen and releasing
carbon dioxide.
The lungs do not function in the embryonic development since a future
baby is in the amniotic sac surrounded by fluid. Moreover, the lungs originate
from the tube which forms the upper part of the digestive system. At birth air
begins to pass through the air passages to the lungs so that the lungs can begin to
respire. The lungs continue to develop and mature into the structure of an adult
during the first 3 years of a child’s life.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to fulfill function виконувати функцію
vital activity життєдіяльність
to project into проектуватися, виступати в
to rest upon розташовуватись на
border межа, край
lobe частка
to share space ділити/розділяти простір
to enclose оточувати, обмежувати
pleural membrane плевральна оболонка
pleura плевра
pleural cavity плевральна порожнина
to enable давати можливість
to glide ковзати
to expand розширювати(ся), збільшувати(ся)
to retract втягуватися, скорочуватися
lymph space лімфатичний простір
to pass into переходити в (всередину)
to pass out виходити з
rhythmically ритмічно
inspiration вдих
expiration видих
to give off виділяти
unique blood supply унікальне кровопостачання
for the purpose з метою
embryonic development ембріональний розвиток
amniotic sac амніотичний мішок, оболонка
at birth при народженні
to respire дихати, вдихати і видихати повітря
(to) mature зрілий, досягати зрілості
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What important function do our lungs fulfill?
2. What is the position of the lungs?
3. How many lobes do the lungs contain?
4. Why is the right lung larger than the left one?
5. Where are the lungs enclosed?
6. What is the structure and function of the pleural membrane?
7. What colour may the lungs be? Why?
8. What are the two movements of respiration?
9. How are the lungs supplied with blood?
10.What is the process of gas exchange?
11.How do the lungs develop in the embryonic period?
12.Do the lungs function during the embryonic period? Why?
13.When dot the lungs fully develop?
 II. MATCH THE DESCRIPTIONS WITH THE TERMS
1) a pair of organs in the chest a) pleura
2) vitally important activity performed b) water
by the lungs c) inspiration
3) membrane surrounding the lungs d) carbon dioxide
4) process of passing air into the lungs e) amniotic sac
5) process of passing air out of the lungs f) lungs
6) an unborn human in the process of g) expiration
development h) respiration
7) the inner membrane that encloses the i) oxygen
embryo of a mammal, bird, or reptile j) embryo
8) a colorless, odorless gas produced by
burning carbon and organic compounds
9) a colorless, odorless reactive gas, and
the life-supporting component of the air
10) a colorless, transparent, odorless,
liquid which forms the seas, lakes,
rivers, and rain and is the basis of the
fluids of living organisms

III. ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS TRUE OR FALSE?

1. Lungs are a pair of organs which are situated in the abdomen.
2. Our lungs are oval in shape.
3. The anterior border of the lungs meets behind the middle of the breast bone.
4. The right lung contains three lobes and the left has two lobes.
5. The right lung is smaller because it shares space with the heart.
6. Each lung is enclosed in a pleural membrane or the pleura.
7. The pleura consists of three layers which form the pleural cavity.
8. The layer of fluid in the pleural cavity performs a protective function.
9. The color of the lungs depends on many different factors.
 10.During respiration carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen is released.
11.In embryonic development the lungs are not able to fulfill their function.
12.The lungs begin to respire at birth.
13.The lungs reach their maturity in early childhood.

IV. MATCH UP THE BEGINNING OF THE SENTENCES WITH THE

APPROPRIATE ENDING TO ENRICH YOUR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
RESPIRATION
1.From the nose and mouth air flows a) by cilia
2. The trachea divides b) renewing alveolar air
3. Gas exchange takes place c) causes them to vibrate and produce
sound
4. Ventilation is the process of d) increases dramatically
5. The respiratory tract is lined with e) by its pleural cavity
6. The mucus in the respiratory tract is f) into the larynx and trachea
continually moved
7. During heavy exercise the rate of g) a layer of sticky mucus
ventilation
8. The larynx is also known as h) with fluid
9. Each of the two lungs is surrounded i) in the alveoli
10. The pleural cavity is filled j) into the right and left bronchi
11. Tensing the vocal folds in the larynx k) the voice box or Adam’s apple
in a stream of air
 RESPIRATORY DISEASES

The respiratory tract is subject to infection more frequently than any other
part of the body. The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of respiratory
diseases. For example, about 65 million people in the world suffer from chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Asthma affects about 14% of children.
Respiratory diseases are the third leading cause of death worldwide.
The upper portion of the respiratory tract, the nose, throat and trachea, are
affected more often than the lower, the bronchi and lungs. The deeper the
inflammation is the more serious are its consequences.
The top 8 respiratory diseases include asthma, COPD, chronic bronchitis,
emphysema, lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, pneumonia, pleural effusion. Asthma
is a long-term inflammation of the airways to the lungs. It may be caused by
genetic and environmental factors. COPD can be related to smoking or exposure
to harmful substances etc. Asthma and COPD are manifested by airway
obstruction, shortness of breath, cough and wheezing.
The inside of the respiratory tract is lined with a layer of mucus to trap the
foreign matter. Millions of hair-like cilia are constantly moving and cleaning the
layer of mucus with its trapped foreign particles. Repeated irritation of this ciliated
mucous membrane can paralyze the action of the cilia, eventually destroy them and
stimulate an excessive production of mucus. This is the condition known as
chronic bronchitis. Since the cilia can no longer clear the lungs of mucus, it
accumulates until the air flow through the bronchioles is obstructed. The
obstruction then evokes coughing that helps to clear the lungs. Frequent coughing
is the most important, prominent symptom of chronic bronchitis. Other symptoms
may include shortness of breath and wheezing.
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the
alveoli. Typical symptoms include some combination of productive or dry cough,
chest pain, fever, and trouble breathing. Severity is variable. Pneumonia is
usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and less commonly by other
microorganisms. Diagnosis is made on the symptoms and physical examination.
Chest X-ray, blood tests, and culture of sputum may help confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment of respiratory diseases depends on the underlying cause. For
example, if pneumonia is believed to be due to bacteria it is treated with
antibiotics. The main treatment of asthma, COPD and chronic bronchitis consists
of eliminating the irritants that causes them. The source of irritation is often
smoking, industrial pollution, allergens etc.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
subject to схильний до
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) хронічне обструктивне
захворювання легень (ХОЗЛ)
inflammation запалення
bronchitis бронхіт
emphysema емфізема
cystic fibrosis муковісцидоз, фіброзно-кістозна дегенерація
pneumonia пневмонія, запалення легень
pleural effusion плевральний випіт
exposure піддавання зовнішньому впливу
harmful substance
to be manifested by
air obstruction
productive, dry cough
wheezing
to trap
foreign matter
hair-like cilia
excessive production
to accumulate
to evoke coughing
prominent symptom
fever
trouble breathing
chest X-ray
culture of sputum
underlying cause
to eliminate irritants
source of irritation
industrial pollution
шкідлива речовина
проявлятися, маніфестувати чимось
непрохідність повітря, обструкція
продуктивний(вологий), сухий кашель
дихання з присвистом
поглинати, уловлювати
чужорідна речовина/матеріал
волосоподібні ворсинки
надмірне продукування
накопичувати
викликати кашель
помітний симптом
лихоманка, підвищена температура
важке дихання
рентген грудної клітки
посів мокротиння
основна причина
усувати подразники
джерело подразнення
промислове забруднення

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the share of respiratory diseases among other causes of death?
2. What is COPD? What are its causes?
3. What does the upper respiratory tract consist of?
4. What does the lower respiratory tract consist of?
5. What part of the respiratory tract is more often affected?
6. What are the most frequent respiratory diseases?
7. What is asthma? What are its causes?
8. What is the function of the mucous layer in the respiratory tract?
9. When is ciliated mucous membrane paralyzed?
10.How is chronic bronchitis manifested?
11.What are typical symptoms of pneumonia?
12.How is pneumonia diagnosed?
13.What is the treatment of respiratory diseases?

II. ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS TRUE OR FALSE?

1. The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of respiratory diseases.
2. Respiratory diseases stand first as a cause of deaths.
3. The upper portion of the respiratory tract is affected more often than the
lower one.
4. COPD is a genetic disease.
5. Repeated irritation of mucous membrane can stimulate an excessive
production of mucus.
6. Asthma is inflammation of the lungs.
7. Frequent coughing is the most important, prominent symptom of chronic
bronchitis.
8. The main treatment of chronic bronchitis consists of eliminating the viruses
that causes it.
9. Pneumonia is usually caused by viral or bacterial infection.
10.Hair-like cilia cleaning the mucus is a kind of protective mechanism.
11.Destroyed cilia cause obstruction of the airway passages and evoke cough.
12.Cough and shortness of breath are most common signs of respiratory
diseases.
13.Treatment of respiratory diseases is standard.

III. FILL IN THE GAPS USING THE WORDS IN THE BOX

occupational alveoli consequences irritation
respiratory diseases obstruction trachea fatal
respiratory tract wheezing viruses
1. The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of__________________,
including pneumonia and lung cancer. The upper portion of the respiratory tract,
the nose, throat and _____________ are affected more often than the lower, the
bronchi and lungs. 3. The deeper the inflammation is the more serious are
its_______________; pneumonia may be___________. 4. A number of
________________lung diseases can be caused by substances such as coal or
silica dust. 5. The inside of the _____________is lined with a highly specialized
membrane. 6. Repeated ___________of this ciliated mucous membrane can
paralyze the action of the cilia, eventually destroy them and stimulate an excessive
production of mucus. 7. The ____________then evokes coughing that helps to
clear the lungs. 8. The symptoms of bronchitis may include shortness of breath
and___________. 9. Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung
affecting primarily the small air sacs known as____________. 10. Pneumonia is
usually caused by infection with___________ or bacteria and less commonly by
other microorganisms.

IV. REARRANGE THE LETTERS IN BRACKETS TO FORM THE

CORRECT WORD
1. A patient with tonsillitis may find it difficult to ___________ (wolwals).
2. Lung cancer may result from inhaled ____________ such as coal dust,
asbestos and tobacco smoke. (ritritsan)
3. Patients suffering from bronchitis may have cough and fell breathless and
their voice may be____________ . (sehoar)
4. Cough is the organism’s way of clearing excess ____________. (ucsmu)
5. Emphysema is a condition where the alveoli become overstretched and then
_______________. (peturru)
6. Common cold frequently leads to a ______________ nose. (dongsceet)
7. Drugs to treat asthma may be administered in a _____________. (rebuilzen)
 8. Asbestosis and silicosis are examples of ________________ diseases
resulting from a work environment. (countplacaio)
9. Pleural effusion can cause excess _________ to accumulate between the two
layers of pleural membrane. (diful)
10. Cough is a common symptom of upper respiratory tract ___________ .
(iotnefnic)
11.Cough may be _____________, when a patient coughs up sputum.
(cveitudorp)
12.Bacterial infections are usually treated with ____________. (ibtionatisc)
13.Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disease causing ____________ of abnormally
thick mucus leading to blockage of the pancreatic duct, intestines and
__________ resulting in respiratory infection. (onitorpudc, ibohcrn)

V. TUBERCULOSIS (TB)
Scan the text to find additional information about respiratory diseases. Pick out
key words of your choice.
Tuberculosis (TB) has been known since ancient times. It can affect the
lungs and other organs of the body such as bones and kidneys. TB is caused by
mycobacteria. There are two forms of TB: active and latent. Active TB is
diagnosed by chest X-ray and microscopic examination of the body fluids. Latent
TB is diagnosed by tuberculin skin test. People with latent form of TB do not
spread the infection. About 10% of latent infection progress into active disease.
Nowadays more than 10 million people worldwide have active TB, and this
number increases 1% annually. TB prevention involves vaccination and X-ray
screening of the population. TB is treated by multiple antibiotics for a long period
of time. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem. It is constantly increasing rates
of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). TB prevalence in Ukraine grew
annually by 15% to 20% as a result of the more and more difficult economic and
social situation. 
Focus on the following issues while making a summary of the text:
 - pathogen and organs afflicted;
- forms of TB;
- prevention and treatment;
- world statistics concerning TB.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is an important control and communication system of

the body. It consists of a central part and a peripheral part. The brain and spinal
cord constitute the central nervous system. The nerves of the body are the
peripheral nervous system.
The nerves which are carrying nerve impulses towards the central nervous
system are termed afferent or sensory nerves. Those nerves which are carrying
nerve impulses away from the central nervous system are termed efferent or
motor nerves. The nervous system develops in the embryo from the neural tube.
Three expansions of it appear at the head-end due to unequal rates of growth.
These expansions develop into the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The rest
of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord.
The forebrain develops into the cerebral hemispheres and the thalamus
and hypothalamus. The midbrain forms the tectum, tegmentum and cerebral
peduncles. The hindbrain develops into the cerebellum, pons and medulla.
The brain lies in and is protected by the skull. The cerebral cortex occupies
the major part of the cranium. The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by their
peduncles to the midbrain. The cerebellum lies posteriorly to the pons and medulla,
and is connected to the brain stem by three peduncles.
Twelve pairs of the cranial nerves arise from the brain and thirty-one pairs
of nerves arise from the spine. They are known as the cranial nerves and the spinal
nerves respectively. Of the twelve cranial nerves, five contain both sensory and
motor fibers. The most important of these is the vagus, or tenth nerve, which
supplies the heart, most of the digestive tract, the pharynx and the larynx. Of the
remaining seven pairs of nerves, four contain motor fibers only, and three are
entirely sensory. The fourth and sixth nerves, for example, control the movement
of the eyeball, and the first nerve records smells.
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column in which it lies. Thirty
one pairs of the spinal nerves develop on a segmental basis in association with
the spinal cord. These are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve thoracic, five
lumbar, five sacral and one coccygeal. Each nerve has a ventral (anterior) and
dorsal (posterior) root attaching it to the spinal cord. The sciatic nerve is the
largest nerve of the human body. It contains fibers of five spinal nerves from the
sacral plexus. It innervates the back of the thigh, leg and foot.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
control system система контролю
communication system комунікаційна система
brain головний мозок
spinal cord спинний мозок
central nervous system центральна нервова система
peripheral nervous system периферична нервова система
afferent (sensory) nerves аферентні (чутливі) нерви
efferent (motor) nerves еферентні (моторні) нерви
neural tube нервова трубка
head-end головний кінець
unequal rate неоднакова швидкість,темп
expansion розширення
forebrain передній мозок, прозенцефалон
midbrain середній мозок, мезенцефалон
hindbrain задній мозок, ромбенцефалон
cerebral hemisphere півкуля головного мозку
thalamus таламус, зоровий бугор
hypothalamus гіпоталамус, підбугорна область
tectum покривна структура, покрівля
tegmentum покрив
cerebral peduncle ніжка мозку
cerebellum мозочок
pons міст
medulla довгастий мозок
cerebral cortex кора головного мозку
brain stem стовбур мозку
cranial nerve черепний нерв
to arise from виникати, відходити від
fiber волокно
vagus блукаючий нерв
to innervate /supply інервувати
movement of the eyeball рух очного яблука
to record smells реєструвати, запам’ятовувати запахи
on a segmental basis на сегментній основі
in association with у сполученні з
cervical шийний
thoracic грудний
lumbar поперековий
sacral крижовий
coccygeal куприковий
sciatic nerve сідничний нерв
sacral plexus крижове сплетіння
Note: 1) afferent ['æf(ə)rənt], efferent ['ef(ə)r(ə)nt ], ['iː-]
2) to innervate = to supply = to serve (Контекстуальні синоніми — слова та
вирази, які позначають предмет, вживаючись при цьому в невластивому для
них значенні)
I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS
1. What are the two parts of the nervous system?
2. What does the central nervous system consist of?
3. What are the parts of the peripheral nervous system?
4. What is the function of afferent (sensory) nerves?
5. What is the function of efferent (motor) nerves?
6. How does the nervous system develop in the embryo?
7. What are the three expansions of the neural tube?
8. What does the forebrain develop into?
9. What does the midbrain form?
10.What does the hindbrain develop into?
11.How many cranial and spinal nerves are in the human body?
12.What is the most important of the cranial nerves?
13.How are the spinal nerves distributed?
14.What roots have the spinal nerves?
15.What is the largest nerve in the body?
 II. CORRECT THE MISTAKES
1. The nervous system is the important control system of the head.
2. The brain and spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous system.
3. The nerves which are carrying nerve impulses away the central nervous system
are sensory nerves.
4. The brain develops in the embryo from the neural tube.
5. The forebrain develops into the cerebral cortex and the thalamus and
hypothalamus.
6. The brain is the part of the central nervous system lies in and is protected by the
vertebral column.
7. The cerebral cortex occupies the minor part of the cranium.
8. The two cerebral hemispheres are not connected.
9. Two pairs of the cranial nerves arise from the brain and thirty-one pairs of
nerves arise from the spine.
10. The most important of cranial nerves is the vagus, or tenth nerve, which
supplies only the pharynx and the larynx.
11. The spinal cord is protected by the skull.
12. Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves develop on a segmental basis in association
with the brain.
13. Each cranial nerve has either ventral (anterior) or dorsal (posterior) root
attaching it to the spinal cord.

III. MATCHING
1.unequal rate of growth a) бути захищеним чимось
2. expansion b) інервувати травний тракт
3. to carry nerve impulses c) мати протекцію
4. to be protected by d) контролювати рух
5. to occupy the major part e) передній корінець
6. to connect to f) експансія
7. to arise from g) неоднакова швидкість росту
8. to contain h) постачати травний канал
9. to supply the digestive tract i) задня частина стегна
10. to control the movement j) займати більшу частину
11. remaining part k) на сегментній основі
12. on a segmental basis l) розширення, збільшення
13. anterior root m) з'являтися, відходити від
14. dorsal root n) переносити/нести нервові імпульси
15.to attach to o) приєднувати до
16.the back of the thigh p) частина, що залишилась
q) задній корінець
r) вміщувати, містити
s) прикріплювати до
t) дорсальна основа

IV. DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (complete the words in

the following sentences by adding a prefix from the box. Some can be
used more than once)
ab-, de-, dis, im-, in-, ir-, un-
1. An epileptic seizure is ___controlled, chaotic electrical activity in the brain.
It may cause ___voluntary movements. Epilepsy may be the result of
chemical ___balance but more often the cause is ___known. Patients after
epilepsy attack may be ___aware of things around them.
2. Computer dependency of children may result in ___rational feelings of
anger and fear.
3. One of the most common ___abling disorders of the nervous system among
young people is multiple sclerosis.
4. Parkinson’s disease is a ___generative condition of the brain causing
weakness and stiffness of the muscles.
 5. People with dementia lose their memory of recent events and become
___interested in their appearance. In the later stages of dementia patients
may become bedridden and ___continent.
6. Alzheimer’s disease shows an ___normal production of the protein amyloid.
Some drugs can slow advance of Alzheimer’s disease but it is ___curable.
7. Following a stroke, many patients are left with some sort of ___ability.
Brain cells starved of blood are ___able to communicate with the parts of
the body they are responsible for. Stroke can be fatal if internal hemorrhage
is ___detected.
Find English equivalents of the following words from the exercise above:
Епілептичний напад, рефлективні/мимовільні рухи, хімічний дисбаланс, не
усвідомлювати, почуття страху, почуття страху, розсіяний склероз,
дегенеративний стан, ригідність/нерухомість м’язів, стратити пам'ять,
втратити інтерес до своєї зовнішності, прикутий до ліжка, який страждає на
нетримання, інсульт, позбавлені крові, внутрішній крововилив.
 THE BRAIN

The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and
together with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The brain
consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum. It controls most of the
activities of the body: processing, integrating, and coordinating the information
it receives from the sensory organs, and making decisions as to the instructions
sent to the rest of the body. The skull contains and protects the brain.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain. It is divided into two
cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is an outer layer of grey matter,
covering the core of white matter. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes –
the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe is associated
with executive functions including self-control, planning, reasoning, and
abstract thinking, while the occipital lobe is dedicated to vision. Within each lobe
cortical areas are associated with specific functions, such as the sensory or motor.
Although the left and right hemispheres are anatomically similar in shape, they
perform different functions, such as speaking in the left and visual-spatial ability
in the right.
The cerebellum and the brainstem are crucial anatomical structures. The
cerebellum is the part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates, which
coordinates and regulates muscular activity. The brainstem connects the
subcortical structures such as pituitary gland and basal ganglia with the spinal
cord. The brainstem is responsible for respiratory and sleep functions, heart rate
and consciousness. The cells of the brain include neurons and glia, the connective
tissue of the nervous system. There are more than 86 billion neurons in the brain.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain
and spinal cord. CSF protects the brain, provides nourishment, and removes
wastes. There is 125-150 ml of CSF at any one time. CSF consists of water mainly.
It also contains glucose, protein, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and
chloride. Finding red blood cells in CSF may be a sign of hemorrhage.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
cerebrum головний мозок (основна передня частина мозку)
processing обробка (даних/інформації)
integrating інтегрування
coordinating координування
to make decisions приймати рішення
sensory organ орган чуття
grey matter сіра речовина
white matter біла речовина
core ядро, серцевина, внутрішня частина
temporal скроневий
parietal тім’яний
occipital потиличний
executive function виконавча функція
self-control самоконтроль
reasoning міркування, логічний хід думки
abstract thinking абстрактне мислення
cortical area кіркова частина, ділянка
similar in shape однаковий по формі
visual-spatial ability зорово-просторова здатність
crucial anatomical structure ключова анатомічна структура
subcortical structure підкіркова структура
pituitary gland гіпофіз
basal ganglion (pl. - a) базальний ганглій, нервовий вузол
consciousness свідомість
neuron нейрон, нервова клітина
glia глія, нейроглія, нервова сполучна тканина
cerebrospinal fluid спинномозкова рідина
sodium натрій
potassium калій
magnesium магній
chloride хлорид

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between the brain and cerebrum?
2. What are the parts of the brain?
3. What activities does the brain control?
4. How many hemispheres does the brain have?
5. How many lobes does each hemisphere contain?
6. What is the frontal lobe associated with?
7. What does the occipital lobe deal with?
8. What is the difference in functions of the hemispheres?
9. Where is the cerebellum located?
 10.What are the functions of the cerebellum?
11.What is the brainstem responsible for?
12.What does the cerebrospinal fluid consist of?
13.What function does CSF perform?

II. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS IN THE TEXT

Обробляти інформацію, контролювати діяльність, отримувати інформацію,
надсилати інструкції/вказівки, зовнішній шар, зір, виконувати різноманітні
функції, мовлення, хребетні, координувати м’язову діяльність, регулювати
м’язову діяльність, функція сну, частота серцевих скорочень, прозора
безбарвна рідина, забезпечувати поживними речовинами, усувати/видаляти
продукти розпаду, ознака крововиливу.

III. ARE THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES TRUE OR FALSE?

1. The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system.
2. The brain consists of the cerebrum, and the cerebellum.
3. The brain is contained in and protected by the skull.
4. The cerebrum is the smallest part of the human brain.
5. The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions including self-
control, planning, and reasoning.
6. The cerebellum is not connected to the spinal cord.
7. The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.
8. The cells of the brain include grey matter.
9. The cerebellum is responsible for sleep function.
10.The brainstem regulates muscular activity.
11.The cerebrospinal fluid is found in the spinal cord.
12. The cerebrospinal fluid performs a protective function for the brain.
13.CSF contains water and blood cells.
 IV. SCAN THE TEXT “SENSES” AND BE READY TO DO THE TASKS
AFTER IT
The world is filled with physical and chemical changes which result in
sensations. Although people are thought to have five senses, there are actually
more. In addition to vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch, there are several skin
senses and two “internal” senses: vestibular and kinesthetic. Sensory receptors help
the brain to understand external stimuli.
Vision is the most studied of all the senses. Light enters the eye through the
pupil and reaches the lens that focuses light on the retina. Hearing depends on air
vibrations called sound waves. Auditory nerve is responsible for carrying sensory
information to the brain. Smell and taste are chemical senses. Smell receptors are
situated in the nose, and taste receptors are located in the taste buds on the tongue.
Their messages are sent over the olfactory nerve. The science suggests six qualities
of smell (flowery, fruity, spicy, resinous, putrid, and burned) and four primary
qualities of taste (sour, salty, bitter, and sweet). Touch is provided by skin
receptors sending information to the brain about the environment: pressure,
warmth, cold and pain. It can be considered as a warning system for the body.
The vestibular system inside the inner ear regulates the sense of balance.
Vestibular senses are closely connected with kinesthetic – the sense of movement
and body position. It helps to maintain posture and balance.
Some people believe they have sixth sense – something like intuition or
prediction. In fact, it is considered as extrasensory perception (ESP) when
individuals seem to gain information not through the physical senses but mind.
TASKS:
1. Pick out key words from the text and compare your list with those of your
group-mates.
2. What senses can be considered physical and what of them are chemical?
Comment on your arguments.
3. Do you believe in sixth sense? Do you have it? Do you know anyone having
it?
 The glands of the body
may be divided into those with external secretion (exocrine glands) and those
with an internal secretion (endocrine glands). Examples of exocrine glands are
the sweat, lacrimal, salivary and mammary glands which pass their secretion
along ducts to the external surface of the body, and the glands of the mouth,
stomach and intestines which pass their secretion along ducts into the alimentary
tract. The endocrine or ductless glands on the other hand have no ducts or
openings to the exterior. Their secretion is passed into the blood stream, and is
transmitted via the circulation to modify the activity of some organ or tissue.
 The endocrine glands in the body are pituitary gland (hypophysis),
hypothalamus, thyroid gland, 4 parathyroid glands, 2 adrenal glands
(suprarenal glands), 2 gonads (ovaries or testes), pancreas, pineal gland
(epiphysis), and thymus.
The hypophysis is located at the base of the brain and is the chief gland of
the system: it produces special substances which stimulate the activities of other
endocrine glands. Hypothalamus is region of the forebrain below the thalamus
which coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the
pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic
systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
The thyroid gland stimulates the metabolism of all bodily parts. Parathyroid
glands are located on the dorsal side of the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone
regulates calcium level in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
The adrenal glands which also are called suprarenal glands are situated one
on the top of each kidney. They influence the amount of mineral salts, the
metabolism of sugars, fats and proteins within all body cells, intercellular
metabolism, the work of the cardiovascular, digestive and respiratory systems. Sex
hormones produced by these glands are necessary for development and
maintaining of the reproductive system. Ovaries and testes are a part of the
reproductive system and play a great role in its functioning.
The pancreas is located behind the stomach. It is the gland of the two
systems: digestive and endocrine. As a part of the digestive system its function is
to secrete pancreatic juice. The hormones of the pancreas are insulin and
glucagon which regulate the due metabolism of sugars and starches in the body.
The pineal gland is located in the middle of the brain. The gland secretes
melatonin affecting the work of other glands as a "biological clock". Its function is
obscure to some extent as some scientists state it.
The thymus gland is located in the mediastinum behind the sternum and
plays a certain role in the immune process in the body. The exact function of the
gland is also rather uncertain.
 A disturbance in the activity of the endocrine glands is accompanied by
changes throughout the organism. These changes may be due to an increase
(hyperfunction) in the function of a gland or decrease (hypofunction).
The endocrines coordinate the activities of all other systems. The activities
of endocrine glands are regulated by the nervous system through the nerves and
neurohumoral control, particularly through the hypophysis. The hormones of the
endocrine glands, in their turn, affect the functions of the different parts of the
nervous system.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
external secretion зовнішня секреція
internal secretion внутрішня секреція
exocrine gland залоза зовнішньої секреції (екзокринна)
endocrine gland залоза внутрішньої секреції (ендокринна)
sweat gland потова залоза
lacrimal gland слізна залоза
mammary gland молочна залоза
duct протока
ductless який не має вивідної протоки
alimentary tract травний тракт
blood stream кровотік
to modify activity модифікувати, видозмінювати діяльність
pituitary gland (hypophysis) гіпофіз
thyroid gland щитовидна залоза
parathyroid gland паращитовидна залоза
adrenal gland (suprarenal gland) надниркова залоза
gonad гонада, статева залоза
ovary (pl. -ies) яєчник
testis (pl. -es) яєчко
pancreas підшлункова залоза
pineal gland (epiphysis) шишкоподібна залоза, епіфіз
thymus зобна/вилочкова залоза, тимус
base of the brain основа мозку
thirst спрага
hunger голод
homeostatic system гомеостатична система
cerebrospinal fluid спинномозкова рідина, ліквор
mineral salt мінеральна сіль
intercellular metabolism міжклітинний обмін речовин
due metabolism належний обмін речовин
to maintain підтримувати, зберігати
pancreatic juice підшлунковий сік
starch крохмаль
obscure неясний, нечіткий, незрозумілий
uncertain сумнівний, неясний, точно не відомий
to be accompanied by супроводжуватись чимось
to affect впливати, шкодити, порушувати

Note: 1) it’s interesting to know the difference between “due” – належний,

відповідний and “due to” – завдяки; внаслідок; в результаті;
2) mind the difference between the two troublesome words: to affect ['æfekt] –
впливати, шкодити, порушувати, завдавати шкоди, погано позначатися and
effect [i'fekt] – результат, наслідок, ефект, враження

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. How are the glands of the body divided?
2. What are examples of the exocrine glands?
3. What endocrine glands do you know?
4. What is the difference between the exocrine and endocrine glands?
5. What does the hypothalamus control?
6. What is the function of the pituitary gland?
 7. Where is the pituitary gland located?
8. What does the thyroid gland stimulate?
9. Where are the parathyroid glands located?
10.What do the parathyroid glands regulate?
11.Where are the adrenal glands located?
12.What do the adrenal glands influence on?
13.What are examples of glands belonging to the reproductive system?
14.What gland belongs to the digestive and endocrine systems?
15.What gland is called a “biological clock” and why?
16.What is the value of the endocrine glands in the body?

II. MATCHING (mind that five options in the right are unnecessary)
1. external surface a. порушення
2. opening to the exterior b. з одного боку
3. on the other hand c. знаходитись
4. to transmit via d. з іншого боку
5. to stimulate the activities e. середостіння
6. to regulate calcium level f. відкриття назовні
7. on the top g. зовнішня поверхня
8. to be situated h. отвір назовні
9. to play a great role i. точна функція
10. behind the sternum j. зростання функції
11. exact function k. відігравати велику роль
12. disturbance l. зниження функції
13. increase in the function m. передавати через/шляхом
14. decrease in the function n. стимулювати діяльність
15. mediastinum o. на верхівці
p. стимулювати активність
q. регулювати рівень кальцію
r. позаду грудини
 s. позаду грудної клітки
t. важлива функція

III. ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS TRUE OR FALSE?

1. The endocrine or ductless glands have no ducts or openings to the exterior.
2. The hypophysis is located at the base of the spinal cord and is the chief gland of
the system.
3. Parathyroid glands are located on the dorsal side of the thyroid gland.
4. Parathyroid hormone regulates magnesium level in the blood and cerebrospinal
fluid.
5. The adrenal glands which also are called suprarenal glands are situated one on
the top of each lung.
6. Ovaries and testes are a part of the reproductive system and play a great role in
its functioning.
7. Pancreas is located behind the liver.
8. The pineal gland secrets melatonin which affects the work of the gland as a
"biological clock".
9. The exact function of the thymus is also rather uncertain.
10. A disturbance in the activity of the endocrine glands is accompanied by
changes throughout the organism.
11. The pancreas is the gland of a mixed secretion.
12. Insulin and glucagon are the hormones of the thymus gland.
13. Another word for increase in the function is hypofunction.
14. The secretion of the endocrine glands is passed into the alimentary tract.
15. Adrenal glands and gonads are paired organs.

IV. HORMONES.
Find synonyms to the words in brackets from medical terms in the box
Accelerates, consequences, continuous, bind, buffer, excite, fluctuate, inhibit,
intermittent, maintains, metabolism, overproduction, regulator, secreted,
 stimulate, underproduction
1. The endocrine system operates by a number of hormones which are
(produced) _______________ into the blood stream.
2. Hormones either (increase) ____________ or (slow) ___________ the
activity of other organs and tissues.
3. Many hormones (join) _____________ to carrier proteins and this has a
(protective) _____________ effect against sudden changes.
4. Hormone levels generally (go up and down) _______________ but within
limits. Thus, the production of thyroxin is (uninterrupted) _____________,
while the production of other hormones is (from time to time) __________.
5. Any imbalance in the endocrine system can have important (results)
________________.
6. Problems in the functioning of the endocrine system usually involve
(making too much) _____________or (making too little) _____________.
7. Growth hormone is valuable in children to (encourage) ________________
growth.
8. Calcitonin and parathormone are involved in the (utilization) ___________
of calcium.
9. Parathormone (keeps) _______________ calcium levels in plasma within
normal limits.
10.Aldosterone is the most important (controller) ____________ of sodium and
potassium.
11.Thyroxin (speeds up) _______________the release of energy in the tissues.

V. THE TEXT FOR THE CURIOUS

Scan the text in order to do the following tasks:
- pick up the key words from the text and compare your list with those of your
group-mates;
- diseases associated with over- and underproduction of growth hormones;
- causes of dwarfism and gigantism (acromegaly);
- clinical manifestation of the diseases;
 - secular trends in human growth.

Growth hormone (GH) which is also known as somatotropin is a peptide

hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. GH stimulates the
growth of all the body tissues including bones. On an average the pituitary gland
releases 1-2 milligrams of the hormone each day. Normal secretion of GH is
especially important for proper physical development of children. Therefore, GH
levels rise progressively in childhood and peak during puberty.
GH deficiency may result in dwarfism – short stature. The causes of GH
deficiency may be damage to the pituitary gland of hypothalamus during fetal
development or after birth, and mutations in genes. Thus, GH deficiency can be
congenital or acquired.
Excessive GH production in children may lead to gigantism and acromegaly.
Acromegaly is enlargement of the hands, feet, chin, and nose (distal or acral parts)
due to overgrowth of the cartilages, muscles, and skin. People with acromegaly
have very big internal organs as well – tongue, heart, liver, and kidneys.
Excessive GH secretion is most often caused by tumor of the pituitary gland
which is also associated with severe headaches.
It’s an interesting fact that in the last hundred years the stature of people in the
world has increased 10-11 cm. The top 10 tallest nations are all in Europe. The
tallest people live in the Netherlands. Ukrainian women are on the tenth position in
the top 10, while they were 43rd a hundred of years ago!
 The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is an exclusively important

organ of the endocrine system. It is located in the neck where it wraps around the
trachea. It consists of two wing-shaped lobes which are embedded with
parathyroid glands. Each lobe is about 4 cm long and 2 cm thick connected
together by a thin band of the connective tissue called the isthmus. The two lobes
and isthmus give the gland a butterfly appearance.
The tissue of the thyroid gland is composed mostly of thyroid follicles. The
follicles are filled with a sticky fluid called colloid. Surrounded by a wall of
epithelial follicle cells, the colloid is the center of thyroid hormone production, and
that production is dependent on the hormones’ essential and unique component:
iodine. Insufficient amounts of iodine in the diet can lead to goiter, cretinism,
and many other disorders.
The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), are often
referred to as metabolic hormones because their levels influence the body basal
metabolic rate, the amount of energy used by the body at rest. The thyroid gland
also produces calcitonin, a parathyroid hormone antagonist.
Adequate levels of thyroid hormones are also required for protein synthesis
and for the development and growth of the fetus and children. They are especially
critical for normal development of the nervous system both in utero and in early
childhood, and they continue to support neurological function in adults.
When levels of T3 and T4 hormones are excessive, this effect accelerates the
heart rate, strengthens the heartbeat, and increases blood pressure. Because
thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, heat production, protein synthesis, and
many other body functions, thyroid disorders can cause severe and widespread
consequences.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
exclusively important виключно важливий
to wrap around огортатись навколо
wing-shaped lobe крилоподібна частка
to embed вставляти, заливати, вкрапляти
thin band тоненька смужка
isthmus перешийок, перемичка, звужене
місце
butterfly appearance вигляд метелика
thyroid follicle фолікул, пухирець щитоподібної залози
sticky fluid липка, клейка рідина
iodine йод
insufficient amount недостатня кількість
goiter зоб
triiodothyronine трийодтиронін
thyroxine тироксин
to refer to давати посилання, посилатися
basal metabolic rate інтенсивність основного обміну
amount of energy кількість енергії
especially critical особливо вирішальний, важливий
in utero до народження
excessive надлишковий, надмірний
to accelerate прискорювати
heart rate частота серцевих скорочень
to strengthen зміцнювати, підсилювати
heartbeat серцебиття
to increase blood pressure підвищувати кров’яний тиск
heat production продукування тепла
severe важкий, серйозний, сильний
widespread поширений, масовий; широкий
consequence наслідок; результат

Note: mind the pronunciation of the following substances: iodine ['aɪədiːn];

triiodothyronine [trʌɪˌʌɪədə(ʊ)ˈθʌɪrəniːn]; thyroxine [θaıʹrɔksi(:)n]

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. Where is the thyroid gland located?
2. What is the appearance of the thyroid gland? Why?
3. What is the size of the thyroid gland?
4. What is the thyroid tissue composed of?
5. What is colloid? What is its necessary element?
6. Why the amount of iodine important?
7. What thyroid hormones do you know?
8. What is the role of thyroid hormones?
9. What do excessive levels of the thyroid hormones cause?
10.What do the thyroid hormones regulate?

II. DECIDE WHETHER THE SENTENCES ARE TRUE OR FALSE:

1. The thyroid gland consists of three wing-shaped lobes which are embedded
with parathyroid glands.
2. The tissue of the thyroid gland is composed mostly of thyroid follicles.
3. One of the main thyroid hormones is called colloid.
4. The thyroid hormones are often referred to as metabolic hormones.
5. Adequate levels of thyroid hormones are required for protein synthesis and for
fetal and childhood tissue development and growth.
6. A thin band of the connective tissue between the thyroid lobes is called follicle.
7. The two lobes of the thyroid gland wrap around the neck.
8. Iodine is an essential and unique component of the thyroid hormones.
9. T3 stands for thyroxine and T4 – for triiodothyronine .
10. Insufficient amounts of T3 and T4 hormones accelerate the heart rate.

III. COMPLETE SENTENCES WITH NECESSARY WORDS AND

PHRASES FROM THE TEXT AND TRANSLATE THEM
1. He looks at the (зовнішню сторону) only and does not notice the real sense.
2. I don’t like flowers (обгорнутих) by a piece of decorating paper.
3. The building looked like a huge (крилоподібний) monster. I can hardly
understand this modern architecture.
4. She was wonderfully improved in her (зовнішній вигляд) after rest on the
seaside.
5. Her eyes were (наповнені) tears.
6. He was always (в оточенні) numerous medicine-bottles.
7. Support and understanding of close people are (виключно важливі) for
everyone.
8. Histological samples are (залиті) into paraffin.
9. The last minutes of the race were (особливо вирішальні).
10. He does not have qualities (що вимагаються для) this position.
11. A boutique and beauty salon are conveniently (розміщені в) the center.
12. If you think something's wrong, consult the doctor to set your mind (в стані
спокою).
13. The abilities of the mind generally (підсилюються, зміцнюються) by
exercise.
IV. ADDITIONAL READING “Negative Feedback
System”
The human organism is a complicated mechanism of systems and organs
working interdependently. Read the text below and be ready to do the following
tasks:
 - explain why the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid system is considered to be
negative feedback system?
- keep in mind the abbreviations and their full names: TRH, TSH, T3, T4;
- find English equivalents in the passage below: секретувати;
ініціювати/давати початок; підвищувати синтез; вивільнювати
гормон, який зберігається (у запасі); обумовлювати; пригнічувати;
повертати до джерела/проявляти реакцію на.

TRH (thyrotrophin-releasing hormone) is secreted in the hypothalamus and

triggers the production of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) in the pituitary
gland.
TSH stimulates the TSH receptor in the thyroid gland to increase synthesis of
both T4 (thyroxin) and T3 (triiodothyronine) and also to release stored hormone
stipulating increased plasma levels of T4 and T3.
T3 feeds back on the pituitary and perhaps the hypothalamus to inhibit TRH and
TSH secretions.
 DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine disorders are often quite complex,

involving a mixed picture of hyposecretion and hypersecretion because of the
feedback mechanisms involved in the endocrine system. Extreme hypofunction of
the thyroid gland results in cretinism in the young. The symptoms usually first
appear at about six months of age. The development is slow; the child does not sit up,
walk and talk at the usual age. The mental development is retarded as well. The
child may be an idiot. The skeleton remains small and stunted. The tongue is large
and protrudes from the mouth, the skin is thickened. When the age of puberty is
attained the secondary sexual characteristics do not develop.
Extreme hypothyroidism in the adult is known as myxedema. This condition is
associated with diminution in mental activity, slowness of speech and movement,
coarse dry skin and loss of hair. The basal metabolic rate is low; it falls to about -
25 %.
Milder forms of hypothyroidism may exist; the patients show undue fatigue,
headache, hypotension, subnormal temperature and a lack of inclination to exert
themselves physically and mentally. The basal metabolic rate may fall to about -
19%.
A swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck is called goiter. It may be associated
with either underactivity or overactivity of the gland. Simple goiter, which is also
called colloid and adolescent goiter, is most frequent in girls at the age of puberty. It
is characterized by an enlargement of the thyroid gland. It seems to be due to an
inadequate intake of iodine; it responds readily to iodine therapy. To prevent
such a deficiency in areas of the world where iodine is absent in the soil, iodine is
added to the table salt.
Hyperthyroidism occurs in two forms. One form is called exophthalmic goiter or
Graves' disease; the other is called adenomatous goiter with hyperthyroidism. In
exophthalmic goiter the internal secretion of the thyroid gland is thought to be
abnormal. The condition is accompanied by gastro-intestinal disturbances,
insomnia, nervousness, loss of weight, rapid pulse, palpitation, tremor and
excessive perspiration. The lid space is widened, and the eyes protrude. The basal
metabolic rate increases markedly; it may rise to - 100%. In spite of the increase in
metabolism the temperature does not rise above the normal level; this is accounted
for by the increase in heat loss which keeps pace with the increased heat
production. The increase in loss is brought about by increased sweating and
dilatation of the cutaneous blood vessels. The damage to the heart muscle is usually
severe; atrial fibrillation is likely to occur.
Adenomatous goiter with hyperthyroidism is associated with increase of the
normal secretion of the gland. The symptoms of hyperthyroidism appear after the
gland has become enlarged. The eye signs of exophthalmic goiter are lacking and the
increase in the basal rate is less marked. The other evidences of hyperthyroidism
peculiar for exophthalmic goiter are present also in toxic adenomatous goiter.
Surgical removal of a part of the gland is indicated in both types of
hyperthyroidism.

Note: 1) Greek prefixes hypo- ['haɪpəu] and hyper-['haɪpə] are often used in
medical English. The words decrease and increase, or prefixes under- and over- have
practically the same meaning. Compare: hypofunction, hyposecretion, underactivity,
overactivity, decrease of temperature, increase of temperature.
2) Mind the pronunciation and synonymic names of the following diseases:
cretinism ['kretɪnɪz(ə)m] кретинізм, врождений гіпотиреоз,
хвороба Фагге
myxedema [͵mıksəʹdi:mə] мікседема; гіпотиреоїдний набряк
 simple (colloid, adolescent) [ˌæd(ə)'les(ə)nt]) goiter нетоксичний, колоїдний,
юнацький зоб
hypothyroidism [͵haıpəuʹθaırɔıdız(ə)m] гіпотиреоз
hyperthyroidism [͵haıpəʹθaırɔıdız(ə)m] гіпертиреоз
exophthalmic goiter [ˌɛksɒfˈθalmɪk] дифузний тиреотоксичний зоб, базедова
хвороба
Graves’ disease дифузний тиреотоксичний зоб, базедова хвороба, хвороба
Грейвса, хвороба Паррі, хвороба Флаяні
adenomatous goiter [ˌædɪˈnəʊm(ə)təs] вузловий зоб, аденоматозний зоб
toxic goiter ['tɔksɪk] дифузний тиреотоксичний зоб, базедова хвороба

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
complex складний, важкий, заплутаний
mixed picture змішана картина
feedback mechanism механізм зворотного зв’язку
at the usual age у звичному віці
retarded mental development відсталий розумовий розвиток
stunted skeleton низькорослий, затриманий в рості
to protrude from висувати, висуватися, стирчати
thickened skin потовщена шкіра
age of puberty вік статевої зрілості
to attain досягати, домагатися, дожити
secondary sexual characteristics вторинні статеві ознаки
diminution зменшення, скорочення
mental activity розумова діяльність
slowness of speech повільність, протяжність мовлення
coarse dry skin шорсткувата/груба суха шкіра
loss of hair випадіння волосся
undue fatigue надмірна втома
subnormal temperature температура нижче норми
lack of inclination відсутність схильності/бажання
to exert physically напружуватись фізично
to exert mentally напружуватись розумово
inadequate intake of iodine недостатнє споживання йоду
to respond readily to легко реагувати на (лікування)
iodine therapy замісна йодотерапія
gastro-intestinal disturbances шлунково-кишкові розлади
insomnia безсоння
nervousness нервозність
loss of weight втрата ваги
rapid pulse прискорений пульс
palpitation сильне серцебиття, пульсація
tremor тремтіння, здригання, тремор (рук)
excessive perspiration надмірне потовиділення
lid space простір повік
to account for пояснювати
heat loss тепловтрата
heat production продукування тепла
to keep pace with йти нарівні, не відставати
to bring about викликати, спричиняти, бути причиною
sweating потовиділення
dilatation розширення
cutaneous blood vessels кровоносні судини шкіри
atrial fibrillation фібриляція передсердь, миготлива аритмія
evidence свідчення, доказ
peculiar специфічний, особливий, своєрідний
surgical removal оперативне/хірургічне видалення
to indicate служити ознакою, свідчити про
необхідність або доцільність, бути показанням
 I. VOCABULARY WORK. GROUP THE WORDS TO MAKE THE
PAIRS OF SYNONYMS
1. complex a) insufficient
2. to result in b) pronounced
3. stunted c) edema
4. undue fatigue d) complicated
5. lack of inclination e) to explain
6. swelling f) to cause
7. inadequate g) to lead to
8. insomnia h) excessive tiredness
9. perspiration i) underdeveloped
10.to bring about j) sweating
11.to account for k) sleeplessness
12.marked l) unwillingness

II. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

12.What mechanism is involved into the base of endocrine disorders?
13.What are the symptoms of cretinism?
14.What is myxedema? Describe its symptoms.
15.What are the signs of milder forms of hypothyroidism?
16.What is goiter?
17.What form of goiter can be treated by iodine therapy?
18.What synonyms of Graves’ disease do you know?
19.What is clinical manifestation of exophthalmic goiter?
20.What is the most prominent sign of Graves’ disease?
21.Why is the temperature normal with exophthalmic goiter?
22.How does adenomatous goiter differ from that of exophthalmic one?
23.What procedure is indicated in case of adenomatous or exophthalmic goiter?

III. DECIDE IF THESE SENTENCES TRUE OR FALSE

1. The symptoms of cretinism usually first appear at about six months of age.
2. Extreme hyperthyroidism in the adult is known as myxedema.
3. Goiter is associated with overactivity of thyroid gland only.
4. Iodine is the main chemical element causing goiter.
5. Hypothyroidism is associated with weight and hair loss.
6. People suffering from hypothyroidism are very active.
7. Simple goiter readily responds to iodine therapy.
8. Exophthalmic goiter has many different names due to different symptoms.
9. Protruded eyes are the most marked sign of exophthalmic goiter.
10.People suffering from exophthalmic goiter may have heart problems.
11.Adenomatous goiter is similar to that of exophthalmic goiter.
12.The symptoms of hyperthyroidism appear after the gland becomes enlarged.
13.Severe forms of hyperthyroidism are treated surgically.

IV. MULTIPLE CHOICE. ONLY ONE OPTION IS CORRECT

1. The causes of cretinism are:
a) extreme hypofunction of the thyroid gland
b) mild hyperfunction of the thyroid gland
c) extreme hyperfuncion of the thyroid gland
2. Which of the following can be a symptom of myxedema?
a) gastro-intestinal disturbances
b) excessive perspiration
c) diminution in mental activity
3. The basal metabolic rate with hypothyroidism:
a) is high
b) may fall
c) is extremely low
4. People suffering from hypothyroidism:
a) are full of life and energy
b) are mentally retarded
c) are phlegmatic
 5. Hyperthyroidism occurs in:
a) two forms but with different names
b) three forms
c) four forms
6. What kind of goiter damages the heart muscle severely?
a) colloid goiter
b) adenomatous goiter
c) exophthalmic goiter
7. Palpitation means:
a) rapid and strong heartbeat
b) nervousness
c) insomina
8. Another name of simple goiter is:
a) palpitation
b) colloid or adolescent
c) toxic
9. Goiter may be caused by:
a) low activity of the thyroid gland
b) high activity of the thyroid gland
c) under- or overactivity of the thyroid gland
10. People suffering from exophthalmic goiter may:
a) be nervous
b) experience laziness
c) have high temperature

V. TASK FOR THE CURIOUS

You already know that hyperthyroidism has many names: exophthalmic [toxic]
goiter, (exophthalmic) hyperthyroidism, Graves' [Basedow's, Parry's, Flayani]
disease, hyperthyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, thyroid cachexia. Can you explain why?
Share the information you find with your group-mates.
 The reproductive system is the combination of organs and tissues associated
with the process of reproduction.
The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, Fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina, and vulva. In females, ova are produced by the ovary from the
puberty period to menopause, that is, the end of the fertile period. Fallopian tubes
are hornlike and serve as natural ducts for the ovum to penetrate into the uterus.
The uterus is a pear-shaped organ between the urinary bladder and the rectum.
The uterus or womb is the place where the embryo and then fetus develop.
Placenta is a sponge-like vascular organ which develops during pregnancy in the
uterine wall. The functions of the placenta are to provide the embryo (fetus) with
nourishment, eliminate its wastes, and exchange respiratory gases.
The male reproductive system includes the testes, prostate gland, seminal
vesicles, urethra and penis. The male gonads (testes) are composed of a large
mass of the seminiferous tubules. They contain cells which manufacture
spermatozoa. Semen is a combination of spermatozoa and a thick fluid secreted
by the prostate gland.
Embryology is the study of growth and development of the embryo and the
fetus from fertilization of the ovum until birth. Ova are produced in the ovaries.
Each ovary contains numerous follicles. The ova develop inside of follicles, but
only a small proportion of them reach maturity. The mature female sex cells are
considered to be the ova or egg cells.
After fertilization (the fusion of a spermatozoon and an ovum) rapid changes
take place in the membrane of the ovum. The cells begin to multiply and the
embryo is formed. In humans the term embryo refers to the products of
conception within the uterus up to the eighth week of development. During this
time all the main organs are formed.
The fetus is a mammalian embryo during the later stages of development
within the uterus. In humans it refers to an unborn child from its eighth week of
development till birth.
Modern embryology is an advanced science. Now doctors are able to examine
the embryo or fetus during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy by means of
ultrasonic waves or fiberoptic endoscope. Access to the fetal circulation may be
obtained through the instrument and direct visualization of the embryo enables
to diagnose possible malformations.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
reproduction відтворення, розмноження
Fallopian/uterine tubes фалопієві/маткові труби
uterus/womb матка, жіноче лоно
vagina піхва
vulva вульва, зовнішні статеві органи
menopause менопауза, клімактеричний період
fertile period здатний до розмноження; плідний період
hornlike рогоподібний
natural duct природний канал, протока
to penetrate into проникати всередину
pear-shaped грушоподібний
embryo ембріон
fetus плід
placenta плацента
sponge-like губкоподібний
uterine wall стінка матки
vascular судинний
to provide with постачати,забезпечувати
nourishment живлення
to eliminate wastes видаляти продукти розпаду
to exchange respiratory gases виконувати газообмін
prostate gland простата, передміхурова залоза
seminal vesicles сім’яні міхурці
urethra сечовипускальний канал, уретра
penis пеніс, чоловічий статевий член
seminiferous tubule сім’яний каналець
to manufacture виробляти, продукувати
spermatozoon (pl. - a) сперматозоїд
semen сім'я, сперма
fertilization запліднення; запилення
to reach maturity досягати зрілості
to multiply розмножувати(ся), множити
product of conception продукт зачаття, запліднення
mammalian embryo ембріон ссавців
unborn child ненароджена дитина
advanced scienсe передова наука
pregnancy вагітність
ultrasonic waves ультразвукові хвилі
fiberoptic endoscope волоконно-оптичний ендоскоп
fetal circulation кровообіг плоду
to obtain одержувати, отримувати, здобувати
direct visualization пряма візуалізація, просвічування
to enable уможливлювати, створювати можливість
malformation неправильне утворення, порок, каліцтво
I. VOCABULARY WORK
Study productive patterns of compound words with shaped and like. Translate
them, try to memorize and make up your own sentences.
pear-shaped face doglike eyes
almond-shaped eyes sausage-like body
pot-shaped hat catlike walk
bottle-shaped chimney wolf-like smile
arrow-shaped leaf fairy-like beauty
box-shaped car dance-like steps
cigar-shaped lipstick park-like gardens
L-shaped settee tunnel-like entrance
egg-shaped head frog-like face
ring-shaped yard bird-like little man

II. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the function of the reproductive system?
2. What does embryology deal with?
3. What organs does the male reproductive system include?
4. What organs does the female reproductive system include?
5. When does the placenta develop?
6. What functions does the placenta perform?
7. Where are ova produced?
8. What changes occur in the ovum after fertilization?
9. What is the role of the Fallopian tubes?
10.Where are spermatozoa manufactured?
11.What is the difference between the embryo and fetus?
12.What methods of examination does modern embryology use?
13.What is the purpose of ultrasonic examination of the fetus?
 III. MATCHING
1. menopause a) the mature male sex cell by which the
ovum is fertilized

2. Fallopian tubes b) the study of growth and development

of the embryo and the fetus

3. uterus/womb c) the end of the fertile period

4. placenta d) the products of conception within the

uterus up to the eighth week of
development

5. semen e) a pear-shaped organ between the

urinary bladder and the rectum

6. spermatozoon f) hornlike natural ducts for the ovum to

penetrate into the uterus

7. embryology g) the product of conception from its

eighth week of development till birth

8. fertilization h) a sponge-like vascular organ which

develops during pregnancy in the
uterine wall

9. fetus i) a combination of spermatozoa and a

thick fluid secreted by the prostate
gland.

10.embryo j) the fusion of a spermatozoon and an

ovum

IV. FILL IN THE GAPS WITH PREPOSITIONS WHERE IT IS

NECESSARY. TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES.
 (Keys: of, to, by, with, into)

1. Nobody likes to be associated … failure.

2. The examination board consists … high-level experts.
3. Radioactive substances penetrated … the soil and water after the disaster.
4. Our consultants are able to provide you … quick and effective solutions.
5. The delegation will be composed … two members from each state.
6. This book contains … much useful information on the subject.
7. Estrogen is secreted … mature follicles.
8. Freedom, like a child, needs tears and pain to reach … maturity.
9. Extreme weather conditions could refer … certain risk factors.
10.This is a two year course taught … means … lectures and seminars.
11.Million doses of the vaccine are expected to be produced …the
pharmaceutical industry this year.
12. This dictionary includes both … British and American spelling of words.

BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF HEREDITY

 Heredity includes all the factors that are present in the organism at birth. In
other words, it is the sum total of inborn individual traits.
Heredity has two aspects – biological and psychological. Biologically, it
means the sum total of biological traits that are present in the fertilised ovum.
Psychologically it means the traits, innate tendencies, and capacities that
resemble between the parents and the child.
Biological heredity according to general observation is that like begets like.
It means that cow begets cow, horse begets horse, dog begets dog, and human
beings beget human being. There is no exception to this rule.
It is a common observation that children are alike their parents. A child
takes after his parents in size, appearance, colour of the skin, colour of the eyes,
strength of muscles etc. Identical twins resemble each other at birth in every
respect. Fraternal twins resemble in majority of the traits. Siblings resemble in
many characteristics. Certain biologists explain that children are bound to resemble
their parents closely because of the continuity of the germ plasm.
There are 5 major theories regarding the mechanism of heredity:
Weisman’s, Galton’s, Mendel’s, Darwin’s, and Lamarck’s theory. The discussion
of the various theories has led to the following generalizations. In short, they are as
follows:
 1. Like begets like.
2. Law of variation.
3. Law of regression.
4. Transmission of acquired traits.
Heredity is the property of one generation to convey to the other the signs of
structure, physiological properties and the specific nature of individual
development. Variability is a change in hereditary potentialities. Variability in
manifestation of potentialities arises in the process of the organism development
when interacting with the external environment. New properties of the organism
appear only due to variability, but it only plays a role in evolution, when the
manifestation of variability persists in succeeding generations, i.e. is inherited.
But variability is limited by the law of regression. The law states that “In
successive generations variations tend to move towards the average of the species
of which they form a part.”
The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics is called
Genetics. Genetics is of great importance for Medicine. The issues how genetic
information is replicated and transmitted from cell to cell and organism to
organism are studied by Biology.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

heredity cпадковість
hereditary спадковий
in other words іншими словами
sum total загальна сума, підсумок
inborn вроджений, спадковий
individual trait індивідуальна риса
innate уроджений, природний, властивий
сapacities можливості, здібності
to resemble бути схожим, мати подібність
observation спостереження, дослідження
to beget (begot, begotten) породити, породжувати
like begets like подібне породжує подібне
exception to the rule виняток з правила
to take after бути схожим
appearance зовнішній вигляд
identical twins однояйцеві, монозиготні близнята
fraternal twins двояйцеві, дизиготні близнята
sibling єдинокровний брат або сестра
to regard вважати; розглядати; мати стосунок
transmission передача
acquired traits набуті риси
property властивість
variability мінливість
potentialities потенційні можливості
manifestation прояв
succeeding generations наступні покоління
to inherit успадковувати
issue питання, проблема
to replicate повторювати (копіювати)

I. WORD-HUNT.
Find English equivalents of the following Ukrainian phrases in the text:
Присутній в організмі, при народженні, запліднена яйцеклітина, однаковий
(подібний, схожий), колір шкіри (очей), сила м’язів, в усіх відношеннях,
зародкова плазма, закон мінливості, закон регресії (повернення до раси),
фізіологічні властивості, особлива природа, індивідуальний розвиток,
зовнішнє середовище, повернення до середнього, бути дуже важливим,
генетична інформація.
 II. Find in the text the synonyms to the words given below:
Congenital (2), bring into the world, look like (2), emerge (2), uninterruptedness,
changeability, potential сapacities, demonstration, basis, mother and father.

III. ASK QUESTIONS TO THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES BEGINNING

WITH THE WORD IN BRACKETS:
1. Heredity includes all the factors that are present in the organism at birth
(What…?)
2. Heredity has biological and psychological aspects (How many… ?)
3. Psychological aspect means the traits, innate tendencies, and capacities
resembling the parents and the child (What… ?)
4. A child takes after his parents in many features (Who … after …?)
5. Identical twins resemble each other at birth in every respect (When … ?)
6. Children are bound to resemble their parents closely because of the
continuity of the germ plasm (Why … ?)
7. There are 5 major theories regarding the mechanism of heredity (How many
… ?)
8. The signs of structure, physiological properties and the specific nature of
individual development can be conveyed from generation to generation
(How… ?)
9. Variability arises in the process of the organism development when
interacting with the external environment (When … ?)
10.New properties of the organism appear only due to variability (How … ?)
11.Variability is limited by the law of regression (What … by?)
12.Genetics is of great importance for Medicine (What … for?)
13.The discussion of the various theories of heredity has led to the certain
generalizations (What … to?)

IV. DEFINITIONS OF HEREDITY. The following definition is found

in the text: ”Heredity includes all the factors that are present in the
 organism at birth. In other words, it is the sum-total of inborn individual
traits. “
Beneath definitions of heredity suggested by different biologists are given. What
do you think which of them is the most correct? Explain your choice.

1. James Drever:
“Heredity is the transmission from parents to offsprings of physical and mental
characteristics.”

2. H.A. Paterson:
“Heredity may be defined as what one gets from his ancestral stock through his
parents.”

3. R.S. Woodworth:
“Heredity covers all the factors that are present in the individual when he begins
life not at birth, but at the time of conception about nine months before birth.”

4. O.B. Douglas and B.F. Holland:

“One’s heredity consists of all the structures, physical characteristics, functions or
capacities derived from parents, other ancestry or species.”

5. Ruth Bandict:
“Heredity is transmission of traits from parents to offsprings.”

6. J.A. Thomson:
“Heredity is mainly a convenient term for the genetic relation between successive
generations.”

7. P. Gisburt:
“Every act of generation in nature is the transmission by the parents to their off-
spring of certain characteristics biological or psychological. The complex of the
characteristics thus transmitted is known by the name of heredity”.
 V. TASK FOR THE CURIOUS.

What do you know about Weisman’s, Galton’s, Mendel’s, Darwin’s, and

Lamarck’s theories? What are these scientists famous for? Share the information
you have found with your group-mates.

VI. MAKE UP A WRITTEN ANNOTATION OF THE TEXT.

The following expressions may be of great assistance:

The text is about…

The text informs/tells about …
The text deals with the issues of …
The main ideas raised in the text are …
The text answers the following questions…
The author discusses (focuses on, tells how, highlights…)
It was interesting (useful) to learn (to know) that …
In general, the text makes easy (difficult) reading…
The information contained in the text motivates me to …

ENZYMES AS BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS

Enzymes are biological catalysts - i.e., substances of biological origin that

accelerate chemical reactions. Enzymes are specialized proteins that help:
catalyze (speed up) reactions, break down molecules, and build up new
molecules.
How do enzymes work? – This photo shows how the majority of enzymes work:

Enzymes are similar to other chemical catalysts in many ways:

 Enzymes and chemical catalysts both increase the rate (velocity) of a chemical
reaction without itself being changed in the overall process.
 They both decrease the activation energy required for a chemical reaction.
 Enzymes, like all catalysts, cannot alter the equilibrium of the reaction, but
they can increase the rate toward equilibrium.
Enzymes differ from ordinary chemical catalysts in several important respects:
 The enzymes are highly specific to the reactions they catalyze whereas
chemical catalysts can react with a variety of substrates.
 Enzymes are often regulated.
 The difference between inorganic catalysts and enzymes is directly related to
their structures.

All enzymes are proteins with the exception of a small group of catalytic
RNA molecules, called “ribozymes”. Enzymes are high molecular weight
compounds made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by
peptide bonds. Enzymes, like other functional proteins, are divided into simple
and complex enzymes. Simple enzymes consist of polypeptide chain only.
 Complex enzymes consist of protein part (apoenzyme or apoprotein) and non-
protein part (cofactor).

The cells of your body are capable of making many different enzymes.
Needs and conditions vary from cell to cell and change in individual cells over
time. For instance, stomach cells need different enzymes than fat storage cells,
skin cells, blood cells, or nerve cells.
Due to the fact that enzymes guide and regulate the metabolism of a cell,
they tend to be carefully controlled. The factors that can affect or control enzyme
activity include pH and temperature.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

enzyme фермент
biological catalyst біологічний каталізатор
biological origin біологічне походження
chemical catalyst хімічний каталізатор
to accelerate (catalyze, speed up) прискорювати, каталізувати
chemical reaction хімічна реакція
substrate субстрат,живильне середовище
to breаk down руйнувати, розщепляти, розпадатися
to build up molecules будувати (створювати) молекули
rate (velocity) рівень, швидкість, темп
to require energy потребувати енергії
to alter the equilibrium змінювати рівновагу
highly specific високо специфічний
to react with реагувати з
tightly bound туго, щільно зв'язаний
loosely bound вільно зв'язаний
ribozyme рибозим
high molecular weight compounds високомолекулярні сполуки
chains of amino acids ланцюги амінокислот
peptide bonds пептидні зв'язки
polypeptide chain поліпептидний ланцюжок
to be capable of бути здатним до
over time з часом
enzymatic pathway ферментативний шлях
deletion of substrate руйнування (усунення) субстрату
feedback inhibition ретроінгібування, гальмування/інгібування по
принципу зворотного зв’язку
I. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS IN THE TEXT ABOVE:

Речовини, білки, схожий (подібний, однаковий), підвищувати

(збільшувати), повний процес, знижувати (зменшувати), відрізнятись від,
звичайний каталізатор, у кількох відношеннях, розмаїтість (безліч), прямо
пов'язаний з, органічна (неорганічна) молекула, за винятком, з’єднаний
(сполучений) разом, прості (складні) ферменти, потреби та умови.

II. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the origin (nature) of enzymes?
2. What do enzymes help?
3. How do enzymes work? (Explain the first diagram).
4. What are enzymes similar to?
5. How do enzymes influence upon chemical reactions?
6. How do enzymes affect the energy required for chemical reactions?
7. How do enzymes change the equilibrium of chemical reactions?
8. How do enzymes differ from ordinary chemical catalysts?
9. What is the difference between inorganic catalysts and enzymes related to?
10.What is the structure of enzymes? (Explain the second diagram).
11.What is molecular weight of enzymes?
12.What are enzymes made up of?
13.How do simple and complex enzymes differ?
14.What is regulation of enzymes? (Explain the third diagram).
15.What body structures are capable of making enzymes?
16.Why are the enzymes controlled carefully?
17.What factors can control enzyme activity?

III. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS

1. enzyme a) the smallest particle of a chemical element that can

exist consisting of a tiny, dense, positively charged
nucleus made of neutrons and protons, surrounded by a
cloud of negatively charged electrons
2. catalyst b) the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance
or object, especially as expressed according to a
comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or
perceived by touch
3. molecule c) a substance (proteins with large complex molecules)
produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst
to bring about a specific biochemical reaction
4. atom d) a figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution on a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral,
lower values are more acid and higher values more
alkaline.
5. protein e) substances containing nitrogen and hydrogen and
which are found in proteins
6. ribozyme f) a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
reaction without itself undergoing any permanent
 chemical change
7. amino acids g) an RNA molecule capable of acting as an enzyme

8. metabolism h) any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds

which have large molecules composed of one or more
long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of
all living organisms
9. pH i) the way that chemical processes in your body cause
food to be used in an efficient way, for example to make
new cells and to give you energy
10.temperature j) a group of atoms bonded together, representing the
smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that
can take part in a chemical reaction

IV. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. Enzymes and chemical catalysts both increase the rate of …
2. Enzymes cannot alter the equilibrium of the reaction, but they can increase …
3. The difference between inorganic catalysts and enzymes is …
4. Enzymes are high molecular weight compounds made up principally of…
5. Enzymes, like other functional proteins, are divided into…
6. The factors that can affect or control enzyme activity include …
7. Usually prosthetic groups are…
8. Usually prosthetic groups are tightly bound …
9. Coenzyme is … Coenzyme is loosely …
10.Regulation of enzymatic pathways …
11.Feedback inhibition is …
METABOLISM
 Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved
in maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism. Metabolism can be
conveniently divided into two categories:
 Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy.
 Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells.
Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of nutrients.
Bioenergetics is a term which describes the biochemical or metabolic pathways by
which the cell ultimately obtains energy. Energy formation is one of the vital
components of metabolism.
Nutrition is the key to metabolism. The pathways of metabolism rely upon
nutrients when they breakdown in order to produce energy. This energy in its
turn is required by the body to synthesize new proteins, nucleic acids (DNA,
RNA) etc.
Nutrients in relation to metabolism encompass bodily requirement for
various substances and individual functions in body. Essential nutrients supply
energy (calories) and supply the necessary chemicals which the body itself cannot
synthesize. Food provides a variety of substances that are essential for the building,
maintenance, repair of body tissues, and for the efficient functioning of the body.
The diet needs essential nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, and around 20 other inorganic elements. The major elements
are supplied in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. In addition, vitamins, minerals
and water are necessary.
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic
pathways. These allow the basic chemicals from nutrition to be transformed
through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes.
Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they enable organisms to drive
desirable reactions that require energy. These reactions also are coupled with
those that release energy. As enzymes act as catalysts they allow these reactions to
proceed quickly and efficiently. Enzymes also regulate metabolic pathways in
response to changes in the cell's environment or signals from other cells.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to maintain підтримувати, зберігати
living state живий стан
to produce energy продукувати (виробляти) енергію
to obtain energy отримувати енергію
to supply energy постачати енергію
to release energy вивільнювати енергію
compound сполука
nutrition харчування, живлення, їжа
nutrient поживна речовина
availability наявність; доступність
ultimately в кінці кінців; в кінцевому рахунку
vital component життєво важливий компонент
to rely upon/on покладатися на
in order to для того, щоб
in one’s turn в свою чергу
to encompass стосуватися
(to) repair (of) tissues відновлення тканин (відновлювати)
carbohydrate вуглевод
lipid ліпід, жир
sequence of enzymes послідовність ферментів
crucial вирішальний; ключовий
to drive a reaction прискорювати реакцію
desirable бажаний, підходящий
to couple with поєднуватися з
to proceed quickly швидко протікати (розвиватися)
efficiently ефективно
in response to у відповідь на

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What are two categories of metabolism?
2. What do the pathways of metabolism rely upon?
3. What is metabolism closely linked to?
4. What do the essential nutrients supply?
5. What does the food provide?
6. What essential nutrients does the diet need?
7. What is the energy required for?
8. What is necessary for the efficient functioning of the body?
9. What elements are supplied with diet?
10. What is the role of metabolic pathways?
11. What is the function of enzymes in chemical reactions?
12. How do enzymes regulate metabolic pathways?

II. MATCH THE TERMS WITH THEIR DEFINTIONS:

1. Metabolism a) a substance that provides nourishment

essential for the maintenance of life and
 for growth
2. Catabolism b) the kinds of food that a person,
animal, or community habitually eats
3. Nutrition c)synthesis of complex molecules in
living organisms from simpler ones
together with the storage of energy
4. Nutrient d)a substance produced by a living
organism which acts as a catalyst to
cause a specific biochemical reaction
5. Diet e)breakdown of complex molecules in
living organisms to form simpler ones,
together with the release of energy
6. Food f)the chemical processes that occur
within a living organism in order to
maintain life
7. Enzyme g)the smallest structural and functional
unit of an organism, which is typically
microscopic and consists of cytoplasm
and a nucleus
8. Bioenergetics h) any nutritious substance that people
or animals eat or drink or that plants
absorb in order to maintain life and
growth
9. Cell i)the study of the transformation of
energy in living organisms
10.Tissue j) the process of providing or obtaining
the food necessary for health and
growth
11.Anabolism k)any of the distinct types of material of
which animals or plants are made,
 consisting of specialized cells and their
products

III. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS IN THE TEXT FOR THE

FOLLOWING UKRAINIAN PHRASES:

Тісно пов'язаний з, формування енергії, нуклеїнова кислота, синтезувати

білок, по відношенню до, потреби організму, необхідні хімічні речовини,
вуглець, водень, кисень, азот, фосфор, сірка, ефективне функціонування,
неорганічний елемент, ряд кроків, зовнішнє середовище.

IV. TRUE OR FALSE

1. Catabolism means destructive metabolism.
2. Anabolism means constructive metabolism.
3. Metabolism is necessary for nutrition.
4. Nutrients are synthesized to produce energy.
5. Energy formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.
6. The energy is required to digest food.
7. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur are vitamins.
8. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins supply the body with necessary elements.
9. Enzymes act as catalysts for chemical reactions.
10.Enzymatic activity prevents from normal metabolism.
 CARBOHYDRATES. FATS. PROTEINS.

Energy can be stored in the body in the form of proteins, fats, and complex
carbohydrates. These are taken in the diet. They are found mainly in cereal grains,
vegetable oils, meat, fish, and dairy products.
Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy in most diets. The
principal product of carbohydrate digestion and the principal circulating sugar is
glucose. The liver cells take this glucose from the blood and convert it to
glycogen. Glycogen, the storage form of glucose, is present in most body tissues,
but the major supplies are in the liver and in skeletal muscle. Liver glycogen is
readily converted back to glucose. This process is known as glycogenolysis.
Muscle glycogen unlike liver glycogen is not readily converted to glucose, and it
is therefore not readily available as a reserve to maintain the blood glucose level.
Muscle glycogen is, however, broken down to glucose phosphate and then to two
molecules of pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid.
The need of the blood for glucose is constant, because it is constantly giving
up glucose to the tissues. The conversion of glycogen into glucose as it is required
by the tissues is effected by various enzymes contained in the liver cells and by
hormones.
 Fats make up the second largest source of energy in most diets. They are
carried by the blood to all parts of the body. Fats are stored in the adipose tissue in
various parts of the body, for example, under the skin, peritoneum etc.
Carbohydrates, in excess of the amount that can be stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscles, are converted into depot, or stored fat.
Proteins are essential for the growth and rebuilding of tissues, but they can
also be utilized as a source of energy. As a result of digestion, proteins are
hydrolyzed (broken down) to (into) amino acids. Some of the amino acids are used
to synthesize tissue protein and other substances in the body, and the balance not
needed for this purpose serves to supply energy. Amino acids not used by the body
are eventually excreted in the urine in the form of urea.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to store накопичувати, зберігати, відкладати
storage накопичення, зберігання
cereal grains хлібні злаки
vegetable oil рослинна олія
dairy product молочний продукт
source of energy джерело енергії
circulating sugar циркулюючий цукор
to covert перетворювати
conversion перетворення
glucose глюкоза
glycogen глікоген
storage form форма накопичення (зберігання)
major supplies основні запаси
glycogenolysis глікогеноліз
pyruvic acid піровиноградна кислота
lactic acid молочна кислота
to give up відмовитись, покинути
adipose tissue жирова тканина
in excess of the amount у надлишковій кількості
depot депо, сховище
stored fat накопичений жир
to utilize використовувати, утилізувати
eventually у кінцевому підсумку, врешті-решт

I. ASK QUESTIONS BEGINNING THEM WITH THE WORDS IN

BRACKETS
1. Energy can be stored in the body in the form of proteins, fats, and complex
carbohydrates. (How …?)
2. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates are found mainly in cereal grains, vegetable
oils, meat, fish, and dairy products. (Where …?)
3. Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy in most diets. (What …?)
4. The liver cells convert glucose into glycogen. (What …?)
5. The major supplies of glycogen are found in the liver and in skeletal muscle.
(Where …?)
6. Muscle glycogen is broken down to glucose phosphate. (What … to?)
7. The need of the blood for glucose is constant, because it is constantly giving
up glucose to the tissues. (Why …?)
8. Fats are stored in the adipose tissue. (Where …?)
9. Proteins are essential for the growth and rebuilding of tissues. (What …
for?)
10.Proteins are broken down into amino acids. (What … into?)
11.Some of the amino acids are used to synthesize tissue protein and other
substances in the body. (What … for?)
12.Amino acids not used by the body are excreted in the urine (Where …?)

II. TRUE OR FALSE.

 1. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are taken in the diet.
 2. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are found only in cereal grains, vegetable oils,
meat, fish and dairy products.
 3. Carbohydrates are stored in the liver as glycogen.
 4. Glycogen is a circulating sugar.
 5. Fats are utilized into urine in the form of urea.
 6. Proteins are essential for growth and supply of energy.
7. Lactic acid is formed in the muscles. 
8. Liver glycogen is readily converted back to glucose.
9. Conversion of muscle glycogen into glucose is called glycogenolysis.
10. Excessive amount of carbohydrates is converted into the depot.
11. Tissue protein is synthesized from amino acids.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. The need of the blood for glucose is constant, because …
2. The conversion of glycogen into glucose as it is required by…
3. Fats are stored in …
4. As a result of digestion, proteins are hydrolyzed into …
5. Some of the amino acids are used to …
6. Glucose is stored in the liver and..
7. Liver glycogen is readily converted back …
8. Muscle glycogen is broken down to glucose phosphate and then …
9. The conversion of glycogen into glucose is effected by …
10.Glycogenolysis is the process of conversion of …
11.Amino acids not used by the body are excreted …
 IV. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES REPLACING THE
WORDS IN BRACKETS WITH SYNONYMIC EXPRESSIONS FROM
THE TEXT
1. The sugar and starches in the food appear in the blood after digestion and
absorption (as) glucose.
2. The (main) product of carbohydrate digestion and the (main) circulating sugar
is glucose.
3. Protein is (necessary) for growth and repair of tissues.
4. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are (contained) mainly in cereal grains,
vegetable oils, meat, fish, and dairy products.
5. Tissue protein is (broken down) into the amino acids.
6. Amino acids not used by the body are (finally) excreted in the urine (as) urea.
7. The conversion of glycogen into glucose as it is required by the tissue is
(realized) by (different) enzymes contained in the liver cells and by hormones.
8. Fats (compose) the second largest source of energy in most diets.

V. USE THE WORDS IN ITALICS TO BUILD DERIVATIVES

1. Transportation and … of radioactive substances is store
dangerous.
2. Documents can be … in the database. store
3. She always has troubles with her … . digest
4. Proper functioning of the … system is the basis of good digest
health
5. The body … system is responsible for sending blood, circulate
oxygen, and nutrients throughout your body.
6. They witnessed the … of the thorny wilderness into the convert
fertile meadow.
7. You should understand the importance of natural food for maintain
the … of health.
8. Candidates must meet certain … to be employed. require
9. This liquid cannot be kept in plastic … . contain
10. He immigrated and had to … all his life in a new country. build
11.The government supports … projects after a long and deep build
economic crisis.
12.Most drugs undergo deactivation and … from the body. excrete

VI. FOOD
Read the text below to get additional information about healthy food. Fill in
the missing words. Choose them from the following. Be ready to do the
after reading tasks
absorbed, amino acids, amounts, balanced, cellulose, cereals, fish, hemoglobin,
healing, eliminated, insulation, intake, iodine, minerals, protect, pulses,
riboflavin, anemia, stored, malnutrition, intestine

A ____________ diet contains all the necessary substances required by

body cells and tissues. There can be adverse effects from overeating as well as
from ______________. A varied diet is the best way to ensure an adequate
__________ of all the essential nutrients. The essential nutrients are water,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and ______________.
Fruit and vegetables provide carbohydrates, but leaves and stalks can be
indigestible because they contain more _____________. High quality proteins
which are easily digested and _____________ are found in meat, eggs, milk,
fish and pulses (beans, peas, lentils etc.). Fats form a kind of ___________
under the skin, _____________ major organs from injury and are required for
effective neural function. Only small ____________ of vitamins are required.
They are fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed from
the small _____________ and are found in _______ and plant oils. They can be
________ in the liver and adipose tissue. Water-soluble vitamins are easily
_______ from the body. Vitamin B complex includes thiamine, ___________,
and nicotinic acid. Foods providing them include ___________ (wheat, rye),
yeast, milk and eggs.
There are many minerals essential for health, but iron, _______, and zinc
are the most significant. Zinc is involved in enzyme reactions and is important
during period of growth and wound __________. Iron is a major component of
________. Its low levels can lead to _____________.

1) Find English equivalents to the following Ukrainian words and phrases

in the text:

Переїдання, недоїдання, необхідні поживні речовини, листя і стебла, важко

перетравлюваний, високоякісні білки, бобові рослини, сочевиця,
ізоляція/ізоляційний шар, жиророзчинні/водорозчинні вітаміни,
виводитися з організму, пшениця, жито, дріжджі, загоювання ран.
2) What diet is considered best and why? What minerals are essential for
the human body and what is their function? What amounts of vitamins
do we need? What kinds of vitamins do you know?
3) Prepare a project/report on diet (for example, vegetarian diet, monodiet,
high-calorie diet, salt-free diet, starvation, etc.) and present it to your
group-mates.
 SOLIDS

Solid forms of medications
include tablets, pills, powders, dragee, capsules and medicinal teas. Tablet is
a solid dosage form of varying weight, size and shape, which may be molded or
compressed. It contains a medicinal substance in pure or diluted form.
According to the way of their use of tablets are divided into: oral/peroral,
sublingual, for injectable solutions, used to prepare solutions for gargling and
irrigation. Tablets may be coated with sugar, gelatin, chocolate, suitably
colored and flavored.
Pills are small balls of variable size, shape and colour, sometimes coated
with sugar. They contain one or more medicinal substances in a solid form.
They are taken orally.
Powder is a substance made up of an aggregation of small particles by
means of grinding or trituration of a solid matter. According to the number of
ingredients the powders are divided into simple and compound. There are
powders for external, internal use and for injections. They may be divided and
undivided. Divided powders are given in capsules or in waxen or paraffinic
paper.
Capsule is a structure in which medication is enclosed. It is a soluble
container of a suitable substance: gelatin or starch. Capsules dissolve quickly in
the stomach or small intestine. It is necessary to indicate the kind of capsules in
prescription because different capsules deliver medications to different parts of
the alimentary canal.
Dragee is a sugar-coated pill, or medicated confection. Vitamins are
usually prescribed in the form of dragee.
Medicinal tea is the mixture of some dried medicinal herbs/plants or
their parts (flowers, berries, roots, leaves, seeds, fruit, shoots, bark, etc.) which
are used to make medical preparations. There are medicinal teas for tinctures
and decoctions; teas for smoking; teas for having a bath. Officinal medicinal
teas are produced at the pharmaceutical factories. Magistral medicinal teas are
prepared in the chemist's shop according to the physician's prescription.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
solid form тверда форма (ліків)
tablet таблетка
pill пігулка
powder порошок
dragee драже
capsule капсула
dosage form дозована форма
to mold пресувати
to compress стискати, здавлювати, давити
medicinal substance лікарська, цілюща речовина
medicinal herb лікарська трава
medicinal tea збір лікарських рослин
pure form чиста форма
diluted form розведена форма
oral/peroral оральний, для внутрішнього вживання
sublingual під'язичний
injectable solution розчин для ін'єкцій
gargling полоскання (горла)
irrigation промивання, спринцювання
coated with sugar покритий цукром
flavored ароматизований/ароматний
aggregation агрегація, з'єднання частин
grinding подрібнювання
trituration розтирання в порошок
simple powder простий порошок
compound powder складний порошок
divided powder дозований порошок
undivided powder недозований порошок
waxen paper восковий папір
paraffinic paper парафіновий папір
to dissolve розчиняти(ся), розріджувати(ся)
to deliver medication доставляти ліки
soluble container розчинний контейнер
medicated confection медикаментозні солодкі сиропи,
льодяники, мікстури
to prescribe прописувати
prescription рецепт, пропис
tincture настоянка
decoction відвар
officinal патентований, фармакопейний
magistral спеціально показаний,
прописаний, виготовлений за
рецептом
Note: 1) mind the difference in pronunciation between the verb to compress
[kəm'pres] and the noun compress ['kɔmpres];
2) medical – медичний, терапевтичний, лікувальний and medicinal –
лікарський, цілющий are the words of different meaning;
3) magistral [mə'ʤɪstr(ə)l]; [ʹmædʒıstrəl] – два варіанти вимови

I. MATCH EACH WORD ON THE LEFT WITH THE MEANING

ON THE RIGHT.
1. varying weight a. готувати розчин
2. ingredient b. для внутрішнього застосування
3. the way of use c. аптека
4. small particles d. приймати ванну
5. for external use e. фармацевтичний завод
6. for internal use f. суміш, мікстура
7. to have a bath g. різна вага
8. to prepare solution h. складова частина, компонент
9. mixture i. спосіб вживання
10. pharmaceutical factory j. маленькі часточки
11. chemist's shop k. для зовнішнього застосування

II. FORM NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES FROM THE VERBS

BELOW AND WRITE THEM IN THE CHART
Dilute, create, divide, inject, irrigate, vary, contain, prescribe, comfort, mix,
provide, design

-(t)ion -er -sion -(t)ure -able

III. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What are solid forms of medications?
2. What is a tablet?
3. How are tablets used?
4. How are tablets made?
5. What kind of solids are pills?
6. Why are tablets and pills coated with some flavoring substances?
7. What kind of substance is a powder?
8. What is the difference between divided and undivided powders?
9. What are the capsules made of?
10.Why are the capsules used?
11.What is dragee?
12.What are medicinal teas made of?
13.What are two kinds of medicinal teas?

IV. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH APPROPRIATE

PHRASES FROM THE TEXT AND TRANSLATE THEM
1. My family doctor (прописав) me some (розчин для полоскання горла).
2. A (чиста форма) is highly concentrated, therefore you should use a
(розведена форма).
3. Here you can drink a cup of (ароматний) coffee and enjoy a beautiful
landscape from the window of the hotel.
4. M&M's are multi-colored button-shaped candies (покриті) milk
chocolate.
5. Ukraine is rich in different (лікарські рослини) used in folk and
traditional medicine.
6. (Вощений) or (парафіновий папір) prevents (порошки) from moisture.
7. Fats and oils (не розчиняються) in water.
8. Modern post-office service (доставляє) parcels and documents in time.
9. There are many various (збори лікарських рослин) in our (аптеках).
10.(Збір лікарських рослин для куріння) can be prescribed in case of asthma
attacks.
11.Mineral waters are used for different disorders of the (травний тракт)
and for (приймання ванни) in case of aches in joints.
12.Our (фармацевтичний завод) produces different (таблетки, порошки,
пігулки та розчини для ін’єкцій).

V. ASK QUESTIONS TO WHICH THE FOLLOWING COULD BE

ANSWERS. START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH THE WORDS
IN BRACKETS
1. Tablets are made by means of molding or compression. (How?)
2. Tablets are produced by pharmaceutical plants. (Where?)
3. Pills are taken by mouth. (How?)
4. Divided powders are given in coated capsules. (What … in?)
5. Different capsules deliver medications to different parts of the alimentary
canal. (Where …to?)
6. Capsules dissolve quickly. (How?)
7. Vitamins are usually prescribed in the form of dragee. (What form?)
 SEMISOLIDS

Semisolid forms of medications include ointments, liniments, pastes,

suppositories and plasters. Semisolids are greasy by touch. Ointment is a
semisolid preparation, which may or may not contain medication, for external
application to the body. Although less pleasant to use than the equivalent
cream, it is more effective since it forms an impermeable layer on the skin,
reducing evaporation from the surface. Ointments are made on a special base.
Vaseline, lanolin, depurated pork lard are common bases for an ointment.
Some ointments may be applied on the mucous membranes or eyes.
Liniments are also semisolids, but they contain more liquid preparation.
They are rubbed onto the skin or applied on a surgical dressing. Liniments
often contain vegetable oils or camphor as a basis.
Paste is a semisolid preparation, generally for external use, of a fatty,
viscous base. It has a soft sticky consistency. Thus, a paste consists of no less
than 25% of different powders (talc, starch or zinc oxide). It is a preparation
similar to an ointment, but thicker and stiffer. That’s why it penetrates the
skin less than an ointment.
Suppository is a medicated mass adapted for insertion into the rectum or
vagina. They are called rectal or vaginal correspondingly. Suppositories are
solid at room temperature but melt at body temperature. Common bases for
them are cocoa butter, vegetable oils, lanolin. Rectal suppositories may contain
drugs that act locally in the rectum or anus. Vaginal suppositories are used in
the treatment of some gynecological disorders.
Plaster is a paste-like mixture spread over the adhesive tape. Plasters are
applied to the skin. Common plasters are: adhesive or sticking lead, corn, and
mustard. Mustard plasters are a uniform mixture of powdered black mustard
and a solution of suitable adhesive, spread on an appropriate material. They are
used as a local irritant in the treatment of various respiratory diseases.
Semisolid forms can be prescription drugs and over the counter
medicines.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
semisolid м’яка лікарська форма
ointment мазь
liniment лінімент, рідка мазь
paste паста
suppository свічка, супозиторій
plaster пластир
greasy by touch сальний, жирний на дотик
to apply on/to прикладати, накладати на
application прикладання, накладання
impermeable layer непроникний, герметичний шар
to reduce evaporation зменшити випаровування
depurated pork lard очищений свинячий жир
mucous membrane слизова оболонка
to rub onto the skin втирати в шкіру
surgical dressing хірургічна пов’язка
viscous base в’язка основа
soft sticky consistency м’яка липка/клейка консистенція
thick густий, огрядний, товстий
stiff в'язкий, густий, щільний,
закляклий, застиглий, заціпенілий
to penetrate the skin проникати крізь шкіру
to insert вставляти, вкладати, вводити
to melt танути
at room temperature при кімнатній температурі
at body temperature при температурі тіла
cocoa butter масло какао
to act locally проявляти місцеву дію
gynecological disorder гінекологічне захворювання
paste-like mixture пастоподібна суміш
adhesive tape клейка стрічка, пластир, скотч
lead plaster свинцевий пластир
corn plaster мозольний пластир
mustard plaster гірчичник
local irritant місцевий подразник
prescription drug ліки, що продаються за рецептом
over the counter medicine ліки, що продаються без рецепта

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What kinds of medications belong to semisolids?
2. What is ointment?
3. What are common bases for ointments?
4. Why are ointments more effective than creams?
 5. How are the ointments applied?
6. What is a difference between ointments and liniments?
7. What are common bases for liniments?
8. How do pastes differ from ointments?
9. What are suppositories used for?
10.Where should be suppositories kept? Why?
11.What is plaster?
12.What plasters are commonly used?

II. SELECT THE APPROPRIATE LETTERED MEANING FOR

EACH NUMBERED LINE
1 liniment a. A smooth, thick substance to rub on the skin
for healing.
2 plaster b. An oily liquid to rub on painful body parts to
reduce pain.
3 paste c. A medication on material or cloth placed on the skin.
4 ointment d. A solid medicine which melts slowly in the
rectum or vagina.
5 suppository e. An external preparation that has a stiffer consistency
than an ointment and is less greasy because of its
higher percentage of powdered ingredients.

III. GIVE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS TO THE FOLLOWING

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS
Містити лікувальний засіб; крем; основа для мазі; рослинні жири (олії);
тальк; крохмаль; оксид цинку; медикаментозна маса; ректальна свічка;
вагінальна свічка; порошкоподібна чорна гірчиця; підходяща клейка
речовина; уніфікована суміш; лікування; захворювання дихальних шляхів.
 IV. MULTIPLE MEANING (POLYSEMANTICISM) IS PECULIAR
FOR MANY WORDS IN ENGLISH. TRY TO TRANSLATE
THE FOLLOWING WITH ADJECTIVES THICK AND STIFF
Thick walls, thick hair, thick forest, thick rain, thick soup, thick jelly, thick
morning, thick speech;
Stiff muscles, stiff black hair, stiff in death, stiff neck, stiff penalty, stiff drink,
stiff dose of medicine, stiff examination.

V. FILL IN THE GAPS WITH WORDS FROM THE TEXT AND

TRANSLATE SENTENCES
1. The canoe is made from an (непроникний для води) wood.
2. (Випаровування) is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a
gas.
3. Visually impaired people orient themselves (на дотик) .
4. (Свиняче сало) is one of the main products of Ukrainian traditional
cuisine.
5. The nurse changed (хірургічні пов’язки) on patients in the morning.
6. Many (рослинні олії) are successfully used to make and flavor food.
7. The knife wound was so deep that (проникла) to the bone.
8. These medicines cannot be kept (при кімнатній температурі).
9. Every morning before rounds nurses take (температура тіла) of
patients in the wards.
10.It was next to impossible (вставити) a key in the lock in complete
darkness.
11.(Масло какао) is used in the manufacture of confectionery and cosmetics.
12.My new shoes chafed my feet, so I have to buy (мозольний пластир) as I
cannot walk.
13.Even (ліки, що продаються без рецепта) are not given to children.
 LIQUID FORMS OF MEDICATIONS

Liquid forms of medications include a

great number of various drugs. They are: solutions, emulsions, infusions,
decoctions, tinctures, extracts, mucilage, mixtures and syrups. Liquid
preparations usually contain certain amount of a dissolving medium for
various reasons.
Solutions make up a big class of liquid preparations. They may contain
one or several soluble chemical substances dissolved in water or other
solvents. Due to the type of solvent all the solutions are divided into water
(aqueous), alcohol and oil ones. They are administered for internal and external
use. According to the purpose of use solutions are divided into solutions for
injections, gargling, lotions, enemas, irrigation etc. Solutions are given in
ampules or bottles.
Emulsion is a preparation in which fine droplets of one liquid (such as
oil) are dispersed in another liquid (such as water). There are false (oil)
emulsions and true (seminal) emulsions prepared of seeds.
Infusions and decoctions are prepared on the basis of raw plant
materials. They differ in the way of extraction of active principles. In the
infusions they are extracted from soft plant material (flowers, leaves, stems etc.).
Decoctions are prepared by boiling hard parts of plants such as bark, roots, seeds
etc. Infusions and decoctions may be taken inside or used externally for various
lotions, rinsing, gargling, washing and compresses.
Extract is a concentrated preparation of a vegetable or animal origin
obtained by removing pharmacologically active constituents by means of
evaporating a solution of the drug in water, alcohol, or ether. According to the
extractor all extracts are divided into: water, oil, alcohol, and ethereal. As to
their consistency extracts are divided into: fluid, thick and dry.
Tinctures present alcohol extracts of drugs derived from plants or
chemical substances. Tinctures usually have the colour of their constituents.
They are officinal drug forms.
Mucilage is a thick aqueous/water solution or naturally formed viscid
principle in a plant, consisting of a gum dissolved in the juice of the plant. The
most important mucilage is of Arabic gum, gum of the apricot, starch, seeds of
flax, root of marshmallow. Mucilage is usually prescribed in mixtures, that is,
25% of mucilage is added to the mixtures.
Syrups are thick, transparent liquids for internal use which have the
taste and smell of their constituents. Syrups are flavouring and medicinal.
Flavouring syrups such as simple syrup made of sugar, syrup of raspberry,
cherry and other fruit are used for the improvement of the taste or smell of
certain drugs. Medicinal syrups are used as medicines themselves. They are the
syrups of rhubarb, licorice, marshmallow, dog-rose etc.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
liquid form рідка форма
solution розчин
emulsion емульсія
infusion настій
decoction відвар
tincture настоянка
extract  витяжка, екстракт
mucilage рослинний слиз/клей
mixture мікстура
syrup сироп
dissolving medium середовище, яке розчиняє
for various reasons з різних причин,підстав
soluble chemical substance розчинна хімічна речовина
solvent розчинник
to administer призначати, застосовувати, давати
(ліки)
lotion примочка, лосьйон
enema клізма
fine droplet дрібна краплинка
to disperse розсіювати, розповсюджувати
false (oil) emulsion масляна емульсія
true (seminal) emulsion насінна емульсія
raw plant material необроблена рослинна сировина
active principle діюча речовина, активна складова
active constituent активний компонент
extraction екстракція,витягування,
приготування екстракту, витяжки
extractor екстрактор (речовина для
витяжки)
ether ефір
ethereal ефірний
to derive from отримувати з
officinal drug form готова,патентована лікарська
форма
viscid principle густа, клейка речовина
gum камедь; смола; смолисте
виділення
Arabic gum Аравійська камедь
transparent прозорий
flavouring syrup смаковий сироп
medicinal syrup лікувальний сироп
to improve taste/smell покращувати смак/запах

I. WORD HUNT. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS IN THE

TEXT
Водний розчин, спиртовий розчин, масляний розчин, насіння, квіти,
стебло, кора (дерева), кип’ятіння, полоскання, промивання, рослинного
походження, тваринного походження, рідка витяжка, густа витяжка, суха
витяжка, алтея аптечна або лікарська, абрикос, льон, малина,
вишня/черешня, ревінь, локриця звичайна (солодкий корінь), шипшина.

II. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the common feature of liquid forms of drugs?
2. How are solutions divided?
3. How are solutions used?
4. What kinds of emulsions do you know?
5. How are emulsions prepared?
6. What is the difference between infusions and decoctions?
7. What are infusion and decoctions used for?
8. How are extracts divided due to their extractor?
9. What is a possible consistency of extracts?
10.What kind of drug is a tincture?
11.Where are tinctures produced?
12.What are syrups and how are they used?
13.What medicinal plants are used to prepare syrups?

III. SELECT THE APPROPRIATE LETTERED MEANING FOR

EACH NUMBERED LINE
1 □ tincture a. A very small amount of liquid that forms a
round shape.
2 □ drops b. An aqueous solutions treating throat
infections.
3 □ decoction c. An oily liquid to rub on painful body parts to
reduce pain.
4 □ aerosol d. A medicine made by dissolving a drug in alcohol.
5 □ emulsion e. A container with a liquid that is administered
in spray form.
6 □ gargles f. A liquid in which another substance has been
dissolved.
7 □ solution g. A concentrated liquor resulting from heating
or boiling a substance, especially a medicinal
preparation made from a plant.
8 □ elixirs h. A sweet, liquid medicine taken with a spoon or cup.
9 □ syrup i. A mixture of two immiscible liquids, most
commonly oil and water.

IV. FORMS OF DRUGS

1. a) Translate the following dosage forms into Ukrainian.
 pastes  aerosols  inhalations
 granules  lotions  suppositories
 ointments  pills  tablets
 medicinal tea  syrups  liniments
  mixtures  gels  emulsions
 lozenges  gargles  decoction
b) Distribute the dosage forms into solid, semisolid and liquid.
Solids Semisolids Liquids

V. WORD GROUPS. UNDERLINE THE WORD THAT IS

DIFFERENT. SAY WHY

1. solution powder decoction tincture

2. tablet pill medicinal tea infusion
3. paste liniment dragee ointment
4. gargling trituration irrigation rinsing
5. berries flowers oil roots
6. zinc oxide rhubarb dog-rose marshmallow

DRUG INTERACTION
Medicines help us feel better and stay healthy. But sometimes drug
interactions can cause problems. There are three types of drug interactions:
 Drug-drug interaction: A reaction between two (or more) drugs. 
 Drug-food interaction: A reaction between a drug and a food or beverage.
 Drug-condition interaction: A reaction that occurs when taking a drug while
having a certain medical condition. For example, taking a nasal
decongestant if you have high blood pressure may cause an unwanted
reaction.
A drug interaction can make a drug less effective, increase the action of a
drug, or cause unwanted side effects.
Medicines are combined for decreasing or removing undesirable effects
of pharmacotherapy, increasing the therapeutic effect or reducing the
period of treatment. Such types of the drug interaction as pharmaceutical,
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions can be observed in case of
combined administrations of medicines.
The pharmaceutical interaction is based on physical, physical-chemical
and chemical reactions of medicinal substances, which are in the composition of
one medicinal form, or which appear with their simultaneous administration.
If two medicines act in the same direction, such an interaction is called
synergism. A combination of two drugs can cause an effect which is greater
than the sum of the individual effects of each drug. For example, penicillin and
streptomycin, antibiotic drugs, are given together in the treatment for bacterial
endocarditis because of their synergistic action.
If the effects of a medicine decrease or disappear while interacting with
another one, this phenomenon is called antagonism. It is widely used to
remove the negative effects of medicines, as well as in poisonings.
It is important for the patient, physician to be aware of the potential
interaction of drugs that are prescribed as well as those that the patient may be
self-administering. Many patients, especially the elderly ones, may take a
variety of medicines each day. The chances of developing the undesired drug
interaction increases rapidly as a number of drugs used increases. It is estimated
that if 8 or more medications are being used, there is a 100% chance of
interaction.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
to feel better почуватись краще
to stay healthy залишатись здоровим
drug interaction взаємодія ліків
beverage напій
nasal decongestant носовий протизастійний засіб
high blood pressure високий кров’яний тиск
unwanted reaction небажана реакція
to make less effective робити менш ефективним
to increase the action підсилювати дію
to cause unwanted side effects спричиняти небажану побічну дію
to decrease undesirable effects зменшувати небажаний вплив/дію
to remove undesirable effects усувати небажаний вплив/дію
pharmacotherapy медикаментозне лікування
to increase the therapeutic effect підсилювати терапевтичну дію
to reduce the period of treatment зменшити період лікування
combined administration поєднане призначення/застосування
simultaneous administration одночасне призначення/застосування
pharmaceutical interaction фармацевтична взаємодія
composition склад (ліків)
synergism злагоджена спільна робота, синергізм
bacterial endocarditis бактеріальний ендокардит
phenomenon явище, феномен
antagonism антагонізм, протиборство, протиріччя
to remove negative effects усувати негативну дію/вплив
poisoning отруєння
to be aware of бути обізнаним, знати
self-administering самопризначення (ліків)

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What types of drug interaction do you know?
2. Why do people take medicines?
3. What are possible effects of drug interaction?
4. Why are different medicines combined?
5. What is pharmaceutical interaction based on?
6. What can a combination of two drugs cause?
7. What is synergism? What drugs with this effect do you know?
8. What is a difference between synergism and antagonism?
9. Explain your understanding the definition “unwanted reaction”.
10.Why is self-administering dangerous?
11.Who is more likely to develop a negative drug interaction? Why?
 12.What should a physician do to remove a negative reaction of
medicine?

II. MATCH THE DEFINITION WITH EACH TERM

1. action a. physical, physical-chemical and chemical
reactions of medicinal substances which appear
with their simultaneous administration;
2. side effect b. the amount of drug needed to produce an
effect;
3. pharmaceutical c. combination of two drugs that can cause an
interaction effect which is greater than the sum of the
individual effects of each drug;
4. synergism d. any unintended reaction caused by a drug or
medical treatment;
5. potency e. medicines used to remove the effects of
other substances when poisoning;
6. antagonism f. performance of a function or process;
7. antidotes g. the phenomenon when the effects of a
medicine decrease or disappear while
interacting with another one.

III. GIVING INSTRUCTIONS ON DRUG ADMINISTRATION

Complete the following sentences choosing the necessary verb from the
keys.
Key words: apply, carry, chew, clean, dip, dissolve (2), inhale, insert, lay,
leave, drop, rub, sip, spray, stick, take
1. _____ a little of this ointment on the chest of your child each morning.
2. _____ two of these tablets twice a day after meals.
3. _____ two puffs in each nostril three times a day.
 4. ______ the cream to the affected area every morning.
5. Don’t ________ these tablets. Swallow them whole.
6. _______ one suppository into the rectum in case of high fever.
7. Ask someone to help you ______ this solution into each ear in the
morning.
8. It’s better to _______ the plaster on your thigh or lower back.
9. You should _______ this insulin kit with you at all times.
10._____ the lozenge under the tongue and allow it to ________ slowly.
11.Make a hot drink and ______ it slowly.
12.________ the wound with antiseptic and ________ it open to the air.
13. _________ one teaspoonful of the extract in half a liter of hot water and
_________ the steam.
14.________ the end of the strip into the urine and wait to see if the color
changes.

IV. CHOOSE THE CORRECT TRANSLATION OF THESE WORD

COMBINATIONS INTO UKRAINIAN
Determine the cause: визначити кому; визначити наслідки; визначити
причину.
Drug action duration: тривала дія ліків; тривалість дії ліків; дія ліків
триває.
Rapid process: повільний процес; прискорений процес; швидкий процес.
Self-administering drugs: ліки, які пацієнт може приймати самостійно;
медикаменти, які призначаються лікарем.
Combined administration of drugs: комбіноване введення ліків; спільне
застосування; ліки, що комбінують для зменшення небажаних ефектів.
Pharmaceutical interaction: фармацевтична взаємодія; хімічні та фізичні
реакції лікарських засобів; механізм дії ліків.
V. GROUP DISCUSSION
 Divide into two groups. Pretend that you are discussing one of the
following issues. One group is in favour of the issue, the second group is against
it. Prepare your arguments in advance.
 The more drugs you take the better.

EXTRA READING. TIPS FOR YOU

How can I avoid drug interactions?

You can take the following steps to avoid drug interactions:

 Tell your health care provider about all prescription and nonprescription
medicines you are taking or plan to take. Also tell your health care provider
about any vitamins, nutritional supplements, and herbal products you take.
 Tell your health care provider about any other conditions you may have, for
example, high blood pressure or diabetes.
Before taking a medicine, ask your health care provider or pharmacist the
following questions:
 What is the medicine used for?
 How should I take the medicine?
 While taking the medicine, should I avoid any other medicines or certain
foods or beverages?
 Can I take this medicine safely with the other medicines that I am taking?
Are there any possible drug interactions I should know about? What are the
signs of those drug interactions?
 In the case of a drug interaction, what should I do? 
 Take medicines according to your health care provider’s instructions. Always
read the information and directions that come with a medicine. Drug labels and
package inserts include important information about possible drug interactions. 
 Tell your health care provider if you have any side effect that bothers you or that
does not go away.

ALLERGY

There are a lot of

people in the world who suffer from allergies. As a matter of fact, some people
are affected by allergic reactions and don’t even know it.
Allergy is a disorder in which the body becomes hypersensitive to
particular antigens (called allergens), which provoke
characteristic symptoms whenever they are inhaled, ingested, injected, or
otherwise contacted. Allergens are diverse and affect different tissues and
organs. Pollens, fur, feathers, mold and dust may cause hay fever. House-dust
mites have been implicated in some forms of asthma. Drugs, dyes, cosmetics,
latex and a host of other chemicals lead to rashes and dermatitis. Some food
allergies provoke diarrhea or constipation, simulate acute bacterial food
poisoning.
Hay fever is a form of allergy due to the pollen of grasses, trees, and other
plants characterized by inflammation of the membrane lining the nose and
sometimes of the conjunctiva (conjunctivitis). The symptoms
of sneezing, running or blocked nose and watering eyes are due to histamine
release and often respond to the treatment with antihistamines. If the allergen
is identified, it may be possible to undertake desensitization.
Anaphylaxis is an emergency condition resulting from an abnormal and
immediate allergic response to a substance to which the body has become
intensely sensitized. It results in flushing, itching,
nausea and vomiting, swelling of the mouth and tongue and airway enough to
cause obstruction, wheezing, a sudden drop in blood pressure, and even
death. This extreme form is called anaphylactic shock. Common causes
are peanuts, and wasp or bee stings. Treatment, which must be given
immediately, consists of adrenaline (epinephrine) injection, oxygen with
possible advanced support of the airways, intravenous fluids,
intravenous corticosteroids, and antihistamines.
If you have any allergy, see your local pharmacist or doctor. In some
cases, you will be referred to a clinical immunology/allergy specialist for further
investigations and advice.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
allergy алергія
as a matter of fact фактично, насправді
to be affected by бути ураженим (хворобою)
hypersensitive надчуттєвий, з підвищеною чутливістю
antigen/allergen антиген, алерген
to provoke symptoms викликати, спричиняти симптоми
to inhale  вдихати
to ingest  ковтати, проковтувати
to inject вводити, впорскувати
pollens пилок
fur  хутро
feathers пір’я  
mold (mould) пліснява, цвіль; плісенний грибок
house-dust mites домашні пилові кліщі
hay fever сінна лихоманка, поліноз
to implicate втягувати, бути пов’язаним
dye барвник, фарба
a host of велика кількість, безліч
to lead to призводити до
rash висип, висипання
dermatitis дерматит
diarrhea діарея, пронос
constipation закреп
to simulate імітувати, відтворювати
food poisoning харчове отруєння
inflammation запалення
conjunctiva кон'юнктива, слизова оболонка ока
conjunctivitis кон'юнктивіт
sneezing чхання
running nose нежить
blocked nose закладений ніс
watering eyes очі, що сльозяться
histamine release вивільнення гістаміну
antihistamine антигістамінний препарат
to identify встановлювати, ідентифікувати
to undertake desensitization здійснювати десенсибілізацію
emergency condition невідкладний стан
to result from бути результатом чогось
to result in призводити до
to sensitize підвищувати чутливість, ставати чутливим
response to реакція на
flushing  почервоніння
itching сверблячка, зуд
nausea  нудота
vomiting  блювання
swelling набряк
to cause obstruction викликати непрохідність, обструкцію
wheezing хрипи з присвистом
sudden drop in blood pressure раптове падіння кров’яного тиску
peanut  арахіс
latex  латекс, молочний сік каучуконосів
wasp stings  укус оси
bee stings укус бджоли
adrenaline (epinephrine) адреналін  
advanced support of the airways посилена підтримка повітряних шляхів
corticosteroid кортикостероїд
investigation дослідження, розслідування
I. VOCABULARY WORK
You know that suffix –itis [-aɪtɪs] in medical terminology means
“inflammation”. The terms dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), conjunctivitis
(inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eyes) are found in the text. Form
medical terms denoting inflammatory diseases of the organs written in the chart.
Mind that these clinical terms are built on the basis of Greek words! Your
knowledge of Latin will be of great assistance.
Appendix, bronchus, pancreas, stomach, colon, ear, nose, joint, larynx, pharynx

II. PHYSICIAN’S AND PATIENT’S LANGUAGE

During consultations doctors may face certain language and even cultural
barriers in communication with patients. Try to find equivalents of medical
English to what a patient says.
Medical term Patient’s language
1. Constipation a) Something disagrees with me in this
salad
2. Diarrhea b) I have a running nose
3. Hyperemia c) I have been suffering from loose
motions for several days
4. Be contraindicated d) I experience great thirst and
tiredness
5. Rhinitis e) I feel like bloating
6. Dehydration f) I've got a lump on my shoulder
7. Urinate g) I have not so freely motions
8. Defecate h) I’m all clogged up
9. Edema i) My skin turns blue
10.Congested nasal passages j) She makes water regularly
11.Cyanosis k) Look! My leg is flushing.
12. Meteorism, flatulence l) I have motions (do my business)
regularly

III. UNDERSTANDING THE PATIENT

When a patient says the following, what does he/she mean? Find the correct
answer.
1. My last doctor put me on antibiotics.
a) withdrew
b) prescribed
c) replaced
d) recommended
2. I blacked out three times last week.
a) defecated
 b) vomited
c) suffered neuralgia
d) fainted
3. The rash on my skin seems to have cleared up.
a) become infected
b) spread
c) disappeared
d) got worse
4. I often nod off for just a few minutes.
a) fall asleep
b) feel nauseous
c) have a hot flush
d) feel tired
5. My sister passed away last year.
a) developed cancer
b) had an operation
c) had a leg amputation
d) died
6. I don’t seem to be able to take anything in.
a) eat
b) drink
c) understand
d) feel
7. I sometimes bring up my food.
a) swallow
b) regurgitate
c) cut up into small pieces
d) have no appetite for
8. I walked to town and back and then I’m flaked out.
a) cold
b) suffering pain
c) exhausted
d) breathless
9. She threw up several times during the night.
a) woke up
b) urinated
c) experienced pain
d) vomited
10. My eye is all puffed up.
a) swollen
b) unable to see clearly
c) discolored
d) itching
 IV. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS TO THE TEXT
1. What kind of condition is allergy?
2. What substances can cause allergy?
3. What are the symptoms of hay fever?
4. Why house-dust mites dangerous?
5. What is the launching mechanism of allergy?
6. What is anaphylaxis?
7. What are the signs of anaphylactic shock?
8. What are common causes of anaphylactic reaction?
9. How is anaphylaxis treated?
10.Have you ever had allergy? If yes, what is a cause?
11.What should people do in case of any allergy?

V. ASK QUESTIONS TO UNDERLINED WORDS

1. Clinical laboratory tests are important in the diagnosis of allergy.
2. Allergy may be defined as a damaging immune response by the body
to a substance called allergen.
3. Allergens are diverse and may provoke any kind of allergy.
4. Common allergies are estimated to affect routinely 10 to 20 % of the
population.
5. Pharmacists must have a fundamental understanding of allergy and the
products used in the control of allergic diseases.
6. Our immune system's job is to keep us healthy by fighting harmful
pathogens.
7. Allergic diseases are more common in industrialized countries than in
countries that are more traditional or agricultural.
8. Skin prick tests and blood tests are equally cost-effective in diagnosis
of allergy.
 9. Asthma is thought to be caused by environmental factors including air
pollution and allergens.

VI. GROUP WORK

Imagine three situations and make up a conversation with your group-mates.
Use the phrases below.
1. At the student’s party: do shopping, fast food, different beverages,
responsible for, make some snacks, stomachache, headache, feel like vomiting,
diarrhea, food poisoning.
2. In the botanical garden: lovely spring weather, various plants, be in blossom,
fragrance of flowers, take pictures, have a good time, quite of a sudden,
coughing, sneezing, flushing, call an ambulance, antihistamines, hay fever.
3. In the country: visit a grandfather, bee-keeper, a big apiary, beehive, fly from
flower to flower, organize a picnic, sting, cry with pain, itching, swelling, severe
headache, faint, give injection, corticosteroid.

АТ ТНЕ СHEMIST’S SHOP

 A chemist's shop (a pharmacy in Great
Britain, a drug store in the USA) is an institution of health service. It is a place
where a wide variety of articles is sold and prescription can be made; drugs are
composed, dispensed, stored and sold there.
Тhеrе аrе two departments in the chemist's shop. At one chemist's department
you can have the medicine right away. Here you can take over the counter
medicines. At the prescription department the necessary drugs hаvе to be
ordered. Poisonous, drastic, narcotic and psychotropic drugs are prescription
medicines only. These drugs are potent and can be dangerous if taken in an
overdose.
At the chemists' all drugs аrе kept in drug cabinets, on the open shelves or in
the refrigerator. Here medicines are kept according to their therapeutic effects:
mixtures for cough, cardiac medicines, drugs for headache and different
laxative drugs. Hot water bottles, disposable syringes, medicine droppers,
thermometers are kept separately as well as special goods for the care of children
and babies. Every small bottle оr bох has а label with the nаmе of the medicine
and its indications and contraindications stuck on it.
On the shelves one can see drugs of all kinds: small parcels of different
powders, bottles of mixtures and tinctures, tubes of healing ointments, boxes
with pills, solutions in ampoules for subcutaneous, intradermal, intravenous
and intramuscular injections, sedatives and tonics, various vitamins and
sleeping draughts, herbal preparations.
Тhеrе аrе drugs for internal, extеrnаl use and for injections. The dose to bе
taken is usually indicated on а signature оr а label. As а rule the directions for
the administration of а drug аrе written on the signature. It is necessary for
chemists, nurses, doctors as well as patients themselves, so that they won't
confuse different remedies because some of them аrе poisonous and their
overdose mау cause bad reactions and sometimes even death. When you соmе
for medicine you have ordered the chemist may give you some
recommendations, and say you the dose to bе taken.
The pharmacist should instruct the patient about the dangers of overdose; the
problems resulting from an inadequate dosage; the expected side effects of the
drug; the proper storage of the drug, etc. The pharmacist should also advise the
patient about the dangers of taking drugs for longer periods than it is prescribed
by a physician.
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

article (тут) річ, предмет

to compose drugs створювати/робити ліки
to dispense drugs відпускати ліки
chemist’s department відділ готових ліків
prescription department рецептурний відділ
to order замовляти
poisonous отруйний
drastic сильнодіючий, сильний
psychotropic психотропний
potent дієвий, ефективний
overdose передозування
drug cabinet шафка для зберігання ліків
therapeutic effect терапевтична дія/ефект
mixture for cough мікстура від кашлю
drugs for headache ліки від головного болю
laxative проносний засіб
hot water bottle грілка
disposable syringe одноразовий шприц
medicine dropper медичні крапельниці, піпетки
goods товари
indication показання
contraindication протипоказання
parcel of powder пакетик з порошком
healing ointment цілюща мазь
subcutaneous injection підшкірна ін’єкція
intradermal injection внутрішньошкірна ін’єкція
intravenous injection внутрішньовенна ін’єкція
intramuscular injection внутрішньом’язева ін’єкція
sedative заспокійливе, седативний засіб
tonic тонізуюче, зміцнюючий засіб
sleeping draught снодійне
signature пропис, сигнатура
label етикетка, наклейка
directions for the administration вказівки щодо прийому
to confuse переплутати
to give recommendations давати рекомендації
inadequate dosage недостатня доза
expected side effects очікувана побічна дія
proper storage належне, відповідне зберігання
to advise радити
Note: 1) mind the spelling and pronunciation difference of the verb to advise
[əd'vaɪz] (радити, рекомендувати) and the noun advice [əd'vaɪs] (порада,
консультація)

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the chemist’s shop?
2. How many departments are there at the chemist's shop? What are they?
3. What department do you order medicines at?
4. What types of drugs are sold at the prescription department?
5. What department can you get over the counter medicines?
6. Where are the drugs kept at the chemist's shop?
7. Which principle are the drugs stored by?
8. What types of injections do you remember?
9. Where is the dose indicated?
10.Why are the directions for administration of a drug so important?
11.How and where should be drugs kept?
12.What should the pharmacist instruct the patient about?
13.What can you buy at the chemist's shop in addition to medicines?

II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. The American name for the chemist’s shop is pharmacy.
2. Over the counter drugs are sold at the prescription department.
3. At the chemists' all drugs аrе kept in drug cabinets, on the open shelves or
in the refrigerator.
4. Storage conditions depend on the requirements for keeping drugs.
5. The drugs are stored and classified alphabetically.
6. The dose to bе taken is usually indicated on а signature оr а label.
7. Psychotropic medicines are prescription drugs only.
8. A pharmacist can prescribe drugs.
 9. Pharmacists can compose and dispense medicines.
10.Confusion of different medicines can have fatal results.
11.Directions for administration of a drug are important for patients only.

III. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRUGS

Match the names of drugs with the action they produce
1.analgesics a) these help to prevent blood clotting
2.diuretics b) it’s used in treatment of diabetes
3.anti-inflammatory c) these are used to calm people and relieve anxiety
4.narcotics d) organic compounds which are essential for normal
growth and nutrition and are required in small
quantities in the diet
5.anti-emetic e) a wide range of drugs to relieve pain
6.aspirin f) they help to remove excess fluid from the body
7.anticoagulants g) excellent pain-killers originally derived from opium
8.sedatives h) these help to suppress nausea and vomiting
9.tranquillizers i) they soothe patients and help them sleep
10.laxatives j) one of the best known drugs which anyone can buy
and use to relieve pain, inflammation and fever
11.decongestants k) used to reduce and suppress swelling and hyperemia
12.insulin l) taken to relieve constipation
13.vitamins m) they help to clear a blocked nose

IV. READ THE DIALOGUE AND FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS

OF THE FOLLOWING UKRAINIAN PHRASES:
(Ліки в сиропі, приймати ліки, ковтати цілу таблетку, 1 чайна ложка 3
рази в день, після прийому їжі, почувати сонливість, прищі на шиї,
сверблячий, записатись на прийом, знеболююче, сильний головний біль,
полегшити біль)
- Good evening! May I help you?
- Good evening, sir. I’ve got a prescription from my doctor.
- OK, madam. Would you like this medicine in syrup or in tablets?
- Well. Actually I find it easier to take it in syrup. I can’t swallow the whole
tablet, unfortunately.  And please, give me a complete dosage for 2 months.
- Sure. Here it is. Please mind the precise dosage according to the prescription:
1 teaspoon 3 times a day, just after your meals.
- Thank you. Certainly. By the way, are there any side effects?
- Yes. You might feel a bit sleepy, so be careful when driving. Anything else?
- Yes. Can you recommend me something for these spots on my neck? They
are very itchy.
- Let me see. I think you should consult a doctor first.
- It’s Saturday today and I can’t get an appointment until Monday.
- I see. Try this cream to stop the itching. It’s for external use only.
- Thank you for your help and understanding. Oh. I completely forgot! Can I
have some painkiller for my severe headache, please?
- OK. But I can give you only an over-the-counter painkiller. Are you allergic
to aspirin?
- No, I’m not.
- Take these. They are really effective and will relieve your pain. You can take
1 tablet with water every 4 hours.
- OK. I’ll take it. How much do I owe you?
- It’s ten euros forty, please.
- Here you are. Good-bye.
V. GROUP WORK
Make up and act some of the dialogues. Here are some tips for you.
1. Have a toothache, not to sleep the whole night, hot water bottle, be afraid
of dentists, recommend, advise, painkiller, swollen cheek, take heart,
consult a dentist.
2. Stomachache, stale food staffs, feel like vomiting, cleanse the stomach,
laxative, food poisoning, prevent severe consequences.
3. Recommend something, ache in joints, take antibiotics, from time to time,
self-administering, skin rash, incompatible with alcohol, twice a day, after
meals, healing ointment, see a doctor.
4. Vitamins for kids, sore throat, lozenges, sprays, herbal medicine, sweet
and flavoured, keep away from children, cool dark place.
5. Suggest, sunburn, temperature, ointment, tube of cream, rub onto the skin,
clear up the trouble, fever reducer, relieve burning sensation.
 BACTERIA. PROTOZOA. FUNGI. VIRUSES.

Microbiology is the study of living organisms of a microscopic size. The

term microbe was first used by Charles-Emmanuel Sédillot (1804 –1883) in
1878, but now is commonly replaced by microorganisms.
There is an entire domain of life that is made up of single-celled
organisms without nuclei. Bacteria are any unicellular prokaryote.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound
organelle.
Most bacteria have rigid cell walls. These walls are important for
preventing the bacterial cell from bursting. There are three basic shapes of
bacteria: round, rod and spiral. 

The number one biggest difference between the bacteria in your body and
the cells making up your body are these tiny cellular components
called organelles. Organelles are simply membrane-bound compartments
within a cell, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus,
and endoplasmic reticulum.
 Bacteria grow and reproduce by binary fission. An individual cell will
copy its genome and then split the cell in halves, giving each half a copy of the
DNA. This results in two new cells.
The inside of the bacterial cell, called the cytoplasm, contains all the
enzymes and their associated metabolic processes needed for survival.

In addition to bacteria there are protozoa and fungi. Protozoa are single-
celled and usually move by cilia, flagella, or by amoeboid mechanisms. There
is usually no cell wall, although some forms may have it. They have organelles
including a nucleus and may have chloroplasts, so some will be green and others
won't be. Unlike the relatively simple bacteria, protozoa can have many different
intracellular organelles performing specific tasks.
Many protozoa cause diseases in animals and humans. Some,
like Plasmodium, which causes malaria, can be devastating to people
worldwide. Others, like Trichomonas, cause sexually transmitted diseases that
are relatively benign and 100% curable. The vast majority of the species,
though, are completely harmless.
Fungi are multicellular, with a cell wall, organelles including a nucleus,
but no chloroplasts. They have no mechanisms for locomotion. Fungi range in
size from microscopic to very large (such as mushrooms). Nutrients are acquired
by absorption. For the most part, fungi acquire nutrients from decaying
material. That is why fungi are actually very important to the health of the
ecosystem, rapidly breaking down plant and animal material and returning it to
a more usable form.
 Viruses are the most numerous type of biological entity in every
ecosystem of the Earth. There are millions of types of viruses in the
environment. They are submicroscopic infectious agents and replicate only
inside the living cells. They cannot reproduce by themselves. An infected host
cell is forced to produce thousands of copies of the original virus. Viruses can be
transmitted in many ways – by air, through blood and body fluids, by the feacal-
oral route etc. The XXI century faces an extremely dangerous kind of viruses –

COVID19 from SARS-CoV-2, a member

of the subfamily Coronavirinae. A virus is made up of a core of genetic
material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protective coat called a capsid
which is made up of protein.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

domain область, галузь, сфера

single-celled (unicellular) одноклітинний
nucleus (pl. nuclei) ядро, зародок
organelle органела, органоїд
bacterium (pl. bacteria) бактерія (бактерії)
rigid жорсткий, стійкий
to prevent from bursting запобігти розриву
membrane-bound оточений оболонкою
compartment комірка, відсік
multicellular багатоклітинні
Golgi apparatus апарат/комплекс Гольджі,
внутрішньоклітинний сітчастий
апарат
endoplasmic reticulum ендоплазматичне сітчасте утворення
binary fission подвійне розщеплення, поділ
survival виживання
amoeboid mechanism амебоїдний, амебоподібний механізм
protozoon (pl. protozoa) найпростіші
fungus (pl. fungi) гриб, грибок, пліснява
cilium (pl. cilia) війка (війки)
flagellum (pl. flagella) джгутик (джгутики)
devastating руйнівний
sexually transmitted diseases хвороби, що передаються
статевим шляхом
benign доброякісний
to acquire nutrients отримувати поживні речовини
locomotion пересування
to range in size охоплювати в розмірі
decaying material гниючий матеріал
biological entity біологічні організми
submicroscopic не видимий під мікроскопом
host cell клітина-хазяїн (по відношенню до
паразита)
capsid капсид, білкова капсула вірусу

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. What is the scope of Microbiology?
 2. What is Charles-Emmanuel Sédillot famous for?
3. What are the types of microorganisms?
4. What is the structure of bacteria?
5. What are the shapes of bacteria?
6. What do organelles include?
7. How do bacteria grow and reproduce?
8. What does bacterial cytoplasm contain?
9. What is the structure of protozoa?
10.How do protozoa move?
11.What organelles do protozoa have?
12.How do fungi acquire nutrients?
13.What is the benefit of fungi?
14.How do viruses reproduce?
15.What is the structure of viruses?

II. FIND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS TO THE FOLLOWING WORDS

AND WORD COMBINATIONS IN THE TEXT ABOVE:
1. бактерії круглої форми
2. паличкоподібні бактерії
3. спіралеподібні бактерії
4. розмножуються бінарним
поділом
5. розщеплюють клітину навпіл
6. містять усі ферменти
7. метаболічні процеси
8. необхідні для виживання
9. найпростіші одноклітинні
10.внутрішньоклітинні органели
11.викликають захворювання
12.можуть бути руйнівними
13.відносно доброякісні і виліковні
14.абсолютно нешкідливі
15.багатоклітинні
16.механізми для руху
17.поживні речовини
18.отримують шляхом абсорбції
19.гнилий матеріал
 III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

1. Microbiology is the study …

2. There is an entire domain of life that is made up of …
3. There are three basic shapes of bacteria: …
4. Organelles are simply membrane-bound compartments within a cell, such as …
5. Bacteria grow and reproduce by ...
6. An individual cell will copy its genome and then …
7. The inside of the bacterial cell, called …
8. Protozoa are single-celled and usually move by …
9. Fungi are multicellular, with a cell wall, organelles including ...
10. Fungi acquire nutrients by …

IV. USE THE WORDS IN ITALICS TO BUILD DERIVATIVES

(form a noun and fill each blank space)

1.______________ of instruments is necessary to kill harmful sterile

microorganisms.

2. Hands must be carefully washed after _______________ with contaminate

body fluids of patients.

3. A patient with a highly infectious disease must be cared for in isolate

________________.

4. The __________ of flu depends on the strain of virus causing it. severe

5. In case of mumps the period of ______________ is very long. incubate

6. ______________ against the major childhood diseases is vaccinate

available all over the world.

7. Many viral diseases cause _____________ of the tonsils. inflame

8. The program of ________________ has made diphtheria a rare immune
disease in many countries.

9. Typhoid fever is spread by ____________ of food or drink ingest

contaminated by bacillus from infected feces.

10. If bacterial plaque is not removed from teeth it may lead to the destroy
_______________ of the enamel.
 AIDS

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) was first identified in Los

Angeles in 1981. A description of the causative virus—the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)—was available in 1983.
The virus destroys a subgroup of lymphocytes, the helper T-cells,
resulting in suppression of the body’s immune response. AIDS may be
transmitted sexually, either homosexually or heterosexually, by transfusion
of blood or blood products and by maternofetal route. The virus may be
transmitted from an infected mother to the child in the uterus or it may be
acquired from maternal blood during labour; it may also be transmitted in
breast milk.
Acute infection by the virus develops into the illness of varying
severity, including persistent generalized involvement of the lymph nodes,
 intermittent fevers, weight loss, diarrhoea, fatigue, night sweats. AIDS
itself presents opportunistic infections, especially pneumonia, and tumours
such as Kaposi’s sarcoma.
HIV is isolated from semen, cervical secretions, plasma,
cerebrospinal fluid, tears, saliva, urine and breast milk. HIV is a fragile
virus and does not survive well outside the body. It is therefore considered
that ordinary social contact with HIV-positive subjects involves no risk of
infection. But high standards of clinical practice are required by all health
workers in order to avoid infection through blood, blood products, or body
fluids from HIV-positive people.
Until recently, AIDS has been considered to be universally fatal,
although the type and length of illness before death varies considerably. The
development of antiviral drugs may modify the gloomy outcome. These
drugs include the reverse transcriptase inhibitors and the protease inhibitors.

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency синдром набутого імунодефіциту
syndrome) (СНІД)
causative virus вірус-збудник
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) вірус імунодефіциту людини
suppression пригнічення
to be transmitted передаватись
labor пологи
breast milk грудне молоко
varying severity різної важкості
involvement залучення (в процес), ураження
intermittent fever переміжна пропасниця
weight loss втрата ваги
Kaposi’s sarcoma саркома Капоші
cervical secretion секреція шийки матки
 in order to avoid щоб уникнути
to modify видозмінювати
gloomy outcome невтішний кінець
lymph node лімфатичний вузол
opportunistic infection умовно-патогенна інфекція
cerebrospinal fluid спинномозкова рідина
fragile virus недовговічний вірус
ordinary social contact звичайні суспільні зв'язки
to avoid infection уникати інфікування

I. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS

1. When was AIDS first identified?

2. What does HIV destroy?
3. How may AIDS be transmitted?
4. How may a newborn be infected?
5. How does an acute infection develop?
6. What are the clinical signs of AIDS?
7. Where is HIV isolated from?
8. What kind of virus is HIV?
9. Can people contact with HIV-positive subjects?
10.How must health workers behave to avoid infection?
11.11. How is AIDS treated today?

II. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS USING THE WORDS

FROM THE TEXT. TRANSLATE THESE SENTENCES:
1. People learnt about AIDS and HIV …
2. HIV suppresses …
3. There are different ways of AIDS transmission …
4. People infected with the virus may have …
5. AIDS is usually accompanied by …
6. Scientists can isolate HIV from …  
7. The risk of infection after the contact with HIV-positive subjects is
minimal because … 
  8. In  order to avoid infection medical staff must …
     9. Nowadays AIDS is considered to be …
     10. Today AIDS may be treated with …

III. CHANGE THE SENTENCES FINDING SYNONYMS TO THE

UNDERLINED WORDS IN THE TEXT:

1. HIV ruins lymphocytes.
2. Destruction of the lymphocytes leads to inhibition of the human immune
system.
3. Acute infection by the virus develops into the disease of different degree.
4. HIV is extracted from body fluids.
5. HIV cannot live outside the organism.
6. Everyday relations with HIV-positive people are not dangerous.
7. Medical staff must keep to the rules of hospital work.
8. Until recently AIDS has been believed to be a grave disease.
9. The development of medical science may change unpleasant end of the
disease.
10. Medicines against virus are used to treat AIDS now.

IV. WORKING WITH SPECIAL POPULATION: AIDS PATIENTS

Read the text to obtain additional information on the issue why AIDS patients
need the help of medical professionals
HIV seropositive individuals are known to progress to AIDS. On an
average eleven years may pass between infection with HIV and development
of symptoms. AIDS always results in death, usually in2 to 5 years. Death by
AIDS and associated opportunistic infections is often slow, painful and
undignified. HIV positive person has much to fear: numerous painful
 diseases; multiple invasive medical procedures, loss of control of basic
functions including bowel/bladder, rejection by family members, friends and
even health care workers, and eventually death.
People with AIDS are at increased risk of suicide, at about 36 times
that of non-AIDS population. The suicidal AIDS patient is not choosing
between living and dying, but rather between dying now or dying later.
Consider the following statements: “My expected quality of life is low,
therefore I don’t want to live”, “Living is painful, I’d be better off dead”.
Hopelessness is the most prominent predictor of committing suicide.
Medical professionals and other people surrounding AIDS patients
can help them maintain hopefulness and make productive, creative use of a
shortened life span. Hopefulness suggests positive evaluation of future
events. This often includes reappraisal of values and traditional ideas. A
health care worker should encourage activities that seem flexible, that can be
achieved in small steps and do not require much physical exertion
considering a disabling AIDS condition. For example, it means enjoying
“green thumb” with houseplants, learning how to play a musical instrument
or embroidery, or doing some journal writing etc.

After-reading tasks:
1) Word hunt. Find English equivalents in the text for the following
Ukrainian words and phrases: в середньому, призводити до смерті,
умовно-патогенні інфекції, позбавлений власної гідності/негідний,
болісний, неприйняття членами сім’ї, підвищений ризик самогубства,
безнадія, надія, тривалість життя, позитивна оцінка, заохочувати,
фізичне напруження, інвалідний стан, мистецтво садівництва,
вишивання.
2) What is general public attitude to HIV-positive and AIDS people? How
can we change the situation?