Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik

Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

Module 4

Incredible Nervous System

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

GENES & EVOLUTION

• Genetic information
– brain and body developed according to complex
chemical instructions that were written in a human
cell no larger than a grain of sand
• Fertilization
• Zygote
• Chromosomes
• Chemical alphabet
• Genes and proteins
• Genome
• Genetic factors
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Fertilization
– occurs when a sperm, which contains 23
chromosomes, penetrates an egg, which contains 23
chromosomes
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Zygote
– the largest human cell, about the size of a grain of
sand
– a zygote is a cell that results when an egg is
fertilized
– a zygote contains 46 chromosomes arranged in
23 pairs
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Chromosomes
– a short, rodlike, microscopic
structure that contains a tightly
coiled strand of the chemical
DNA, which is an abbreviation
for deoxyribonucleic acid
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Chemical alphabet
– each chromosome contains a long, coiled
strand of DNA, which resembles a ladder
that has been twisted over an over upon
itself
– each rung of the DNA ladder is made up
of four chemicals
– the order in which the four different
chemicals combine to form rungs creates
a microscopic alphabet
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Genes and proteins

– Gene - a specific segment on the long strand of
DNA that contains instructions for making proteins
– Proteins - chemical building blocks from which all
the parts of the brain and body are constructed
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Genome
– The Human Genome Project
– began in 1995 and cost over $2.7 billion
– reached its first goal in 2003 of mapping all the
human genes
– researchers found only about 30,000 human
genes instead of the estimated 100,000
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Genetic factors
– researchers are discovering how genetic factors
interact with the environment to result in the
development of mental retardation, emotional and
personality traits, mental disorders, and various
cognitive abilities
• Fragile X syndrome
– an inherited developmental disability, is due to a
defect in the X chromosome
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)

• Evolution of the human brain

– 1859 Charles Darwin
published the Origin of
Species
• Theory of Evolution
– says that different
species arose from a
common ancestor and
that those species that
survived were best
adapted to meet the
demands of their
environment
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN

• Brain scans
– techniques that can look through the thick skull and picture
the brain with astonishingly clarity yet cause no damage to
the extremely delicate brain cells
– MRI - magnetic resonance imagery
• involves passing nonharmful radio frequencies through
the brain
– fMRI - functional magnetic resonance imaging
• measures the activity of specific neurons that are
functioning during cognitive tasks, such as thinking,
listening
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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p70 MRI
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN (CONT.)

• Brain scans and Cognitive

Neuroscience
– PET scan - positron
emission tomography
• involves injecting a
slightly radioactive
solution into the blood
and then measuring the
amount of radiation
absorbed by brain cells
called neurons
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

Brain Mapping
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN (CONT.)

• Tools versus Animals

– naming animals
– naming tools
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN

• Divisions of the Nervous System

• Major divisions of the nervous system
– central nervous system - CNS
– peripheral nervous system - PNS
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Central nervous system -

CNS
– made up of the brain and
spinal cord
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Peripheral nervous system - PNS

– includes all the nerves that
extend from the spinal cord and
carry messages to and from
various muscles, glands, and
sense organs located
throughout the body
• Subdivisions of the PNS
– Somatic nervous system - SNS
– Autonomic nervous system -
ANS
• sympathetic division
• parasympathetic division
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Somatic nervous system

– network of nerves that connect either to sensory
receptors or to muscles that you can move
voluntarily, such as muscles in your limbs, back,
neck, and chest
– nerves contain two kinds of fibers
• Afferent
– sensory fibers; carry information to the brain
• Efferent
– motor fibers; carry information from brain or
spinal cord to the muscles
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Autonomic nervous system - ANS

– regulates heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, digestion,
hormone secretion, and other functions
– Sympathetic division
• triggered by threatening or challenging physical or
psychological stimuli, increases physiological arousal
and prepares the body for action
– Parasympathetic division
• returns the body to a calmer, relaxed state and is
involved in digestion
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Major Parts of the Brain

– Forebrain
– Midbrain
– Hindbrain
• pons
• medulla
• cerebellum
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Hindbrain - Has three distinct structures:

– Pons
• functions as a bridge to interconnect messages between
the spinal cord and brain
• coordinates left and rights side of the body
– Medulla
• located on top of the spinal cord
• includes a group of cells that control vital reflexes, such
as respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure
– Cerebellum
• located in the very back and underneath the brain
• involved in coordinating but not in initiating voluntary
movements
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Midbrain
– has a reward or pleasure center, which stimulated
by food, sex, money, music, looking at attractive
faces, and some drugs (cocaine)
– has areas for visual and auditory reflexes
– contains the reticular formation, which arouses the
forebrain so that it is ready to process information
from the senses
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)

• Forebrain
– largest part of the brain
– has right and left sides called hemispheres
– hemispheres are responsible for a number of
functions, including learning and memory,
speaking and language, emotional responses,
experiencing sensations, initiating voluntary
movements, planning, and making decisions
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES

• Wrinkled cortex
– a thin layer of cells that
essentially covers the
entire surface of the
forebrain
• Four lobes
– Frontal lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Occipital lobe
– Temporal lobe
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Frontal lobe
– involved with personality, emotions, and motor
behaviors
• Parietal lobe
– involved with perception and sensory experiences
• Occipital lobe
– involved with visual processing
• Temporal lobe
– involved with hearing and speaking
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Frontal lobe: functions

– motor cortex
– narrow strip of cortex that is located on the back edge of the
frontal lobe and extends down its side
– involved in the initiation of all voluntary movements
– right side controls left
– left side controls right
– organization and function of motor cortex
• Other functions of frontal lobe
– much knowledge of other frontal lobe functions comes from
individuals who had damage to that area
– Phineas Gage
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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p76 MOTOR CORTEX

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Parietal lobe: function

– location of somatosensory cortex
– narrow strip of cortex that is located on the front
edge of the parietal lobe and extends down its
side
• Other functions of parietal lobe
– involved in several cognitive functions, including
recognizing objects, remembering items, and
perceiving and analyzing objects in space
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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p77 SENSORY HOMUNCULUS

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Temporal lobe: functions

– primary auditory cortex
• located on top edge of each
temporal lobe, receives
electrical signals from
receptors in the ears and
transforms these signals
into meaningful sound
sensations, such as vowels
and consonants
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Temporal lobe: functions

– auditory association area
– located directly below the primary auditory cortex
– transforms basic sensory information, such as
noises or sounds, into recognizable auditory
information, such as words or music
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Temporal lobe: functions

– Broca’s area - frontal lobe
• located in left frontal lobe
• necessary for combining sounds into words and
arranging words into meaningful sentences
– Wernicke’s area
• located in the left temporal lobe
• necessary for speaking in coherent sentences
and for understanding speech
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Occipital lobe: functions

– vision
– primary visual cortex
• located at the very back of
the occipital lobe
• receives electrical signals
from receptors in the eyes
and transforms these
signals into meaningless
basic visual sensations,
such as lights, lines,
shadows, colors, and
textures
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)

• Occipital lobe: functions

– visual association area
– transforms basic sensations, such as lights, lines,
colors, and textures, into complete, meaningful
visual perceptions, such as persons, objects, or
animals
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN

• Structures and functions

– Hypothalamus
– Amygdala
– Thalamus
– Hippocampus
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)

• Hypothalamus
– regulates many:
• motivational behaviors, including eating, drinking, and
sexual responses
• emotional behaviors such as arousing the body when
fighting or fleeing
• secretion of hormones, such as occurs at puberty
• homeostasis – water/salt, temperature, insulin levels, etc.
• Amygdala
– located in the tip of the temporal lobe
– receives input from all the senses
– evaluates the emotional significance of stimuli and facial
expressions, especially those involving fear, distress, or
threat
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)

• Thalamus
– gathers and processes information from the senses
– involved in receiving sensory information, doing some initial
processing, and then relaying the sensory information to
areas of the cortex
– regulates awareness, attention, motivation, and emotional
sensations
• Hippocampus
– curved structure inside the temporal lobe
– Involved in saving many kinds of fleeting memories by
putting them into permanent storage in various parts of the
brain
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)

• Autonomic nervous system
– Sympathetic - triggered by
threatening or challenging physical
or psychological stimuli
• Physiological responses
– increased heart rate,
increased blood
pressure, and dilated
pupils
– fight or flight
– Parasympathetic
• decreases physiological
arousal
• returns the body to a calmer,
more relaxed state
• stimulates digestion during
eating
• Physiological responses
– decreases heart rate
– lowers blood pressure
– stimulate digestion
– body returns to more
relaxed state.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)

• Autonomic nervous system

– Homeostasis
• sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
work together to keep the body’s level of
arousal in balance for optimum functioning
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
Module 4: Incredible Nervous System

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Endocrine System
– Made up of numerous glands that
are located throughout the body.
Glands secrete various chemicals
called hormones.
• Pituitary
• Pancreas
• Thyroid
• Adrenal glands
• Gonads
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)

• Pituitary gland
– hangs below the hypothalamus
– divided into anterior and posterior
– Anterior
• front portion
• regulates growth through secretion of growth hormone
• produces hormones that control the adrenal cortex,
pancreas, thyroid, and pancreas
– Posterior
• rear portion
• regulates water and salt balance
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)

• Pancreas
– regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by
secreting insulin
• Thyroid
– located in the neck
– regulates metabolism through secretion of
hormones
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)

• Adrenal glands
– adrenal cortex (outside part) - secretes hormones
that regulate sugar and salt balance
– adrenal medulla (inside part) - secretes two
hormones that arouse the body to deal with stress
and emergencies
• epinephrine (adrenaline)
• norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)

• Gonads
– Females
• ovaries produce hormones that regulate sexual
development, ovulation, and growth of sex
organs
– Males
• testes produce hormones that regulate sexual
development, production of sperm, and growth
of sex organs