JawapanKeseluruhan 2

1
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan dan Pertumbuhan
1 Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth
Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan Tisu Meristem dan Pertumbuhan

1.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues 1.2 Meristematic Tissues and Growth
Jenis Tisu Tumbuhan dan Fungsi Utama

The Types of Plant Tissue and Their Main Functions Tisu meristem / Meristematic tissues
• bersaiz kecil / small cells
(a) Tisu meristem / Meristematic tissues • membahagi, membeza / dividing, differentiation
(b) (i) melindungi / protect (a) Meristem apeks / Apical meristems
(ii) Tisu asas / Ground tissues (b) Meristem lateral / Lateral meristems
(iii) Tisu vaskular / Vascular tissues
(i) Meristem apeks pucuk
Shoot apical meristem
(a) Tisu epidermis
Epidermal tissue
Daun Tisu vaskular

Leaf Vascular tissue
Tisu asas (ii) Kambium gabus

Ground tissue Cork cambium
Tisu epidermis (iii) Kambium vaskular

Epidermal tissue Vascular cambium
Batang (b) Tisu vaskular Tisu kekal Akar
Tisu meristem Stem Vascular tissue Permanent rambut
Meristematic tissue tissues Root hair
Tisu asas
Ground tissue
(iv) Meristem apeks akar

Tisu epidermis Root apical meristem
Epidermal tissue
Akar Tisu vaskular
Root
Vascular tissue
(c) Tisu asas
Ground tissue
Zon pertumbuhan sel

Tisu Asas / Ground Tissue Zone of cell growth
• tisu parenkima, tisu kolenkima, tisu sklerenkima / parenchyma
Hujung pucuk
tissue, collenchyma tissue, sclerenchyma tissue Shoot tip
(a) Tisu parenkima / Parenchyma tissues (a) Zon pembahagian sel

• nipis, vakuol besar / thin, large vacuoles The zone of cell division
Meristem apeks pucuk
Shoot apical meristem
• khusus / specialised (b) Zon pemanjangan sel
The zone of cell elongation
• kanji, gula / starch / sugar (c) Zon pembezaan sel
(b) Tisu sklerenkima / Sclerenchyma tissues The zone of cell differentiation
• seragam, lignin / uniformly, lignin Floem

Phloem
Tisu matang
• mati / dead Mature tissue
Xilem
• sokongan, kekuatan / supports, strengthens Xylem
(c) Tisu kolenkima / collenchyma tissues Hujung akar

The root
• tidak seragam / unevenly Xilem
Xylem
• tumbuhan herba / herbaceous plants Tisu matang
Mature tissue Floem
Tisu epidermis / Epidermal tissues Phloem
(a) Zon pembezaan sel Akar rambut
• paling luar / outermost The zone of cell differentiation Root hair
• vakuol besar / large vacuoles

• sel pengawal / guard cells (b) Zon pemanjangan sel
The zone of cell elongation
• sel akar rambut / root hairs cells
Tisu xilem / Xylem tissue (c) Zon pembahagian sel
The zone of cell division Meristem apeks akar
• salur xilem / xylem vessels Root apical meristem
• air, garam mineral / water, minerals salts Jidal akar

Root cap
• dinding sel / cell walls
Tisu floem / Phloem tissue
• sel tiub tapis / sieve tubes
• bahan organik / organic substances
J1 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

Biologi Tingkatan 5 Jawapan
(a) bilangan / number 2. Aseto-orsein mempunyai bau seperti cuka yang kuat dan
• kecil / small merengsa. Penutup foil mengurangkan pelepasan bau tersebut.
• besar / large Acetic orcein has a strong vinegar-like smell which can be an irritant.
• Tiada / No The foil reduces the escape of fumes from the tube.
• Padat / Dense
• nipis / wall
Jenis Pertumbuhan
mitosis / mitotic Types of Growth
(b) saiz / size
Dinding sel nipis / Thin cell wall Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
Vakuol kecil / Small vacuole • panjang / length
• Sel mengambil air secara osmosis. • meristem apeks / apical meristems
The cells take in water by osmosis. • Semua / All
• Membentuk banyak vakuol kecil dan sel memanjang.
To form many small vacuoles and the cells elongate. Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth
• Pemanjangan sel menolak meristem apeks akar ke • lilitan / girth
bawah dan meristem apeks pucuk ke atas. • meristem lateral / lateral meristems
Elongation of the cells pushes the apical meristem in the root Di batang / At the stem
downwards and that in the shoot upwards.
Aktiviti kambium vaskular / Activity of vascular cambium
Dinding sel tebal / Thick cell wall
Vakuol besar / Large vacuole • gelang kambium / cambium ring
• Penvakuolan berlaku. Vakuol kecil dalam sel bergabung • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
untuk membentuk vakuol besar. secondary xylem, secondary phloem
Vacuolation occurs. Small vacuoles in the cells fuse to form a • empulur; epidermis / pith, epidermis
large central vacuole. • lignin / lignin
• Mensintesis bahan organik, lebih gentian selulosa Aktiviti kambium gabus / The activity of cork cambium
terbentuk di dinding sel, menjadikannya lebih tebal dan • sel gabus; korteks sekunder / cork cells; secondary cortex
kuat. • suberin / suberin
Synthesis of organic matters, more cellulose fibres are made and
added to the cell walls, therefore the cell walls become thicker Di akar / At the root
and more rigid. • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
(c) saiz; bentuk / size; shape secondary xylem; secondary phloem
khusus; fungsi / specialised; functions • kambium gabus / cork cambium
• sel gabus / cork cells
Eksperimen 1.1 Pertumbuhan Primer dan Sekunder
Primary and Secondary Growth
(a) atas / upwards
Keputusan / Results:
(b) cabang sisi / side branches
Keratan memanjang hujung akar / Longitudinal section of the root tip (c) bercabang / branches
Zon pembezaan sel (a) Kepentingan pertumbuhan primer
Zone of cell differentiation The importance of primary growth
✓ fotosintesis / photosynthesis
✓ air / water
Zon pemanjangan sel
Zone of cell elongation (b) Kepentingan pertumbuhan sekunder
The importance of secondary growth
Zon pembahagian sel ✓ sokongan mekanikal / mechanical support
Zone of cell division ✓ pengangkutan air; bahan organik; sokongan
transport of water; organic substances; support
Jidal akar ✓ melindungi, kehilangan air / protects, water loss
Root cap gelang tahunan / annual growth rings
• musim / season
• gelang cerah / brighter rings
Lukisan hujung akar / Drawing of root tip
• kecil, gelang gelap / small; darker ring
Zon pembezaan sel • gelang tahunan / annual ring
Zone of cell differentiation • satu tahun / one year
Persamaan / Similarities
Zon pemanjangan sel 1. primer, sekunder / primary, secondary
Zone of cell elongation 2. serentak / simultaneously
Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
Zon pembahagian sel (a) percambahan / germination
Zone of cell division (b) Semua / All
(c) hujung akar, pucuk / tips of roots, shoots
Jidal akar (d) pemanjangan / increase
Root cap (e) pucuk, akar muda / shoots, roots
(f) xilem primer, floem primer / primary xylem, primary phloem
Perbincangan / Discussion:
1. Untuk mewarnakan kromosom menjadi merah Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth
To stain the chromosomes red.
© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J2

(a) batang, akar / stems, roots Graf / Graph:

(b) Eudikot berkayu, sesetengah / Woody eudicots, some Tinggi (cm)
(c) pembahagian, sel, meristem lateral Height (cm)
cell divisions, lateral meristems
(d) ukur lilit / circumference 220
(e) kayu, kulit kayu / wood, bark
(f) floem, xilem, sekunder / secondary phloem, xylem, cork 180
Kepentingan Tumbuhan yang Mengalami Pertumbuhan Sekunder
dari segi Ekonomi 140
The Economic Importance of Plants that Have Undergone Secondary
Growth
100
1. (a) Kayu balak untuk bangunan, jambatan, pintu, perabot -
contoh: jati.
Timber for buildings, bridges, doors, furniture – example: teak. 60
(b) Penghasilan resin dan minyak - contoh: meranti.
Production of resins and oils – example: meranti 20
(c) Pengeluaran kertas / Paper production Masa (hari)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (days)
2. hiasan / ornamentals
3. buah-buahan / fruits Perbincangan / Discussion:
keras, kuat / hard, strong 1. Lengkung sigmoid / Sigmoid curve
2. Jisim kering / Dry mass
Lengkung Pertumbuhan
1.3 Growth Curves Praktis SPM 1
Tumbuhan semusim / Annual plants Soalan Objektif
satu tahun / a single year 1. B 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. B
• pokok padi; soya; dan bunga matahari
Paddy plants; soya; plants and sunflowers Soalan Struktur
Tumbuhan dwimusim / Biennial plants Bahagian A
dua tahun / two years
1. (a) • Untuk mengelakkan haiwan menggigit kulit muda yang
• karbohidrat / carbohydrates lembut dan merosakkan tisu pengangkutan.
• berbunga, membiak / flowers, reproduce To prevent animals nibbling the soft young bark and destroying
• lobak merah, bawang, kubis / carrot, onions, cabbage. the transport tissue.
Tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants • Kulit kayu yang tidak dirosakkan di sekeliling batang
bertahun-tahun / year after year tumbuhan tidak akan mati, memastikan pengangkutan
• berterusan / continues air naik ke atas batang, dan pengangkutan bahan
organik ke bawah ke akar.
• pokok getah, mangga, durian / Rubber tree, mango, durian
The bark is not destroyed all around the trunk ensured the
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan semusim plant not die, as water can move up the trunk, and organic
Growth curve of annual plants substances can move down to the roots.
Peringkat A / Stage A: (b) • Lignin memberikan kekuatan tetapi adalah ringan
berkurang, membekalkan tenaga / decreases, provide energy Lignin gives strength but is lightweight
Peringkat B / Stage B: • Kayu boleh diperbaharui / Wood is renewable
• bertambah / increases • Kurang konkrit dan keluli digunakan
• lebih tinggi / faster Less concrete and steel are used
• Tidak mengembang dalam keadaan panas tetapi
Peringkat C / Stage C: mengering dan menjadi lebih kuat
berkurang / decreases Does not expand in heat but dries out and gets stronger
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan dwimusim • Penebat haba dan bunyi yang baik
Growth curve of biennial plants Good heat and sound insulator
• Dua / Two • Terdapat banyak jenis kayu yang sesuai dengan tujuan
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants yang berbeza
There are many types of wood to suit different purposes
• kecil / small
• Nilai estetik / Aesthetic value
• pertumbuhan / growth
• Menentang daya mampatan / Resists compression forces
• Tidak retak ketika dipotong atau dipaku dan mengekalkan
Eksperimen 1.2 kekuatannya.
Doesn’t crack when cut or nailed and keeps its strength.
Pemboleh ubah / Variables
Dimanipulasikan / Manipulated:
Bilangan hari penanaman / The numbers of day of planting Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 1
Bergerak balas / Responding:
Ketinggian pokok jagung / Height of maize plant 1. D 2. D 3. B 4. C 5. D
6. C 7. D 8. C 9. B 10. B
Dimalarkan / Fixed:
Jenis dan saiz benih jagung / The variety and size of the maize seed

2
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Struktur dan Fungsi Daun
2 Leaf Structure and Function
Struktur Daun
2.1 Structure of a Leaf
(a) cahaya matahari / sunlight

Struktur Luar Daun
The External Structure of a Leaf
(b) • sokongan / Support
(c) • Lebar; leper; permukaan / Broad; flat; surface
• fotosintesis, gas / photosynthesis, gas • Nipis / Thin
Struktur Dalaman Lamina Daun

The Internal Structures of a Leaf Lamina
Kutikel / Cuticle
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis
Mesofil palisad
Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Palisade mesophyll
Vascular bundle
Floem / Phloem
Mesofil berspan
Spongy mesophyll Epidermis bawah
Lower epidermis
Ruangan udara
Air space Sel pengawal
Stoma / Stoma Guard cell
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis Kutikel / Cuticle
Mesofil palisad
Palisade mesophyll Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Vascular bundle
Mesofil berspan Floem / Phloem
Spongy mesophyll
Ruangan udara
Epidermis bawah Air space
Lower epidermis
Sel pengawal
Guard cell

Ruangan udara
Air space
Kutikel / Cuticle
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis
Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular

Mesofil berspan
Spongy mesophyll Vascular bundle
Floem / Phloem
Sel pengawal
Epidermis bawah
Guard cell
Lower epidermis
2. • Untuk mengurangkan kehilangan air secara transpirasi

Organ Utama Pertukaran Gas To reduce water loss through transpiration
2.2 Main Organ for Gasesous Exchange • Elakkan penyejatan berlebihan
Avoid excessive evaporation
• Memastikan fotosintesis berlaku pada kadar optimum
Keperluan Pertukaran Gas dalam Tumbuhan Ensure photosynthesis occur at an optimum rate
The Necessity of Gaseous Exchange in Plants
• oksigen; karbon dioksida / oxygen; carbon dioxide Kesan Kekurangan Air dalam Tumbuhan Terhadap
• karbon dioksida; oksigen / carbon dioxide; oxygen Pembukaan dan Penutupan Stoma
• resapan / diffusion The Effect of Water Deficiency in Plants on Stomatal Opening and
Closing
Siang / Day Malam / Night
Fotosintesis & respirasi Respirasi • tertutup / closed
Photosynthesis & respiration Respiration • asid absisik / abscisic acid
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide • oksigen; karbon dioksida • transpirasi / transpiration
• oksigen / oxygen oxygen; carbon dioxide
• oksigen / oxygen
Mekanisme Pembukaan dan Penutupan Stoma Organ Utama Transpirasi
Mechanism of Stomatal Opening and Closing 2.3 Main Organ for Transpiration
• buka; tutup / open; close
• pengawal / guard Keperluan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
Mekanisme Pembukaan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Opening The Necessity of Transpiration in Plants
1. pam proton; Proton / proton pumps; Protons
2. kalium; vakuol / Potassium; vacuoles • Transpirasi, sejatan / Transpiration, evaporation
3. bahan larut; Air / solute; Water 1. penyerapan / absorption
4. segah; liang; terbuka / turgid; pore; opens 2. transpirasi; air; mineral / transpiration; water; minerals
Mekanisme Penutupan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Closing 3. fotosintesis; kesegahan / photosynthesis; turgidity
1. sukrosa; menurun; Sukrosa; kanji 4. haba; penyejukan / heat; cooling
sucrose; declines; Sucrose, starch
2. bahan, larut, Air / solute, Water
Faktor Persekitaran yang Mempengaruhi Kadar
3. kesegahan, liang, tertutup / turgidity, pore, closes
Transpirasi
The Environmental Factors that Affect Rate of Transpiration
Eksperimen 2.1
1. (a) cahaya / Light
Perbincangan / Discussion: (b) Suhu / Temperature
1. (a) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf (c) Udara / Air
(b) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf
(d) Kelembapan / humidity

(a) Keamatan Cahaya / Light Intensity
Pada keamatan cahaya tinggi tertentu, kadar transpirasi menjadi

Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan malar. Faktor lain menjadi faktor penghad.
peningkatan keamatan cahaya. Beyond a certain light intensity, the rate of transpiration levels off. Some
Rate of transpiration
The rate of transpiration increases
Kadar transpirasi
other factors become the limiting factor.
with the increase in light intensity.
Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat,

stoma membuka dengan lebih luas,
lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar Keamatan cahaya
daripada ruangan udara. Light intensity
As light intensity increases, the stomata
Pada keamatan cahaya rendah, kadar transpirasi adalah rendah.
open wider, allowing more water vapour
At low light intensity, the rate of transpiration is low.
in the air spaces to diffuse out.
Dalam keadaan gelap, stoma tertutup. Hanya sejumlah kecil wap air yang meresap keluar.
In darkness, the stomata are closed. Only a small amount of water vapour diffuses out.
(b) Suhu / Temperature

Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan peningkatan suhu.
The rate of transpiration increases when temperature increases.

Kadar transpirasi
• Apabila suhu meningkat, kadar penyejatan air daripada permukaan sel mesofil
meningkat.
As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells
increases.
• Lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar melalui stoma daun.
Suhu
More water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.
Temperature
(c) Pergerakan udara / Air movement
Keadaan udara tidak bergerak, kadar Semakin tinggi kelajuan angin, semakin tinggi kadar transpirasi.
transpirasi rendah. The higher the wind speed, the higher the rate of transpiration.
In still air, the rate of transpiration decreases.
Kadar transpirasi
Angin bertiup menyingkirkan wap air berdekatan stoma. Ini

• Wap air yang meresap keluar daripada menambahkan kecerunan kepekatan wap air di antara ruang udara
daun berkumpul di sekitar stoma. dan udara persekitaran. Kadar resapan bertambah.
The water vapour that diffuses out of the Wind carries away water vapour around the stomata, maintaining a
leaf accumulates around the stoma. concentration gradient of water vapour between the air space and the
• Mengurangkan kecerunan kepekatan surrounding air. The rate of diffusion increases.
wap air di antara ruang udara daun
dan udara persekitaran. 0 Kelajuan angin
Reduces the concentration gradient of water Wind speed
vapour between the air spaces of the leaf
and the surrounding air.
(d) Kelembapan relatif udara / Relatif air humidity
Kelembapan relatif udara persekitaran rendah,

kadar transpirasi adalah tinggi.
A relative low humidity in the surrounding air, the rate
of transpiration increases.
Kadar transpirasi berkurang
Kadar transpirasi
Kelembapan relatif udara yang tinggi apabila kelembapan relatif udara

mengurangkan kecerunan kepekatan wap persekitaran meningkat.
The rate of transpiration decreases
air di antara ruang udara dalam daun dan when the relative humidity in the
persekitaran. Kurang wap air meresap keluar surrounding air increases.
melalui stoma.
A higher relative air humidity decreases the
concentration gradient of water vapour between the
air space and the surrounding air. Less water vapour 0 Kelembapan relatif
diffuses out through the stomata. Relative humidity
2. Potometer / potometer

(b) Stroma / Stroma

Eksperimen 2.2 • enzim; glukosa / enzymes; glucose
(c) Granum / Granum
Perbincangan / Discussion
1. tilakoid / thylakoid
1. kehilangan air / water loss 2. grana; luas permukaan / grana; surface area
2. jarak gelembung udara / distance travelled by the air bubbles (d) dua / double
Kesimpulan / Conclusion (e) dalam / inner
bertambah, berkurang / increases, decreases (f) luar / outer
Kromatografi / Chromatography
• pigmen / pigments
Organ Utama Fotosintesis
2.4 Main Organ for Photosynthesis
• kromatografi / chromatography
Karoten (oren) / Carotene (orange)

Keperluan Fotosintesis dalam Tumbuhan
The Necessity of Photosynthesis in Plants
Feofitin (kelabu) / Phaeophytin (grey)
1. makanan / food
• pengeluar; makanan / producers; food Xantofil (kuning) Xanthophyll (yellow)
2. tenaga / energy
• cahaya / light Klorofil a (biru-hijau) Chlorophyll a (blue-green)
• kimia / chemical
• rantai makanan; haba / food chains; heat Klorofil b (kuning-hijau) Chlorophyll b (yellow-green)
3. • karbon dioksida; fotosintesis
carbon dioxide; photosynthesis
• oksigen; / oxygen Titik permulaan / Loading point
Penyesuaian Struktur Dalaman Daun dengan

Fotosintesis
The Adaptations of Internal Structure of a Leaf to Photosynthesis Tindak balas Bersandarkan Cahaya dan Tindak Balas Tidak
bersandarkan Cahaya dalam Fotosintesis
1. (a) cahaya / light Light-dependent and Light-independent Reactions in Photosynthesis
(b) gas / gases 1. enzim / enzyme
(c) air / water 2.
(d) sukrosa / sucrose
(a) bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent
2. (a) palisad / Palisade
• atas / upper cahaya; kimia / Light; chemical
• kloroplas / chloroplasts Tapak tindak balas: membran tilakoid
• cahaya / sunlight Sites of reactions: thylakoid membranes
(b) berspan / Spongy 1. Cahaya; ATP / Light; ATP
• kloroplas; ruang udara / chloroplasts; air spaces 2. fotolisis; oksigen; hidrogen / photolysis; oxygen; hydrogen
• resapan / diffusion 3. Hidrogen; ATP / hydrogen; ATP
Epidermis bawah / Lower epidermis 4. Oksigen / oxygen
• Mempunyai stomata. / Have stomata. (b) Tidak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent
(c) Kutikel / Cuticle
• berlilin / waxy kimia; organik / chemical; organic
• air / water Tapak tindak balas: stroma
Sites of reactions: stroma
(d) Epidermis / epidermis
• cahaya / light 1. ATP; hidrogen / ATP; hydrogen
(e) • pengangkutan / transport 2. Hidrogen; karbon dioksida; organik
• xilem / xylem hydrogen; carbon dioxide; organic
• floem; sukrosa / phloem; sucrose 3. ATP; karbon / carbon; ATP
Stoma / Stoma
• pengawal / guard Persamaan Kimia bagi Mewakili Proses Fotosintesis
• karbon dioksida; air / carbon dioxide; water Chemical Equation to Represent the Process of Photosynthesis
Struktur Kloroplas 1. cahaya; klorofil; karbon dioksida; glukosa

Structures of Chloroplast light; chlorophyll; carbon dioxide; glucose
2.
• fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Tenaga cahaya C6H12O6
(a) Tilakoid / Thylakoids 6 CO2 + 6 H2O Light energy + 6 O2
• bermembran / membranous Karbon dioksida + Air Glukosa + Oksigen
• klorofil / Chlorophyll Carbon dioxide + Water Klorofil Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

3. oksigen; air / oxygen; water

Faktor-faktor Persekitaran yang Mempengaruhi Kadar
4. glukosa / glucose
Fotosintesis
Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Photosynthesis
Membanding dan Membezakan antara Tindak Balas
Bersandarkan Cahaya dengan Tindak Balas Tidak • (a) cahaya / Light
Bersandarkan Cahaya dalam Fotosintesis (b) Suhu / Temperature
Compare and Contrast Light Dependent and Light-Independent Reac- (c) karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide
tions in Photosynthesis (a) Keamatan cahaya / Light Intensity
Persamaan / Similarities
1. kloroplas / chloroplast • Pada keamatan cahaya
2. fotosintesis / photosynthesis tinggi, kadar fotosintesis
Perbezaan / Differences menjadi malar.
Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis
Tindak balas tidak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-dependent At high light intensities,
reactions there is no change in the
1. tilakoid / thylakoids rate of photosynthesis.
3. Air; ADP / Water; ADP • Faktor selain keamatan
4. Oksigen; ATP; hidrogen / Oxygen; ATP; hidrogen cahaya menjadi faktor
5. fotolisis / photolysis penghad, contohnya
Tindak balas tidak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent Keamatan cahaya
karbon dioksida.
reactions Light intensity The rate is now limited by
1. stroma / stroma a factor other than light
3. Karbon dioksida; ATP; hidrogen / Carbon dioxide; ATP; hydrogen intensity, e.g. carbon dioxide
4. Glukosa / Glucose Tanpa cahaya, fotosintesis tidak
5. penurunan / reduction berlaku.
Without light there is no photosynthesis.
(b) Suhu / Temperature
Pada suhu yang lebih tinggi daripada suhu optimum, kadar fotosintesis menurun.
At temperature higher than the optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis decreases.
Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis
Pada suhu yang tinggi, enzim tenyahasli,

fotosintesis berhenti.
At high temperatures, enzymes are denatured,
photosynthesis stops.
Suhu
Temperature
Kadar fotosintesis bertambah dengan peningkatan suhu.

The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in temperature.
(c) Kepekatan karbon dioksida / Concentration of carbon dioxide
• Peningkatan
kepekatan CO2
selanjutnya, kadar
Rate of photosynthesis
Pada permulaan, kadar

Kadar fotosintesis
fotosintesis menjadi
fotosintesis meningkat dengan malar.
peningkatan kepekatan karbon B C
As the CO2 concentration
dioksida. Di antara A dan B, further increases, there is
kepekatan CO 2 adalah faktor no change in the rate of
penghad. photosynthesis.
Initially, the rate of photosynthesis A • Faktor lain menjadi
increases with increasing carbon Kepekatan CO2 faktor penghad.
dioxide concentration. Between A and CO2 concentration The rate becomes limited
B, CO2 concentration is the limiting by other factors.
factor.

Eksperimen 2.3 Kesan Perubahan Keamatan Cahaya dan Warna

Cahaya terhadap Kadar Fotosintesis
A. Keamatan cahaya / Light Intensity Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Photosynthesis
Graf / Graph:
• pigmen; cahaya / pigments; light
Spektrum serapan / Absorption spectrum
Purata bilangan gelembung / minit
Average number of bubbles / minute
biru; merah / Blue; red

Spektrum tindakan / Action spectrum
(rate of photosynthesis)
(kadar fotosintesis)
biru; merah / Blue; red
Titik Pampasan
2.5 Compensation Point
Titik Pampasan
Compensation Point
• keamatan cahaya / light intensity

Keamatan cahaya / Light intensity (a) Pada keamatan cahaya rendah / At low light intensity
Perbincangan / Discussion melebihi / exceeds
1. Untuk membekalkan karbon dioksida yang diperlukan oleh • Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
tumbuhan untuk menjalankan fotosintesis
(b) Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat
To supply the carbon dioxide needed by plants to carry out As light intensity increases
photosynthesis.
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide
2. (a) Kadar fotosintesis / The rate of photosynthesis
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide
(b) Keamatan cahaya / Light intensity
• titik pampasan / compensation point
B. Suhu / Temperature
(c) Pada keamatan cahaya tinggi / At high light intensity
Graf / Graph:
melebihi / exceeds
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
Fotosintesis Respirasi sel

Kadar fotosintesis
Photosynthesis Cellular respiration
Anabolisme / Anabolism Katabolisme / Catabolism
Kloroplas / Chloroplast Mitokondrion / Mitochondrion
klorofil / chlorophyll semua sel / all cells
1. Karbon dioksida 1. Glukosa

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Carbon dioxide Glucose
Suhu / Temperature (°C) 2. Water / Air 2. Oksigen / Oxygen
Perbincangan / Discussion 1. Glukosa 1. Karbon dioksida
1. Pada suhu yang terlalu tinggi, enzim fotosintesis ternyahasli, Glucose Carbon dioxide
kadar fotosintesis menurun menjadi sifar. 2. Oksigen / Oxygen 2. Air / Water
Too high temperature, the photosynthetic enzymes denature, the rate fotosintesis Respirasi
of photosynthesis decreases to zero photosynthesis Respiration
C. Kepekatan karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide concentration
Graf / Graph:
Menganalisis Keamatan Cahaya dan Pencapaian Titik
Pampasan dengan Menggunakan Graf
25 Analyse Light Intensity and Attainment of Compensation Point
using a Graph
Kadar fotosintesis
20
Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah
Light intensity increases even further
15
Keamatan cahaya bertambah / Light intensity increases further
10
• lebih tinggi / higher
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
5
Dalam gelap / In darkness
0 • fotosintesis; respirasi / photosynthesis; respiration
Peratus kepekatan karbon dioksida • karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide
Percentage concentration of carbon dioxide

Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah pada waktu siang • Stoma membenarkan kemasukan karbon dioksida untuk
As light intensity increases in the daylight fotosintesis; Ruang udara membolehkan gas mencapai
• bertambah / increases sel-sel fotosintesis
The stoma allows entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis; the
Pada titik pampasan / At compensation point
air space allows the gas to reach the photosynthesising cells
• sama / equal
(e) • Kebanyakan daun adalah lebar dan memberi permukaan
• respirasi; fotosintesis / respiration; photosynthesis
penyerapan cahaya matahari yang besar untuk
• Tiada / no
fotosintesis.
Kesan kadar fotosintesis dan kadar respirasi sel yang kekal pada Most leaves are broad and offer a large absorbing surface to
titik pampasan terhadap pertumbuhan dalam tumbuhan the sunlight, which they need for photosynthesis.
The effect on plant growth if the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of • Daun adalah tipis, ciri yang mengurangkan jarak
cellular respiration remain at its compensation point
peresapan karbon dioksida untuk mencapai fotosintesis
1. sama / same sel-sel di daun.
2. makanan / food The leaves are also mostly thin, a feature which reduces the
3. gula berlebihan / excess sugars distance over which carbon dioxide has to diffuse in order to
4. gas oksigen / oxygen reach photosynthesising cells in the leaf.
2. (a) (i) X: Membran tilakoid / grana / granum
Praktis SPM 2

Thylakoid membrane / grana / granum
Y: Stroma / Stroma
(ii) • X / thylakoid / grana / granum /
Soalan Objektif X / thylakoid / grana / granum
(b) • Sel mesofil / sel mesofil palisad / sel pengawal / sel
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. A
mesofil berspan
6. B 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B Mesophyll cell / palisade mesophyll cell / guard cell / spongy
mesophyll cell
Soalan Struktur
(c) Tindak balas fotokimia berlaku di X
Bahagian A Photochemical reactions take place at X
1. (a) A. Epidermis atas / Upper epidermis 1. Yang membekalkan ATP dan NADPH
Which supplies ATP and NADPH
B. Kloroplas / chloroplast
2. Untuk pengikatan karbon di Y
C. Ruang udara antara sel / intercellular air space For carbon fixation that takes place at Y
D. Epidermis bawah / lower epidermis
E. Sel pengawal / guard cell (d) 1. Komponen sel itu ialah kloroplas yang mengandungi
klorofil untuk menyerap / memerangkap tenaga cahaya
(b) • Bentuk sel mesofil palisad adalah memanjang The cell component is chloroplast which contains chlorophyll to
sementara sel mesofil berspan berbentuk bulat. absorb / trap / capture light energy
The palisade mesophyll cells are elongated while the spongy
mesophyll cells are rounded. 2. Ditukar ke tenaga kimia / ATP
Converted / changed it to chemical energy / ATP
• Sel mesofil palisad mempunyai banyak kloroplas
sementara sel mesofil berspan mempunyai sedikit (e) 1. Komponen sel adalah kloroplas / sel haiwan tidak
kloroplas. mempunyai kloroplas
The palisade mesophyll cells have many chloroplasts while The cell component is chloroplast / animal cells do not have
the spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts. chloroplast
2. Tidak perlu menyerap tenaga cahaya
(c) • Ruang udara antara sel / C membenarkan resapan
Does not need to absorb light energy
gas oksigen, karbon dioksida dan wap air ke dalam
atau keluar daripada sel di dalam daun. 3. Tidak menjalankan fotosintesis
Does not carry out photosynthesis
The intercellular air spaces / C permit the diffusion of oxygen,
carbon dioxide and water vapour to or from the cells inside 4. Haiwan adalah heterotrof / holozoik / haiwan memakan
the leaf. makanan / memperoleh nutrien dari organisma lain
(d) • Sel mesofil palisad yang memanjang membenarkan Animals are heterotroph / holozoic / animals ingest food / obtain
nutrients from other organisms
cahaya matahari menembusinya tanpa diserap oleh
dinding sel.
The elongated palisade mesophyll cells allow the sunlight to
penetrate without being absorbed by cell walls.
Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 2
• Kloroplas yang banyak di sel mesofil palisad menyerap
1. D 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. D
dan menggunakan tenaga cahaya matahari.
The abundant chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll cells 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. A 10. C
absorb and use the energy from sunlight.
• Terdapat lebih banyak kloroplas di lapisan atas di mana
kebanyakan cahaya matahari diterima.
The chloroplasts are more abundant in the upper layers where
most sunlight is received.

3
Bab
Jawapan
(k) Kalium / Potassium
(l) Nitrogen / Nitrogen
Bab Nutrisi dalam Tumbuhan
3 Nutrition in Plants
Organ Pengambilan Air dan Garam Mineral
3.2 Organ for Water and Mineral Salts Uptake
Nutrien tak Organik Utama
3.1 Main Inorganic Nutrients
Struktur Akar dalam Pengambilan Air dan Garam
Mineral
1. mineral; ion / minerals; ions The Root Structure for Water and Mineral Salts Uptake
2. makronutrien; mikronutrien / macronutrients; micronutrients
Sembilan Makronutrien / Nine macronutrients • akar / roots
1. Karbon / Carbon • tarikan transpirasi / transpiration pull
2. Oksigen / Oxygen
Akar rambut
3. Hidrogen / Hydrogen Root hair
4. Nitrogen / Nitrogen Epidermis
5. Sulfur / Sulphur Epidermis
6. Fosforus / Phosphorus Korteks
7. Kalium / Potassium Cortex
8. Kalsium / Calcium
9. Magnesium / Magnesium Endodermis
Endodermis
Lapan Mikronutrien / Eight micronutrients
1. Klorin / Chlorine Floem
Phloem
2. Besi / Iron
3. Mangan / Managanese Xilem
Xylem
4. Boron / Boron
5. Zink / Zinc Jidal akar
6. Kuprum / Copper Root cap
7. Nikel / Nickel
8. Molibdenum / Molybdenum Epidermis / Epidermis
• kutikel / cuticle
• nipis / thin
Kepentingan Makronutrien dan Mikronutrien dalam • akar rambut / root hairs
Tumbuhan Korteks / Cortex
The Necessity of Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Plants
• parenkima / parenchyma
1. karbon; oksigen; hidrogen; nitrogen; fosforus; sulfur • kanji / starch
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur Endodermis / Endodermis
2. nitrogen / nitrogen • Casparian / Casparian
3. protein; klorofil / proteins; chlorophyll Jidal akar / Root cap
4. kofaktor / cofactors • Melindungi / Protects
Makronutrien Fungsi utama
Macronutrients Main functions Keratan Rentas Akar Monokot dan Akar Eudikot
Cross Sections of Monocot and Eudicot Roots
• air; kesegahan / water; turgidity
Kalium / Potassium (K)
• stoma / stomata
Akar monokot / Monocot root
Kalsium / Calcium (Ca) dinding sel / cell walls
Magnesium / Magnesium (Mg) klorofil / chlorophyll Akar rambut
Root hair
5. (a) Boron / Boron
(b) Sulfur / Sulfur
Epidermis
(c) Mangan / Manganese Epidermis
(d) Zink / Zinc Korteks
(e) Magnesium / Magnesium Cortex
(f) Fosforus / Phosphorus Endodermis
(g) Kalsium / Calcium Endodermis
(h) Besi / Iron Floem / Phloem
(i) Kuprum / Copper Xilem / Xylem
(j) Molibdenum / Molybdenum

Akar eudikot / Eudicot root
Akar rambut
Root hair
Epidermis
Epidermis
Korteks
Cortex
Endodermis
Endodermis
Floem / Phloem
Xilem / Xylem
Penyesuaian akar untuk pengambilan air dan garam mineral / Root adaptations for water and mineral salts uptake
air; mineral / water; minerals
Akar bercabang dan mempunyai banyak akar

Epidermis terdiri daripada satu lapisan sel berdinding nipis rambut.
dan tidak diselaputi oleh kutikel. Highly branching of roots, and numerous root hairs.
Epidermis consists of one layer of thin - walled cells and not covered
by cuticle.
Menambah luas permukaan untuk

penyerapan air dan mineral.
Membolehkan resapan air dan mineral ke Increase the surface area or the absorption of
dalam akar dengan lebih cekap. water and minerals.
Allows water and minerals to diffuse into the root
more easily.
Sistem akar tunjang

Taproot systems
Sistem akar berserabut

• Akar rambut yang panjang dan halus. Fibrous root systems
Long and fine root hairs.
• Dapat menembusi ruangan antara butiran tanah dengan mudah
untuk menyerap air dan mineral.
Can easily penetrate the spaces between soil particles to absorb water and
minerals.
3.3
Kepelbagaian dalam Nutrisi Tumbuhan
Diversity in Plant Nutrition
Praktis SPM 3
Soalan Objektif
Penyesuaian Nutrisi dalam Tumbuhan
The Nutritional Adaptations of Plants 1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. D
• (a) karnivor / Carnivorous
Soalan Struktur
(b) parasit / Parasitic
(c) Epifit / Epiphytes Bahagian A
(a) Tumbuhan karnivor / Carnivorous plants 1. (a) 1. Mineral diperlukan untuk membina molekul utama
fotosintesis; serangga; mineral / photosynthesis; insects; minerals seperti klorofil, asid amino, kalsium pektat dan ATP
(b) Tumbuhan parasit / Parasitic plants Minerals are needed to make critical molecules such as
air; perumah / water; hosts chlorophyll, amino acids, calcium pectate and ATP
(c) Tumbuhan epifit / Epiphytic plants 2. Tanpa mineral tumbuhan tidak dapat tumbuh atau
tumbuhan / plant berfungsi dengan baik.
• makanan / food The plant cannot grow or function well without minerals
• hujan / rain (b) Magnesium - Sebahagian molekul klorofil
Magnesium - Part of chlorophyll molecule

Kalsium - Digunakan untuk membina lamela tengah (b) (i)

dinding sel tumbuhan
Calcium - Used to build the middle lamella of plant cell walls Sebatian organik Fungsi
Nitrat - Untuk membina asid amino / protein untuk Organic compound Function
membran sel, organel, enzim, pembawa elektron dalam 1. Asid amino Penghasilan protein untuk pertumbuhan
sel baharu Amino acids sel / membekalkan tenaga / untuk respirasi
Nitrates - To make amino acids/ proteins for cell membranes, Production of proteins for cell growth / provide
organelles, enzymes, electron carriers in the new cells energy / for respiration
(c) ion fosfat / phosphate ions
(d) (i) Tumbuhan memerlukan bekalan nitrat (untuk nitrogen) 2. Protein Pembahagian sel / mitosis / pertambahan
dan sulfat (untuk sulfur). Proteins bilangan sel / pertambahan biomas atau
A plant needs a supply of nitrate (for nitrogen) and sulphate hasil tanaman / membran sel
(for sulphur). Cell division / mitosis / increase in cell number /
(ii) Dari tanah / From the soil increase in biomass or yield / cell membranes.
(c) Diangkut bersama air melalui salur xilem.
3. Enzim Sintesis makromolekul / karbohidrat / asid
Transported in water up the xylem vessels
Enzymes amino / protein / lipid / asid nukleik / tindak
Bahagian B balas anabolisme / untuk fotosintesis /
untuk respirasi
2. (a) (i) 1. Akar menyerap air dan ion mineral dari tanah. Synthesis of macromolecules / carbohydrates /
Roots absorbed water and mineral ions from the soil.
amino acids / proteins / lipids / nucleic acids /
2. Akar tidak dilitupi oleh kutikel, ini memolehkan anabolic reactions / for photosynthesis / for
air meresap masuk ke dalam sel dengan mudah. respiration.
The root is not covered by cuticle; hence water can
diffuse into the cells easily. 4. Bes bernitrogen /
Komponen asid nukleik / sintesis DNA / RNA
3. Banyak sel rambut akar berkembang dari nukleotida Component of nucleic acids / synthesis of DNA /
epidermis, ini meningkatkan luas permukaan Nitrogenous bases /
RNA
untuk pengambilan air dan mineral. nucleotide
Many epidermal cells develop root hairs which increase (ii) Autotrof / Autotroph
the surface area for water and minerals uptake.
1. B
ertindak sebagai pengeluar yang menjalankan
4. Struktur akar yang panjang dan halus fotosintesis
membolehkan rambut akar tumbuh di antara Acts as a producer which carries out photosynthesis
zarah-zarah tanah. 2. Mensintesis sebatian organik kompleks daripada
he long and fine structures also help the root hairs to
T
grow between the soil particles. sebatian bukan organik
Synthesises complex organic compounds from inorganic
5. Sel rambut akar mempunyai banyak mitokondria compounds
yang menjana ATP untuk pengangkutan aktif.
Root hair cells have many mitochondria to provide ATP 3. Menggunakan tenaga cahaya / Uses light energy
for active transport. Heterotrof / Heterotroph
(ii) • Akar dan batang mengalami tekanan yang berbeza. 1. Memperoleh tenaga daripada sebatian organik
Root and stem experience to different stresses. kompleks / serangga / haiwan
• Pergelangan berkas vaskular di tepi batang dapat Obtains energy from complex organic compounds /
insects / animals
menahan lenturan akibat angin.
Vascular bundles around edges of stem make it resistant to 2. Pencernaan / penyerapan hasil terlarut
bending in wind. digestion / absorption soluble products
• Berkas vaskular di tengah akar dapat menahan daya Bertindak sebagai pengguna / memakan organisma
lain / Acts as a consumer / feeds on other organisms.
mampatan.
Vascular bundles in the centre of the root makes it resistant to
compression.
1. A 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. D
6. C 7. B 8. B 9. D 10. C

4
Bab
Jawapan
Salur xilem / Xylem vessels
• pendek / shorter
Bab Pengangkutan dalam Tumbuhan • besar / wider
4 Transportation in Plants
• kurang hujung tirus / Less tapered ends
• berliang / perforation
Tisu Vaskular Trakeid / Tracheids
4.1 Vascular Tissues • panjang / longer
• kecil / smaller
Keperluan Pengangkutan dalam Tumbuhan • hujung tirus tertutup / with tapered ends
The Necessity of Transport in Plants
• pit / pits
Tumbuhan memerlukan sistem pengangkutan
Plants need a transport system Pandangan sisi / Side view
1. Pit / Pit
• Untuk mengangkut air dan garam mineral daripada akar ke Keratan rentas / Cross section
bahagian lain tumbuhan melalui xilem.
To transport water and minerals ions from the roots via xylem to other
parts of the plant via xylem. Trakeid
Tracheids
– Untuk fotosintesis dan pertumbuhan
For photosynthesis and growth
• Untuk mengangkut bahan organik yang dihasilkan di daun Salur xilem

melalui floem Xylem vessel
To transport organic substances produced in leaves via phloem
– Ke semua bahagian tumbuhan untuk respirasi dan
pertumbuhan
To all parts of the plant for respiration and growth
– Bahagian tumbuhan yang berbeza untuk simpanan dalam
bentuk kanji.
To a different part of the plant for storage in the form of starch.
(a) Xilem / Xylem

(b) Floem / Phloem
2. lignin; air / lignin; water
Kedua-dua xilem dan floem mempunyai lebih daripada satu jenis • kekuatan / strength
sel dan membentuk tisu vaskular. 3. Lumen / lumen
Both xylem and phloem contain more than one type of cell and together
they make the vascular tissue. • melekat / adhere
Keratan membujur / Longitudinal section
Penyesuaian Struktur Salur Xilem dan Trakeid dengan
Pengangkutan Air dan Garam Mineral
Structural Adaptations of Xylem Vessels and Tracheids to Transport
Water and Mineral Salts
Salur xilem / Xylem vessel Trakeid / Tracheid

Dinding sel tebal berlignin
Thick lignified cell wall
Liang
Pit
Perforations
Pits
Pit / Pit
Salur
xilem
Vessel Trakeid Pit
element Tracheid Pits
4. mati; sitoplasma / Dead; cytoplasm

• berterusan / continuous
5. hujung / end
• berongga / hollow

Penyesuaian Struktur Tiub Tapis dan Sel Rakan dengan Pengangkutan Bahan Organik
Structural Adaptations of Sieve Tubes and Companion Cells to The Transportation of Organic Substances
Tisu floem / Phloem tissue

Tiub tapis / Sieve tubes Sel rakan / Companion cells
Tiub tapis
Sieve tube
Plat tapis
Sieve plate
Nukleus / Nucleus
Liang / Pore
Sel rakan
Companion cell
Keratan rentas / Cross section

Tiub tapis
Sieve tube
Sel rakan
Sel rakan mempunyai / Companion cell has:
Companion cell
• Sitoplasma mempunyai nukleus, banyak mitokondria, Jasad
Golgi dan jalinan endoplasma.
Cytoplasm contains a nucleus, many mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Bersebelahan tiub tapis, membekalkan ATP dan nutrien.
Accompany sieve tubes, provide ATP and nutrients.
Plat tapis
Sieve plate
Nukleus
Nucleus
Keratan membujur / Longitudinal section
Tiub tapis / Sieve tube member:

• Tiub silinder yang panjang dan sempit dari hujung ke hujung.
Cylindrical column of long, narrow cells arranged end to end.
• Sel hidup / Living cells
• Apabila matang, tidak mempunyai nukleus dan sitoplasma ditolak ke tepi
sel.
When mature, it has no nucleus and its cytoplasm is pushed to the side of the cell. Sel rakan
Companion cell
Plat tapis / Sieve plate:

• Dinding hujung sel berliang
A perforated end wall
• Membenarkan aliran sap floem melalui liang tapis.
Allowing mass flow of phloem sap through the sieve pores.

Pengangkutan Air dan Garam Mineral Gutasi dalam Tumbuhan

4.2 Transport of Water and Mineral Salts
Guttation in Plants
1. air; bukaan / water; openings

2. malam; tertutup; osmosis / night; closed; osmosis
3. transpirasi; kelembapan / transpiration; moisture
4. tekanan akar / root pressure
Perbandingan antara Gutasi dengan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
Comparison between Guttation and Transpiration in Plants
H 2O Persamaan / Similarities
• air berlebihan / excess water
H 2O
Perbezaan / Differences
Gutasi / Guttation Transpirasi / Transpiration
1. titisan; hidatod 1. wap; stoma

H 2O H2O droplets; hydathodes vapour; stomata
C. Tarikan transpirasi / Transpirational pull 2. malam; rendah / night; low 2. siang; tinggi / day; high
1. tersejat / evaporates
2. tepu / saturated 3. mineral / minerals 3. tulen / pure
3. meresap; stoma; mengurangkan / diffuses; stomata; reduces
4. osmosis / osmosis 4. meningkatkan / enhances 4. mengurangkan / reduces
5. xilem / xylem
6. Tarikan transpirasi / Transpiration pull 5. tidak / cannot 5. dapat / can
Matahari 6. kelayuan / wilting 6. kelayuan / wilting

Sunlight C
C
Translokasi
Tindakan kapilari
Capillary action
4.3 Translocation
B
B Translokasi / Translocation
• organik; disimpan / organic; stored
• floem / phloem
1. sukrosa; aktif / sucrose; actively
2. meresap; osmosis / diffuse; osmosis
3&4. tekanan hidrostatik / hydrostatic pressure
5. pengangkutan aktif / active transport
6. tinggi; osmosis / high; osmosis
A Peranan Tisu Floem dalam Pengangkutan Bahan Organik
The Role of Phloem Tissue in the Transport of Organic Substances
B. Tindakan kapilari / Capillary action
1. lekitan; lekatan / cohesive; adhesive Keputusan / Results Penerangan / Explaination
2. xilem; berterusan / xylem; continuous
A. Tekanan akar / Root pressure • Floem / phloem
• bertambah; berkurang
• Nutrien / nutrient
3 2 1 increases; decreases
• Bengkak / swelling
• bengkak; layu
• Layu; xilem; air / wilt; xylem; water
swells; wither
• Mati; nutrien / die; nutrients
Keperluan Translokasi dalam Tumbuhan

The Necessity of Translocation in Plants
• organik; daun / organic; leaves
• diguna; disimpan / used; stored
• simpanan; buah; akar / storage; fruits; roots
1. tinggi; osmosis / higher; osmosis • simpanan; bunga / storage; flowers
2. bersebelahan / adjacent
3. korteks; tekanan akar / cortex; root pressure

Fitoremediasi
4.4 Phytoremediation
Fitoremediasi / Phytoremediation
• tanah; air / soils; waters
Logam sebagai bahan cemar dan

tidak penting untuk tumbuhan
Metals as contaminants and are non-
essential for plants: Bahan cemar meruap dan bebas ke atmosfera.
• Arsenik / Arsenic (As) Contaminants are volatilised and released into the
atmosphere.
• Kadmium / Cadmium (Cd)
Fitovolatilisasi
• Kromium / Chromium (Cr)
Phytovolatilisation
• Merkuri / Mercury (Hg)
• Nikel / Nickel (Ni)
• Plumbum / Lead (Pb)
• Selenium / Selenium (Se)
• Uranium / Uranium (U)
• Vanadium / Vanadium (V)
• Wolfram / Wolfram (W)
Bahan cemar terkumpul dan

dibuang.
Contaminants are accumulated Bahan cemar terurai oleh
and removed. enzim tertentu.
Fitodegradasi Contaminants are degraded by
Fitoekstrakan Phytodegradation specific enzymes.
Phytoextraction
Fitostimulasi
Phytostimulation
Fitoekstrakan
Phytoextraction
Bahan cemar terkumpul dan

dibuang.
Contaminants are accumulated and
removed.
Bahan cemar terurai oleh enzim
tertentu.
Fitodegradasi Contaminants are degraded by specific
Fitostabilasasi Phytodegradation enzymes.
Phytostabilisation
Bahan cemar termendak dan

disekatgerak.
Contaminants are precipitated and
immobilise.

Penggunaan Fitoremediasi dalam Kehidupan (b) (i) Tarikan transpirasi / Transpirational pull
The Uses of Phytoremediation in Life (c) 1. U ntuk menghasilkan kesan penyejukan kepada
tumbuhan / mengekalkan suhu tumbuhan
1. hijau / green To produces a cooling effect on plants / maintains plants
• menyingkir / remove temperature
2. bersihkan / purify • air menyerap haba daripada tumbuhan
water absorb heat from the plants
• menyerap / absorb
3. bersihkan / purify • untuk menyejat / menjadi wap air
to evaporate / become water vapour
• menyingkir / remove
2. Mewujudkan tarikan transpirasi yang membantu
penyerapan air dan mineral
Eksperimen 4.1 Creates transpirational pull which aids in the absorption of
water and minerals
A. Pencemaran air / Water pollution • m
embolehkan aliran air berterusan dari tanah ke
Perbincangan / Discussion akar dan seterusnya ke daun
llows continuous flow of water from the soil into the
a
1. • Paku pakis air / water ferns (Salvinia minima)
roots and to the leaves
• Lemna / duckweeds (Lemna minor)
• Kiambang / water lettuce (Pistia stratoites) 3. Untuk kesegahan tumbuhan / mengekalkan tekanan
osmosis tumbuhan
2. Punca / Cause For turgidity of the plant / maintain osmotic pressure of the
Air sisa tanpa rawatan daripada domestik, perindustrian, plant
pertanian dan penternakan • menyokong tumbuhan / sokongan mekanikal
Untreated wastewater from domestic, industrial, agricultural and farming
support the plant / mechanical support
Bahan pencemar / Pollutants 4. enghasilkan pengangkutan air dan mineral di
M
Racun perosak, minyak, pewarna, organik toksik, fosforus, sepanjang salur xilem
pepejal terampai, dan logam berat Results in the transport of water and minerals along the
Pesticides, oils, dyes, toxic organics, phosphorous, suspended solids, xylem vessels
and heavy metals
• untuk fotosintesis / pertumbuhan tanaman
B. Pencemaran tanih / Soil pollution photosynthesis for the growth of the plant
Bahagian B
1. membuang segala kehidupan dalam tanah
get rid of all the living thing in the soil. 2. (a) (i) X: Floem / Phloem
2. logam berat; merkuri / heavy metals; mercury Y: Xilem / Xylem
Kesimpulan / Conclusion (ii) 1. Mempunyai dinding sel berlignin
tanah / soil It has lignified wall
• T
eguh dan kuat untuk mengelakkan Y daripada
runtuh
Praktis SPM 4

Tough and strong to prevent Y from collapsing
• Untuk menahan tekanan air
To withstand water pressure
Soalan Objektif 2. Mempunyai tiub berongga yang panjang dan
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. C sempit
It has long and narrow hollow continuous tube
7. B 8. C 9. B 10. B 11. C
• Terbuka di kedua-dua hujung / Open at both ends
Soalan Struktur • Memastikan aliran air secara berterusan
Ensure continuous flow of water
Bahagian A
• D
engan menghasilkan tindakan kapilari melalui
1. (a) daya lekatan dan lekitan
By creates capillary action through adhesion and
Keratan rentas kawasan X Keratan rentas kawasan Y cohesion forces.
Transverse section of region X Transverse section of region Y
3. Mempunyai pit di dinding sel / Has Pit in cell wall
• Membenarkan air bergerak keluar dari salur xilem
ke salur xilem yang lain atau ke tisu bersebelahan.
Allows movement of water out of the vessel element to
other vessel elements or to neighbouring tissues.
(iii) Pelbagai fungsi air dalam tumbuhan termasuk:
mengekalkan kesegahan sel untuk struktur dan
pertumbuhan; mengangkut nutrien dan sebatian
organik ke seluruh tumbuhan;
The various functions of water in plants include:
maintaining cell turgidity for structure and growth;
transporting nutrients and organic compounds throughout
the plant;

(b) Persamaan / Similarities

1. Keduanya adalah tisu pengangkutan di tumbuhan
Both are transport tissues in plant
2. Kedua-duanya terdiri daripada sel yang bergabung
dari hujung ke hujung membentuk tiub berongga yang
panjang
Both made up of cells joined end to end forming
long, hollow tube
3. Kedua-duanya mengangkut bahan di tumbuhan
Both transport materials around plant
Perbezaan / Differences
Xilem / Xylem Floem / Phloem
Terdiri daripada sel-sel Terdiri daripada sel
berkayu / berlignin yang hidup / tidak berlignin
bukan sel hidup (mati) bergabung bersama
yang bergabung bersama untuk membentuk
untuk membentuk tiub tiub dengan plat tapis
berterusan berliang
Struktur Consists of non-living (dead) Consists of living cells /
Structure woody / lignified cells joined not lignified joined together
together to form continuous to form tubes with perforated
tubes sieve plates between them
Xilem mempunyai Sel floem matang tidak
lumen besar / berongga mempunyai nukleus
Xylem have wide lumen / Mature phloem cells have
hollow tubes no nucleus
Mengangkut air dan ion Mengangkut zat terlarut
Bahan yang mineral dan menyokong organik dari daun ke
diangkut tumbuhan seluruh tumbuhan
Substances Transports water and Transports organic solutes
transported mineral ions and supports around plant from leaves
plant
Sehala - Mengangkut air Dua hala : mengangkut
Arah ke atas melalui batang bahan ke atas dan ke
pengangkutan dari akar ke daun bawah batang
Direction of Unidirectional – transports Bidirectional: Transport
transport: water up the stem from material up and down the
roots to leaves stem
Pengangkutan
Pengangkutan bergantung kepada
Mekanisme
bergantung kepada pengangkutan aktif
pengangkutan
Mechanism of
tarikan transpirasi. sukrosa di daun.
Transport depends on Transport depends on
transport
transpirational pull. active loading of sucrose at
sources.

1. A 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. C
6. C 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A

5
Bab
Jawapan
(i) Fototropisme; cahaya / Phototropism; light
(ii) graviti / gravity
Bab Gerak Balas dalam Tumbuhan (iii) sentuhan / touch
5 Response in Plants
(iv) Kemotropisme; garam mineral
Chemotropism; mineral salts
Jenis Gerak Balas (v) Hidrotropisme; air / Hydrotropism; water
5.1 Types of Responses Gerak balas nasti / Nastic Responses
(b) tidak / Non-directional
Jenis Gerak Balas Tumbuhan (i) Seismonasti; kejutan; sentuhan; tiupan angin; titisan air
Types of Plant Responses hujan
Seismonasty; shock; touch; wind; raindrops
1. rangsangan; cahaya / stimuli; light
(ii) cahaya / light
Gerak balas tropisme / Tropism Responses
(iii) Termonasti; suhu / Thermonasty; temperatures
(a) berarah; tidak berbalik; hormon
(iv) sirkadian / circadian
directional; irreversible; hormonal
(v) Tigmonasti; getaran / Thigmonasty; vibration
Perbandingan antara Gerak Balas Tropisme dan Gerak Balas Nasti dalam Tumbuhan
Comparison between Tropism and Nastic Responses in Plants
Pergerakan akibat
rangsangan luar Gerak balas
Gerak balas berarah Movement induced by tidak berarah
Directional response external stimuli Non-directional
response
Pergerakan adalah
Pergerakan tidak berbalik
The movements
berbalik
The movements are
are irreversible
reversible
Gerak balas
Gerak balas nasti
tropisme Nastic response
Tropism response
Pergerakan perlahan Pergerakan pantas
Slow movements Quick movements
Berlaku di batang Berlaku di daun

atau akar Pergerakan penting untuk atau bunga
Occurs at stem or roots kemandirian tumbuhan Occurs at leaves
Vital movements for the survival or flowers
of a plant

• Auksin / Auxin
Fitohormon • Etilena / Ethylene
5.2 Phytohormone • Sitokinin / Cytokinin
1. Fitohormon; gerak balas; perkembangan

Phytohormone; response; development Kesan Auksin Terhadap Gerak Balas Pertumbuhan
The Effects of Auxins on Growth Response
2. kesan / effects
1. (a) merangsang / stimulates
Fungsi Fitohormon (b) merangsang; merencat / stimulates, inhibits
The Functions of Phytohormones (c) merencat / inhibits
(d) akar; pucuk / root; shoot
1. (a) Auksin / Auxin (e) akar; pucuk / root; shoot
(b) Giberelin / Gibberellin
(c) Sitokinin / Cytokinin
(d) Asid absisik / Abscisic acid
Peranan Auksin dalam Gerak Balas Tumbuhan
The Roles of Auxin in Plant Responses
(e) Etilena / Ethylene
2. Fungsi fitohormon / The functions of phytohormones Peranan auksin dalam gerak balas fototropisme
Batang / Stem The role of auxin in phototropism:
• Auksin; giberelin / Auxin; gibberellins 1. hujung; bawah; tegak / tip; down; straight
Daun / Leaf 2. satu arah; teduh / one direction; shaded
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid 3. teduh / shaded
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 4. memanjang / elongate
• Etilena / Ethylene 5. fototropisme / phototropism
• Auksin / Auxin Peranan auksin dalam gerak balas geotropisme
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid The role of auxin in geotropism
Tunas sisi / Lateral bud 1. pucuk; akar / shoot; root
• Auksin / Auxin 2. graviti; bawah / gravity; lower
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 3. merangsang / promotes
Meristem apeks pucuk / Shoot apical meristem 4. merencat / inhibits
• Auksin / Auxin 5. membengkok; Geotropisme / bends; geotropism
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 6. membengkok; Geotropisme / bends; geotropism
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid
• Etilena / Ethylene Aplikasi Fitohormon dalam Pertanian
Bunga / Flower 5.3 Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture
• Auksin / Auxin
• Etilena / Ethylene
Aplikasi Fitohormon dalam Pertanian
Buah / Fruit Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture
• Auksin; giberelin / Auxin; gibberellins
• Etilena / Ethylene (a) Auksin / auxins
Biji benih / Seed (b) Auksin; partenokarpi / auxins; parthenocarpy
• Sitokinin; giberelin / Cytokinin; gibberellins (c) Auksin; racun / auxins; killer
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid (d) Etilena / ethylene
Akar / Roots (e) Auksin; akar / auxins; root
• Auksin / Auxin
Eksperimen 5.1
Pemerhatian / Observation
Awal eksperimen
Selepas hari ke-1 Selepas hari ke-2
At the beginning of
Beg plastik After day 1 After day 2 Pemasakan
the experiment
Plastic beg Ripening
Keadaan buah pir Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji
Condition of pears Condition of pears Starch test Condition of pears Starch test
Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak
A1 – –
Hard Hard Highly stained Unripe
Keras Sederhana Sedikit berwarna Masak
B1 – –
Hard Intermediate Stained Ripe
Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak
A2 – –
Hard Hard Dark blue stained Unripe
Terlalu
Keras Lembut Tiada berwarna
B2 – – masak
Hard Soft Unstained
Overripe

Perbincangan / Discussion Since auxins are synthesised in the shoot tip, they will move
1. Beg plastik B – yang ada buah pisang down and accumulate on the lower side of the shoot.
Plastic bag B – with banana • el di bahagian bawah memanjang dengan cepat
S
2. Buah semakin berwarna, semakin banyak kanji dan semakin daripada bahagian atas.
tidak masak.Sebaliknya, buah semakin kurang berwarna, lebih The lower cells elongate rapidly than the upper side.
masak. • Maka, pucuk membengkok ke atas.
The more stain the fruit shows, the more starch it contains and the less As a result, the shoot bends upwards.
ripe it is. Conversely, the less stain the fruit shows, the riper the fruit is.\ • pabila pucuk menegak, penyebaran auksin menjadi
A
3. Etilena / Ethylene simetri.
4. • Mempercepatkan pemasakan buah Once the shoot tip is vertical, the distribution of auxins
Ethylene speed up the ripening of fruits become symmetrical.
• Merangsang penghasilan enzim selulase yang • Maka, batang tumbuh tegak ke arah cahaya.
Hence, the stem then grows straight up towards the light.
menghidrolisis selulosa dinding sel, dan buah menjadi
lembut • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme positif/ geotropism
Stimulating the production of cellulase which hydrolyses the negatif.
cellulose in the cell walls, making the fruit soft. This shows positive phototropism/ negative geotropism.
• Merangsang penukaran kanji kepada gula. • uksin yang diangkut dari pucuk ke akar akan
A
Promotes the conversion of starch to sugar berkumpul di bahagian bawah akar.
Auxin which is transported from the shoot down to the root
will also accumulate on the lower side of the root.
Praktis SPM 5 • epekatan auksin yang tinggi yang menyebabkan
K
pemanjangan pucuk akan merencatkan pemanjangan
Soalan Objektif
sel akar.
High concentration of auxin that causes elongation of the
1. C 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. C shoot inhibits the cell elongation in the root.
6. A 7. B 8. B • ahagian bawah hujung akar memanjang lebih lambat
B
berbanding dengan bahagian atas.
Soalan Struktur The lower side of the root elongates slower than the upper side.
Bahagian A
• Maka, akar membengkok ke bawah.
As a result, the root bend downwards.
1. (a) • ujung pucuk / The tip
H • pabila akar telah bergerak ke bawah, penyebaran
A
• Ini kerana jika dipotong atau rangsangan tersekat, auksin menjadi seragam pada kedua-dua sisi.
tiada pembengkokan berlaku Once the root is pointing directly downwards, the auxin
Because if it is removed or blocked from the stimullus no distribution becomes equal on all sides.
bending growth movement occurs.
• Akar terus memanjang ke bawah.
• embengkokan berlaku jika bahagian bawah
P The root continues to go straight downwards.
koleoptil ditutupi penutup legap • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme negatif/ geotropism
Bending growth movement occurred if the lower part of the
positif.
coleoptile is covered with opaque shield
This shows negative phototropisme/ positive geotropism.
(b) Untuk menunjukkan bahawa kegagalan gerak balas (b) • uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
A
hujung koleoptil di susunan III bukan disebabkan oleh akibat tarikan graviti.
hujung koleoptil yang dipotong. Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the shoot due to gravity.
To show that the failure to produce response in set-up III is not
due to the removal of the tip. • epekatan auksin yang tinggi merangsang
K
pertumbuhan pucuk.
(c) • Terdapat bahan yang dihasilkan di hujung koleoptil High concentration of auxin stimulates growth in shoot.
Some substances are produced from the tip of the coleoptiles
• Yang meresap melalui blok agar • leh itu sel-sel di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
O
Which can diffuse through the agar block bertumbuh dan memanjang lebih cepat.
• Ke bahagian bawah koleoptil Therefore, the cells at the underside of the shoot grow and
To reach the lower part of the coleoptile elongate faster.
• an membolehkan bahagian bawah hujung
D • Akibatnya pucuk geotropisme negatif.
koleoptil membengkok This results the shoot showing negative geotropism.
And lead to bending growth at the lower part of the coleoptile • uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung akar
A
akibat tarikan graviti.
Bahagian B Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the root due to
2. (a) • alam situasi Q, apabila pasu diletakkan
D gravity.
secara mengufuk, kedua-dua cahaya dan graviti • epekatan auksin yang tinggi merencatkan
K
menyebabkan auksin diangkut ke bahagian bawah pertumbuhan akar.
pucuk dan akar. High concentration of auxin inhibits growth in root.
In situation Q, when the pot is placed horizontally, both light • Pemanjangan sel pada bahagian bawah akar terencat
and gravity causes auxins to be transported to the lower side Cell elongation at the underside of root is inhibited.
of both the shoot and root.
• Akibatnya akar menunjukkan geotropisme positif.
• leh kerana aukin disintesiskan di hujung pucuk,
O This results the root showing positive geotropism.
aukin akan bergerak ke bawah dan berkumpul di
bahagian bawah pucuk.

(c) • isang yang telah masak akan membebaskan

P
etilena dalam bentuk gas.
The ripe bananas will release ethylene in the form of gas.
• tilena akan merangsang / menggalakkan pemasakan
E
buah epal.
Ethylene will stimulate / promote ripening apple.
• nzim dihasilkan untuk memecahkan dinding sel /
E
menghidrolisiskan kanji kepada gula / melupuskan
kandungan klorofil dalam buah.
Enzyme is produced to break down the cell walls / hydrolyse
starch into sugars / degrades the chlorophyll content in the
fruits.
• uah epal menjadi lebih lembut / lebih banyak gula /
B
perubahan warna.
The apple fruits become soften / increase in sugar / change
colour.

1. D 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. A
6. A 7. D 8. B 9. C 10. D

6
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Pembiakan Seks dalam Tumbuhan Berbunga
6 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Struktur Bunga
6.1 Structure of a Flower
Struktur Bunga
Structure of a Flower
1. Bunga / Flower
2. pedunkel; sepal; petal; karpel; stamen
peduncle; sepal; petal; carpel; stamen
3. Keratan membujur sekuntum bunga:
Longitudinal section of a flower:
Organ pembiakan jantan Stamen Karpel Organ pembiakan betina

Male reproductive organs Stamen Carpel Female reproductive organs
Stigma Menerima debunga

Stigma Receives the pollen grains
Anter
Menghasilkan debunga yang
Anther
membawa gamet jantan
Produces pollen grains which carry
male gamete
Stil Menyokong stigma
Style Supports the stigma
Filamen / Filament Ovari / Ovary
Menyokong anter Mengandungi ovul

Supports the anther Contains ovule
Ovul / Ovule
Petal / Petal
Menghasilkan ovum
Produces ovum
Biasanya berwarna-warni
dan bau wangi untuk menarik
serangga pendebungaan
May be brightly coloured and scented Sepal Melindungi kudup bunga
to attract pollinating insects Sepal Protects the flower bud
Pedunkel / Peduncle
Menyokong bunga
Supports the flower

Perbandingan antara Struktur Jantan dengan Struktur Betina dalam Bunga

Comparison between Male and Female Structures in a Flower
Bahagian jantan bunga / Male flower part Bahagian betina bunga / Female flower part
Stigma
Debunga Stigma
Pollen grain
Stil
Style
Filamen
Filament
Ovari Ovul
Anter Ovary Ovule
Anther
(a) Stamen : Berada di luar karpel (b) Karpel : Berada di dalam bunga
Stamen : Occurs outside the carpel Carpel : Occurs at the centre of the flower
(c) Setiap stamen terdiri daripada filamen panjang, dengan anter

(d) Karpel terdiri daripada ovari, stil dan stigma di bahagian atas.
berada di bahagian atasnya.
A carpel contains an ovary, style and stigma at the top.
Each stamen made up of a long filament, with an anther at the top.
(f) Di dalam ovari terdapat banyak ovul yang mengandungi gamet

(e) Anter menghasilkan debunga yang mengandungi gamet jantan.
betina.
The anther produces pollen grains, which contain the male gametes.
Inside the ovary are many ovules, which contain the female gametes.
(g) Anter membebaskan debunga ke persekitaran semasa

(h) Stigma menerima debunga.
pendebungaan.
Stigma receives pollen grains.
The anther releases pollen grains to the environment during pollination.
Pembentukan Debunga dan Pundi Embrio

6.2 Development of Pollen Grains and Embryo Sac
Pundi debunga
Pollen sacs
Pembentukan Debunga dalam Anter Sel induk mikrospora (2n)

The Formation of Pollen Grains in an Anther Microspore mother cell (2n)
Sel induk
mikrospora
Microspore
Anter Nukleus
mother cell
Anther Nucleus
Nukleus penjana
Generative
Debunga nucleus
Pollen grain
Nukleus tiub
Tube nucleus

1. pundi debunga / pollen sacs 3. merosot / disintegrate

2. sel induk mikrospora / microspore mother cells 4. mitosis; lapan / mitosis; eight
3. meiosis / meiosis 5. • telur; sinergid / egg; synergid
4. debunga / pollen • kutub / polar
• antipodal / antipodal
5. tiub; penjana / tube; generative
Pendebungaan dan Persenyawaan

Pembentukan Pundi Embrio dalam Ovul
The Formation of Embryo Sac in an Ovule
6.3 Pollination and Fertilisation
1. debunga; anter; stigma / pollen; anther; stigma

2. jantan; persenyawaan / male; fertilisation
3. sel telur; diploid; nukleus kutub; triploid
egg cell; diploid; polar nuclei; triploid
(a) gula; percambahan; tiub debunga
sugary; germination: pollen tube
Ovul (b) stil; ovul; enzim / style; ovule; enzymes
Ovule
(c) penjana; mitosis; jantan / generative; mitosis; male
(d) ovul / ovule
Tiub debunga / Pollen tube

Sel induk megaspora (2n)
Megaspore mother cell (2n) Gamet jantan / Male gametes
Sel antipodal
Antipodal cells
Nukleus tiub / Tube nucleus
Integumen Meiosis
Integument Meiosis
Sel sinergid
Synergid cells
Megaspora (e) mikropil; merosot / micropyle; disintegrates

Megaspora (n) (f) jantan; telur; zigot; embrio / male; egg; zygote; embryo
Megaspores (n)
yang
berkembang (g) jantan; kutub; endosperma / male; polar; endosperm
Surviving
megaspore
Kepentingan Persenyawaan Ganda Dua dalam
Kemandirian Tumbuhan Berbunga
Mitosis (3 kali) Importance of Double Fertilisation for the Survival of Flowering Plants
Mitosis (3 times)
1. endosperma / endosperm
2. nutrien / nutrients
3. percambahan / germination
Lapan nukleus
dalam sitoplasma
Sel antipodal Perkembangan Biji Benih dan Buah
Antipodal cell
Eight nuclei
within cytoplasm 6.4 Development of Seeds amd Fruits
Persenyawaan Ganda Dua dengan Perkembangan Biji

Benih dan Buah
Double Fertilisation and Development of Seeds and Fruits
Nukleus kutub
Polar nuclei 1. biji benih; buah / seed; fruit
2. melindungi / protection
Sel telur (n) 3. layu / wither
Egg cell (n)
Biji benih
The seed
Sel sinergid
Synergid cells
1. pundi embrio / embryo sac 1. bunga / flower
2. megaspora; meiosis; megaspora 2. zigot; ovari / zygote; ovary
megaspore; meiosis; megaspores 3. buah; biji benih / fruit; seed

Bunga selepas persenyawaan / Flower after fertilisation
Buah
Fruit
Parut
Scar
Stigma dan stil
Remains of stigma
and style
Bijih benih
Seed
Petal
Layu dan
gugur
Wither and Stamen Kulit biji benih
Ovul
fall off Seed coat
Sepal Ovule
Ovari Integumen
Ovary Integument Buah
Fruit
Struktur Biji Benih dengan Ovul

The Structure of Seeds to Ovules
Kulit biji benih

Integumen Seed coat
Integuments
Biji benih matang terdiri daripada embrio dan makanan
(disimpan di kotiledon atau endosperma).
Endosperma A mature seed contains an embryo and food (stored in the
Nukleus endosperma Endosperm cotyledons or endosperm).
Endosperm nucleus
Zigot Embrio
Zygote Biji benih diselaputi oleh kulit bijih benih keras, yang
Embryo
berasal daripada lapisan integumen ovul.
The seed is surrounded by a tough, seed coat derived from the
integuments which are the outermost layers of an ovule.
Ovul tersenyawa
Fertilised ovule
Struktur Buah dan Ovari

The Structure of Fruits to Ovary
1. Buah / fruit
2. Terdapat empat jenis buah / They are four types of fruits:
Jenis buah
Types of fruits
Buah ringkas Buah agregat Buah berganda Buah aksesori

Simple fruit Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit Accessories fruit
Buah berkembang daripada tisu

Buah berkembang daripada
Buah berkembang daripada Buah berkembang daripada selain ovari. Bagi buah epal, ovari
banyak karpel sekelompok
satu karpel atau beberapa banyak karpel dalam satu berada di dalam reseptakel.
bunga.
karpel di satu kuntum bunga. kuntum bunga. The fruit develops largely from tissues
The fruit develops from many carpels
Fruit develops from a single carpel Fruit develops from many separate other than the ovary. In the apple fruit,
of the many flowers that form an
or several carpels of one flower. carpel of one flower. the ovary is embedded in a fleshy
inflorescence.
receptacle.
Contoh: kacang pis, lemon Contoh: raspberi, strawberi Contoh: nanas Contoh: epal
Example: pea, lemon Example: raspberry, strawberry Example: pineapple Example: apple

Kepentingan Biji Benih untuk Kemandirian

6.5 Importance of Seeds for Survival
Biji benih kekal dorman dalam keadaan persekitaran yang tidak sesuai untuk percambahan termasuk
kekangan suhu atau air.
Seeds maintain dormancy under unfavourable environmental conditions for germination including temperature or water
restrictions.
Kepentingan Biji benih memberi perlindungan maksimum kepada anak benih pada peringkat awal perkembangan.
biji benih untuk Seeds afford maximum protection to the young plant at its early stage of development.
kemandirian
The importance of
seeds for survival
Biji benih mempunyai makanan simpanan untuk perkembangan anak benih sebelum fotosintesis bermula.
Seeds contain stored food that allows young plant to develop before photosynthesis begins.
Biji benih disesuaikan untuk penyebaran, ini membantu perpindahan gen tumbuhan ke habitat baru.
Seeds are adapted for dispersal, facilitates the migration of plant genotypes into new habitats.
6
Bahagian B
Praktis SPM 1. (a)
• Butir debunga terbentuk dalam anter, satu anter
mempunyai empat kantung debunga.
Soalan Objektif Pollen grains are formed in the anther, an ather has four
pollen sacs.
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C
• Setiap kantung debunga mengandungi ratusan sel
Soalan Struktur yang dikenal sebagai sel induk debunga (2n).
Each pollen sac contains hundreds of cells called pollen
Bahagian A mother cells (2n).
1. (a)
J: Ovul / Ovule • Setiap sel induk debunga mengalami meiosis untuk
K: Pundi embrio / Embryo sac membentuk empat sel debunga yang haploid/
(b) mikrospora (n).
The microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four
haploid microspore cells (n).
• Nukleus setiap mikrospora membahagi secara mitosis
untuk membentuk nukleus tiub dan nukleus penjana.
Nukleus kutub The nucleus in each microspore divides by mitosis to produce
Polar nuclei tube nucleus and generative nucleus.
Sel telur (b) • Ovul berkembang dari tisu ovari.

Egg cell The ovule develops from the ovarian tissue.
• Di dalam ovul terdapat tisu parenkima.
Inside the ovule is a parenchyma tissue.
Sel sinergid • Hanya satu sel megaspore/ sel induk embrio (2n)
Synergid cells
membesar.
Only one diploid cell megaspore/ embryo sac mother cell (2n)
(c) (i) • Satu nukleus jantan bergabung dengan sel telur enlarges.
One male nucleus fuse with an egg cell
• S
atu lagi nukleus jantan bergabung dengan dua • Sel induk embrio menjalani meiosis untuk membentuk
nukleus kutub empat sel haploid/ megapsora.
Embryo sac mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid
Another male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei
cells/ megaspores.
• Persenyawaan ganda dua berlaku
Double fertilisation occurs • Tiga daripada empat megaspora merosot, meninggalkan
(ii) • Ovul tidak disenyawakan satu di dalam ovul.
Three of the four megaspores degenerated, leaving one in the
The ovule has not been fertilised
ovule.
• Embrio tidak membesar
The embryo stops growing • Megaspora yang tertinggal membesar dan nukleus
(d) Simpan di tempat kering/ sejuk yang kedap udara menjalani mitosis tiga kali untuk membentuk lapan
Place in dry/ cool place which is air tight nukleus.

The left megaspore enlarges and nucleus undergoes mitosis • Pada mikropil, nukleus tiub merosot, hujung tiub debunga
three times to form eight haploid nuclei. pecah.
• Tiga daripada lapan nukleus (berpindah ke hujung At the micropyle, the tube nucleus degenerates, the tip of
sel) untuk membentuk sel antipodal, dua lagi nukleus pollen tube burst open.
membentuk nukleus polar dan satu daripada tiga • Nukleus jantan masuk ke dalam pundi embrio.
nukleus lagi berkembang membentuk sel telur dan dua Male nuclei enter into the embryo sac.
lagi menjadi sel sinergid. • Satu nukleus jantan bergabung dengan nukleus sel telur
Three of the eight nuclei (move to one end of the cell) to form untuk membentuk zigot diploid.
antipodal cells, two nuclei form polar nuclei and another three One male nucleus fuse with egg cell nucleus to form a diploid
nuclei will develop to form an egg cell and two synergid cells. zygote.
(c) • Butir debunga dibebaskan oleh anter dipindahkan oleh • Satu lagi nukleus jantan bergabung dengan dua nukleus
lebah ke stigma, pendebungaan berlaku. kutub untuk membentuk nukleus endosperma triploid.
Pollen grains released by anther are transferred by bees to Other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a
the stigma, pollination occurs. triploid endosperm nucleus.
• Stigma merembes sukrosa untuk merangsang • Persenyawaan ganda dua berlaku.
percambahan butir debunga untuk membentuk tiub Double fertilisation occurs.
debunga. • Selepas persenyawaan, nukleus endosperma triploid
Stigma secretes sucrose to stimulate the germination of pollen
grains to produce pollen tube. membahagi untuk membentuk tisu endosperma.
After fertilisation, the triploid endosperm nucleus divides to
• Nukleus tiub merembes enzim untuk menghidrolisis form endosperm tissues.
tisu stil dan mengarah pertumbuhan tiub debunga • Zigot berkembang menjadi embrio.
dalam stil. Zygote develops into embryo.
Tube nucleus secretes enzyme to hydrolyse the style tissues
and direct the growth of pollen tube down the style. • Ovul berkembang menjadi biji benih
The ovules develop into seeds.
• Tiub debunga tumbuh di sepanjang stil untuk memasuki
ovul melalui mikropil. • Integumen ovul berkembang menjadi kulit biji.
Pollen tube grows along style to enter ovule via the micropyle. Integument of ovule develops into seed coat.
• Nukleus penjana dalam tiub debunga membahagi secara

mitosis untuk menghasilkan dua nukleus jantan.
Generative nucleus in the pollen tube divides mitotically to Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 6
produce two male nuclei.
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. A
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. D 10. A

7
Bab
Jawapan
Penyesuaian Tumbuhan pada Habitat Jenis tumbuhan
Bab Habitat Type of plants
Habitat
7 Adaptations of Plants in Different Habitats Tumbuhan X Daratan Mesofit
Plant X Terrestrial Mesophyte
Penyesuaian Tumbuhan Tumbuhan Y Akuatik / air tawar Hidrofit

7.1 Adaptations of Plants Plant Y Aquatic / freshwater Hydrophyte
Struktur Luar Daun (ii) X: Mempunyai xilem dan floem

The External Structures of a Leaf Present of xylem and phloem
Y: Mempunyai banyak pundi udara / tisu aerenkima
1. Adaptasi / Adaptation Has many air sacs / aerenchyme tissues
2. daun; akar; batang / leaves; roots; stems (b) (i) apat menembusi ke dalam tanah untuk menyerap
D
3. (a) garam / salt content air dan garam mineral
Better access to water and mineral salts from great depths
(b) air / water
in the soil
(c) panas / hot
Luas permukaan yang lebih besar untuk penyerapan
(d) tawar / freshwater Larger surface area for absorption
(ii) Untuk menyimpan isi padu air yang lebih tinggi
Ciri Penyesuaian Tumbuhan Hidrofit, Halofit dan For storage of large volumes of water
Xerofit Kurang kehilangan air secara transpirasi
Adaptive Features of Hydrophytes, Halophytes dan Xerophytes Less water loss via transpiration
Berkebolehan menjalani fotosintesis
Hidrofit / Hydrophytes Ability to photosythesise
1. (a) lebar, fotosintesis / Broad, photosynthesis
Bahagian B
(b) stomata, karbon dioksida / stomata, carbon dioxide
(c) kutikel / cuticle 2. (a) Faktor abiotik / Abiotic factors:
2. aerenkima / aerenchyma • Keamatan cahaya matahari yang tinggi bagi tumbuhan
(a) keapungan / buoyancy menjalani fotosintesis.
(b) gas / gases It has high sunlight intensity that is essential for the plants to carry
out photosynthesis.
3. (a) keapungan / buoyancy
• Suhu yang tinggi meningkatkan kadar metabolisme
Halofit / Halophytes
tumbuhan, tetapi jika terlalu tinggi akan menyebabkan
1. (a) besar, fotosintesis / large, photosynthesis
kekeringan.
(b) air / water
The temperature is high that increases the metabolic rate in
(c) kutikel, stomata, air / cuticle, stomata, water plants, but it is too high can cause desiccation.
(d) hidatod. garam / hydathodes, salt
• Paya bakau berada dalam keadaan kering dan basah yang
2. (a) pneumatofor, gas / pneumatophores, gases
berubah-ubah akibat air pasang surut.
(b) lentisel, gas / lenticels, gases
Mangrove is under fluctuating dry and wet condition which is
3. (a) jangkang, menyokong / prop, support affected by the tides.
Xerofit / Xerophytes • Air adalah penting untuk menjalankan respirasi, fotosintesis
1. duri, air / thorns, water dan pengangkutan.
2. stomata, air / stomata, water Water is essential to carry out respiration, photosynthesis and
3. batang, fotosintesis / stems, photosynthesis transport.
4. akar, air / roots, water • Tanah adalah subur untuk pertumbuhan pokok bakau, tetapi
dalam keadaan anaerobik apabila air bertakung.
Soil is fertile for the mangrove plants to grow, but is in anaerobic
Praktis SPM 7
state once the soil is waterlogged.
• Pokok bakau tumbuh di muara sungai dan terdedah kepada
air laut yang masin. Kemasinan air laut mempengaruhi
Soalan Objektif penyerapan air.
1. A 2. B 3. D 4. B 5. D Mangrove plants live in estuaries where rivers join the sea and
are thus exposed to fluctuating salinity. Salinity affects the water
6. B 7. A 8. A
absorption.
Soalan Struktur • Pokok bakau terdedah kepada tiupan angin laut kencang
yang mungkin tercabut akarnya.
Bahagian A Mangrove plants are exposed to strong sea wind that may uproot
1. (a) (i) them.

Penyesuaian / Adaptations: (b) • Ciri-ciri penyesuaian untuk hidup dalam keadaan yang
• Pokok bakau mempunyai daun hijau dengan kandungan sangat kering diwujudkan melalui mutasi.
kloroplas tinggi untuk fotosintesis. Adaptive feature(s) for survival in very dry conditions arise by
Mangrove plants develop green leaves with abundant chloroplasts mutation.
that facilitate the process of photosynthesis. • Daun kecil / dikecilkan menjadi duri / kutikel berlilin
• Pokok disejukkan secara transpirasi yang memberi kesan tebal / batang sukulen / akar yang panjang / mendalam
penyejukan. / permukaan daun / batang berkilat / stoma tutup pada
The plants are cooled down by transpiration that provides a cooling waktu siang / apa-apa contoh yang sesuai.
effect. Small leaves / leaves reduced to spines / thick waxy cuticle /
succulent stems / long, shallow roots / deep roots / shiny surface
• Pokok bakau mempunyai kutikel berlilin tebal untuk
of leaves / stem / stomata close during the day / any example(s)
mengelakkan kehilangan air berlebihan semasa air surut. of these features.
Mangrove plants have thick waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water
loss during low tide.
• Tumbuhan yang mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini
bersaing dengan tumbuhan spesies sama yang tidak
• Pokok mempunyai pneumatofor yang tumbuh di permukaan
mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini.
laut untuk pertukaran gas. Plants that have these adaptive feature(s) compete well with
The plants develop pneumatophores that grow above the sea level plants of the same species that do not have these adaptive
for gas exchange. features.
• Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di • Tumbuhan ini dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan lebih
pinggir daun. baik dan membiak.
Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf These (better adapted) plants survive and reproduce.
margins.
• Mewariskan gen ini kepada generasi seterusnya.
• Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di Pass on their genes to the next generation.
pinggir daun. • Tumbuhan yang tidak dapat mengekalkan kemandirian
Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf akan mati.
margins.
Plants that are not able to survive die.
• Pokok mempunyai akar jangkang untuk sokongan dalam
tanah berlumpur yang lembut.
The plants have prop roots for better support in the soft muddy soil.
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. C
6. A 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. B

8
Bab
Jawapan
(a) Mengkaji; sistematik / Study; systematic
(b) Memahami; evolusi / Understand; evolutionary
Bab Biodiversiti (c) Mengenal pasti / Identify
8 Biodiversity (d) ramalan / predictions
Sistem Pengelasan dan Penamaan Pengelasan Organisma

8.1 Organisma Classification of Organism
Classification System and Naming of Organisms
1. Taksonomi; ciri-ciri / Taxonomists; characteristics
Keperluan Sistem Pengelasan dan Penamaan 2. alam / kingdoms
Organisma 3. enam / six
The Necessity of Classification System and Naming of Organisms
1. pengelasan / Classification
Hierarki Pengelasan
Hierarchy of Classification
Menuruni hierarki kumpulan …

On moving down the hierarchy of groups…
Alam (Animalia)
Kingdom (Animalia)
Filum (Kordata) Alam lain

Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla
Kelas (Mamalia) Kelas lain

Class (Mammalia) Other classes
Bilangan organisma
Lebih persamaan dan kurang dalam kumpulan
perbezaan di antara ahli-ahli meningkat
More similarities and fewer Number of organisms in
differences between the members Order (Carnivora) Order lain groups increasing
Order (Carnivora) Other orders
Famili (Felidae) Famili lain

Family (Felidae) Other families
Genus (Felis) Genus lain

Genus (Felis) Other genera
Spesies (Felis catus) Spesies lain

Species (Felis catus) Other species Kucing rumah
Domestic cat

Ciri Utama Organisma dalam Setiap Alam

The Main Features of Organisms in Each Kingdom
Enam alam / The six kingdoms
1. Archaebacteria 3. Protista 4. Plantae 6. Animalia
(a) Bakteria sulfur (a) Protozoa (a) Tumbuhan tanpa biji benih (a) Invertebrata / Invertebrates
Sulphur bacteria Protozoa Seedless plants (b) Vertebrata / Vertebrates
(b) Alga (b) Tumbuhan berbiji benih
Algae Plants with seeds
(c) Kulapuk lendir
Slime molds 5. Fungi
2. Eubacteria (a) Yis (Unisel)

Yeasts (Unicellular)
(a) Thermus aquaticus (Taq) (b) Cendawan (Multisel)
Mushromms (Multicellular)
Alam Archaebacteria / The Kingdom Archaebacteria 3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein

1. unisel / Unicellular 4. selulosa / cellulose
2. DNA / DNA 5. autotrof / autotrophic
3. peptidoglikan / peptidoglycan Tumbuhan tanpa biji benih / Seedless plants
4. ekstrim / extreme (a) spora / spores
(b) akar / roots
Alam Eubacteria / The Kingdom Eubacteria
(c) rizoid / rhizoids
1. unisel / Unicellular
Tumbuhan berbiji benih / Plants with seeds
2. nukleus / nucleus (a) biji benih / seeds
3. DNA; protein / DNA; protein (b) vaskular / vascular
4. murein / murein (c) berkayu / woody
5. dedua / binary (d) monokot; dikot / monocotyledonous; dicotyledonous
Alam Protista / The Kingdom Protista Alam Animalia / The Kingdom Animalia
1. unisel; multisel / Unicellular; multicellular 1. multisel / multicellular
2. nukleus / nucleus 2. nukleus, kloroplas / nucleus, chloroplast
3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein 3. kromosom / chromosomes
4. dinding sel / cell wall 4. heterotrof / heterotrophic
5. heterotrof; autotrof / heterotrophic; autotrophic 5. vertebrata / vertebrates
6. air / water Invertebrata / Invertebrates
Protozoa / Protozoa • tidak mempunyai / without
(a) haiwan / Animal Vertebrata / Vertebrates
Alga / Algae • mempunyai / with
(a) tumbuhan / Plant
Kulapuk lendir / Slimes moulds
Sistem Tatanama Binomial
(a) fungi / Fungus Binomial Nomenclature System
Alam Fungi / The Kingdom Fungi
1. multisel; unisel / Multicellular; unicellular Binomial / Binomial
2. nukleus / nucleus • Linnaeus / Linnaeus
3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein • dua perkataan / two words
4. kitin / chitin • perkaitan / related
5. heterotrof / heterotrophic • genus; spesies / genus; species
6. hifa / hyphae • dicetak; digariskan / printed; underline
7. spora / spores Penamaan / Nomenclature
Alam Plantae / The Kingdom Plantae • nama; takson / naming; taxons
1. multisel / Multicellular • Nama / name
2. nukleus / nucleus • universal; Latin / Universal; Latin

Felis Diversiti spesies / Species diversity

Nama genus / Genus name
Bermula dengan huruf besar
Begins with a capital letter
catus
Nama spesies / Species name
Bermula dengan huruf kecil
Begins with a small letter
Kekunci Dikotomi
Dichotomous Keys
1. dikotomi; pengecaman / Dichotomous; identify

2. dua / two
3. dilihat / observable
Membina kekunci dikotomi untuk mengelaskan organisma Bilangan dan kelimpahan spesies yang terdapat dalam komuniti
Constructing a dichotomous key to classify organisms yang berlainan.
The number and abundance of species present in different communities.
1. bilangan / number
2. luaran / external
3. dua / two
Diversiti genetik / Genetic diversity
Kekunci Dikotomi / Dichotomous key
1. cacing tanah / earthworm
2. lipan / centipede
3. ketam / crab
4. belalang; labah-labah / grasshopper; spider
Biodiversiti
8.2 Biodiversity
Konsep Biodiversiti
The Concept of Biodiversity
Variasi gen individu dalam satu populasi.
1. organisma; ekosistem / organisms; ecosystems The individual genetic variation within a population
2.
Diversiti ekosistem / Ecosystem diversity
Pokok Filogeni
Phylogenic Tree
1. evolusi / evolutionary
2. filogeni / phylogenetic
3. leluhur / ancestor
4. (a) Leluhur / ancestor
(b) Leluhur / ancestor
Kepentingan Biodiversiti Terhadap Alam Sekitar dan

Manusia
The Importance of Biodiversity on the Environment and Humans
Kepelbagaian ekosistem daratan dan akuatik yang terdapat di
(a) makanan / food
suatu kawasan atau di Bumi.
The variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on (b) karbon; air / carbon; water
the Earth. (c) ubatan / medicines
(d) ekopelancongan / ecotourism
(e) semula jadi / natural
(f) gen / genes

Mikroorganisma dan Virus

8.3 Microorganisms and Viruses
1. bakteria; protozoa; alga; kulat; virus; seni

bacteria; protozoa; algae; fungi; viruses; small
2. unisel / unicellular
(a) Bakteria / Bacteria
Plasmid Plasmid
/
Bebenang
Kapsul Capsule DNA di dalam sitoplasma
/ Circular
DNA lying free in cytoplasm
Flagela
untuk pergerakan
Flagellum Dinding sel
for locomotion terdiri daripada murein
Cell wall
made of murein
Sitoplasma
Cytoplasm
4. heterotrof / heterotrophic
Bakteria mempunyai tiga bentuk asas, iaitu basilus, kokus dan 5. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
spirilum. (c) Alga / Algae
There are three basic shapes of bacteria, namely bacillus, coccus and
spirillum.
1. fotosintesis / photosynthesis
2. daun / leaves
(d) Kulat / Fungi
1. yis; kulat / yeasts; moulds
2. heterotrof / heterotrophic
3. patogen / pathogens
Bakteria basilus Bakteria kokus Bakteria berpilin (e) Virus / Viruses
Bacillus bacteria Cocci bacteria Spiral bacteria 1. bukan hidup / non-living
2. nukleik; kapsid / nucleic; capsid
3. envelop / envelope
(a) penyakit / diseases 4. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
(b) pengeluar / producers
(c) nutrien / nutrient Peranan Mikroorganisma dalam Kitar Nitrogen
(b) Protozoa / Protozoa The Roles of Microorganisms in Nitrogen Cycle
1. haiwan / animal 1. 78
2. air / water 2. nitrat / nitrate
3. dinding sel / cell wall

Kitar nitrogen / The nitrogen cycle:
N2 di atmosfera (78%)
N2 in atmosphere (78%)
Protein haiwan
Protein tumbuhan
Protein in animals
Protein in plants
4 3 Asimilasi
Assimilation
Tumbuhan 6
Plants
Kematian
Death
2 Kematian
Death
v) Bakteria pendenitritan
Denitrifying bacteria
vi) Pengurai
(bakteria dan fungi)
i) Bakteria pengikat nitrogen di Decomposers
nodul akar legum (Bacteria and fungi)
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legume
root nodules Nitrat (NO3–)
Nitrate (NO3–)
iv) Bakteria penitritan

Pereputan Nitrifying bacteria
5 Decay
Penitritan
Nitrification
1
Ammonium (NH4+) Nitrit (NO4-)

Ammonium (NH4+) Nitrite (NO4-)
ii) Bakteria pengikat nitrogen di

iii) Bakteria penitritan
dalam tanah Nitrifying bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria
Peranan mikroorganisma dalam kitar nitrogen / The roles of different microorganisms in nitrogen cycle
Jenis / Type Contoh / Examples Apa yang dibuat / What they do

Bakteria pengikat nitrogen
(a) Rhizobium sp. nitrogen; ammonium / nitrogen; ammonium
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Bakteria pengikat nitrogen
(b) Azotobacter sp. nitrogen; ammonium / nitrogen; ammonium
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Bakteria penitritan
(c) Nitrosomonas sp. ammonium; nitrit / ammonium; nitrites
Nitrifying bacteria
Bakteria penitritan
(d) Nitrobacter sp. nitrit; nitrat / nitrites; nitrates
Nitrifying bacteria
Bakteria pendenitritan
(e) Pseudomonas sp. nitrat; nitrogen / nitrates; nitrogen
Denitrifying bacteria
Saprofit
(f) Kulat / Fungi ammonia / ammonia
Saprophytes

1. Bakteria pengikat nitrogen; pengikatan nitrogen; penitritan

Jenis patogen: Bakteria
Nitrogen fixing bacteria; nitrogen fixation; nitrification Types of pathogens: Bacteria
2. Nodul akar; legum / root nodules; leguminous
3. Tumbuhan; protein / plants; protein
5. Ammonium; nitrat; penitritan / ammonium; nitrates; nitrification
6. bakteria pendenitritan; nitrogen / denitrifying bacteria; nitrogen Keracunan makanan
Food poisoning
Peranan Mikroorganisma
The Roles of Microorganisms
Salmonella sp.
Mikroorganisma sebagai pengeluar
Microorganisms as producers
(a) klorofil / chlorophyll
Jenis patogen: Kulat
(b) makanan; oksigen / food; oxygen Types of pathogens: Fungi
Mikroorganisma sebagai pengurai
Microorganisms as decomposers
(a) Saprofit; enzim; mati / saprophytic; enzymes; dead
(b) Pengurai / Decomposers Kurap
Ringworm
(c) nutrien / nutrients
Mikroorganisma sebagai simbion
Microorganisms as symbionts
Trichophyton sp.
(a) Liken / Lichen
(b) Alga; fungi / Algae; fungi
(c) Fungi; alga / Fungi; algae
Mikroorganisma sebagai parasit Praktis SPM 8
Microorganisms as parasites
(a) bakteria; protista / bacteria; protists Soalan Objektif
(b) hati; sel darah merah / liver; red blood cells 1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. B
6. B 7. D 8. B
Patogen dan Vektor
Pathogens and Vectors Soalan Struktur
Patogen / Pathogens Bahagian A

Patogen; virus; penyakit / Pathogens; viruses; diseases 1. (a)
Vektor / Vectors Alam / Kingdom Animalia
Vektor; patogen / vector; pathogens
Filum / Phylum Chordata
Kesan Patogen terhadap Kesihatan Manusia Kelas / Class Mammalia
The Effects of Pathogens on Human Health
Order / Order Carnivora
1. makanan; luka / food; wounds
Famili / Family Felidae
2. membiak; toksin / multiply; toxins
Genus / Genus Felis
Jenis patogen: Virus
Types of pathogens: Viruses Spesies / Species catus
(b) • Nama pertama menunjukkan genus organisma itu
A first name which shows the genus to which the organism
belongs
Kanser serviks • Nama kedua khas menunjukkan spesies
Cervical cancer A specific name shows the species
(c) Individu spesies yang sama mempunyai morfologi, anatomi,
fisiologi dan kelakuan yang serupa dan dapat saling
Human papilloma virus (HPV) membiak untuk menghasilkan anak yang subur.
Individuals of the same species have similar morphology, anatomy,
physiology and similar behaviour, and can interbreed to produce
Jenis patogen: Protozoa fertile offspring.
Types of pathogens: Protozoa (d) • Dapat menunjukkan perkaitan rapat antara organisma
Can indicate how closely related organisms are
• Makluman tentang hubungan evolusi
Malaria Information of evolutionary relationships
Malaria • Dapat menyokong pengkelasan terdahulu
Can support previous classification
Plasmodium sp.

Bahagian B • Bakteria pengikat nitrogen seperti Rhizobium sp. and

Azotobacter sp. dalam kitar nitrogen.
2. (a) (i) • Mikroorganisma P ialah virus. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium sp. and Azotobacter sp.
Microorganism P is a virus. in the nitrogen cycle.
• Virus sukar dikelaskan kerana virus merupakan • Menukarkan nitrogen atmosfera kepada nitrat di
organisma tidak bersel. dalam tanah.
Virus is difficult to classify because it is non-cellular Converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate in the soil.
organism.
• Nitrat diserap oleh tumbuhan untuk mensintesis protein.
• Virus tidak menjalankan sebarang proses hidup Nitrate is absorbed by plants to synthesise plants protein.
apabila berada di luar sel perumah.
Virus does not carry out any life process outside of a cell.
• Dalam rantai makanan, tumbuhan dimakan oleh haiwan
dan protein tumbuhan ditukarkan kepada protein
• Saiz virus terlalu kecil dan tidak boleh dilihat dengan haiwan.
mikroskop cahaya. In the food chain, plants eaten by animals, so the plant protein
The size of a virus is too small and cannot be seen using is converted to animal protein.
an electron microscope.
• Haiwan-haiwan ternakan menjadi sumber pendapatan
(ii) • Membolehkan komunikasi di kalangan ahli sains bagi rakyat dan meningkatkan ekonomi negara melalui
Enable communication among scientist
import dan eksport produk daging dan lain-lain.
• Membolehkan organisma dikenal pasti dengan Livestock animals are a source of income for the people and
mudah dan tepat improve the economy through the import and export of meat
Enable organisms to be identified easily and accurately products and others.
• Membolehkan maklumat tentang organisma tertentu • Bakteria pengurai digunakan dalam rawatan kumbahan
dijumpai dengan senang untuk menukarkan kumbahan tersebut kepada baja dan
Allow information about a particular organism to be found gas bahan api.
more rapidly Decomposers bacteria are used in sewage treatment to convert
the sewage into fertiliser and fuel gas.
(b) • Secara saprofit
By saprophytes • Mikroorganisma biasanya digunakan dalam industri
makanan seperti yis untuk pembuatan roti dan dalam
• Hifa atau miselium merembeskan enzim
Hypha / mycelium secretes enzyme industri tenusu.
Microorganisms are commonly used in food industry such as
• Enzim mencernakan karbohidrat pada perumah yang yeast in bread-making industry and in dairy industry.
telah mati
• Kulat seperti Penicillium sp. digunakan dalam bidang
Enzyme digests the carbohydrates on the dead host
perubatan untuk menghasilkan antibiotik.
• Hifa menyerap hasil pencernaan / glukosa Fungi such as Penicillium sp. used in the medical fields to
Hypha absorbs the product of digestion / glucose produce antibiotics.
• Glukosa dioksidakan untuk menghasilkan tenaga • Bakteria digunakan untuk membersihkan tumpahan
Glucose is oxidised to produce energy minyak, maka mengelakkan pencemaran air.
(c) • Mikroorganisma adalah pengurai di dalam ekosistem. Bacteria is used to clear up the oil spills at sea thus prevent
Microorganisms are decomposers in the ecosystem. water pollution.
• Pengurai mengembalikan nutrien dan bahan bukan
organik kepada tanah.
Decomposers return organic and inorganic substances to the Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 8
ground.
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. C 5. B
6. B 7. C 8. C 9. B 10. A

9
Bab
Jawapan
• Nic dan Habitat / Niche and habitat
Bab Ekosistem Habitat ialah tempat organisma yang menyediakan makanan,
9 Ecosystem
perlindungan dan tapak untuk membiak.
A habitat is the place where an organism lives that can provide food, shelter
Komuniti dan Ekosistem and a breeding site for a living organism.
9.1 Community and Ecosystem
• Aras ekologi / Ecological levels

Nic ialah peranan sesuatu organisma yang merangkumi tingkah
Spesies Populasi Komuniti Ekosistem laku serta interaksinya dengan komponen biosis dan abiosis di
Species Population Community Ecosystem persekitarannya. Ia ditentukan oleh julat suhu tempat tinggal, jenis
makanan, dan ruang hidup.
1. Spesies; membiak / species; interbreed
The niche is the role that an organism which includes its behaviour and
2. Populasi; spesies / population; species interactions with biotic and abiotic components in its environment. It is
determined by the temperature range in which the organisms live, the type
3. Komuniti; biosis / community; biotic
of food they eat, and the space they occupy.
4. Ekosistem; abiosis / ecosystem; abiotic
Komponen Biosis dan Komponen Abiosis dalam Ekosistem

The Biotic and Abiotic Components in an Ecosystem
Komponen abiosis – Komponen bukan hidup

Abiotic components – The non living components
(a) Kepekatan oksigen (f) Kelembapan udara (g) Kelajuan angin

Oxygen concentration Air humidity Wind speed
(h) Herbivor
(b) Keamatan Herbivores
cahaya Makan tumbuhan
Light intensity Eat plants
Pengguna
Consumers
(i) Karnivor
(c) Suhu Carnivores
Temperature Makan haiwan
Eat animals
(d) pH air (j) Tumbuhan Pengeluar

Water pH Plants Producers
(e) pH tanah
Soil pH (k) Bakteria di permukaan tanah Pengurai
Decomposers
Bacteria on surface of mud
Komponen biosis / Biotic components

Ekosistem kolam / A pond ecosystem
Organisma hidup / Living - organisms

Nutrisi Autotrof dan Nutrisi Heterotrof

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Nutrition Peranan dalam rantai makanan Aras trof
Role in food chain Trophic level
(a) Nutrisi autotrof / Autotrophic nutrition
• bukan organik; organic / inorganic; organic
(i) Fotoautotrof / Photoautotrophic Pengguna kuaterner Aras trof kelima
• CO2 / CO2 Quaternary consumers Fifth trophic level
• cahaya / light
• tumbuhan / plants
(ii) Nutrisi kemoautotrof / Chemoautotrophic nutrition
• CO2 / CO2 Pengguna tertiar (karnivor) Aras trof keempat
Tertiary consumers (Carnivores) Fourth trophic level
• tak organik / inorganic
(b) Nutrisi heterotrof / Heterotrophic nutrition
• organik / organic
(i) Saprotrof / Saprotrophic Pengguna sekunder (karnivor) Aras trof ketiga
• mati; reput / dead; decaying Secondary consumers (Carnivores) Third trophic level
(ii) Holozoik / Holozoic
• memakan / Eat
(iii) Parasit / Parasitic
• perumah / hosts Pengguna primer (Herbivor) Aras trof kedua
Primary consumers (Herbivores) Second trophic level
Komponen Biosis Mengikut Aras Trof

Biotic Components According to Trophic Levels
Pengeluar / Producers
• Aras trof; pemakanan / trophic level; feeding Aras trof pertama
(Tumbuhan / alga) First trophic level
• rendah; tinggi / lower; higher (Plants / algae)
• hilang; kurang / lost; less
Pengaliran Tenaga dalam Rantai Makanan

Energy Flow in a Food Chain
Rantai; pemakanan; tenaga / chain; feeding; energy

• Pengaliran tenaga dalam rantai makanan / Energy flow in a food chain
Pengurai
dan detritivor (makan tinja dan organisma mati)
Decomposers
and detritivores (feeding on faeces and dead organisms)
Pengeluar Pengguna primer Pengguna sekunder Pengguna tertier

Producer Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers
Matahari 1–3%
Sun 10% 10% 10%
Tumbuhan Herbivor Karnivor Karnivor besar
Plants Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores
Tenaga hilang Tenaga hilang sebagai haba semasa respirasi

sebagai pantulan Energy lost as heat during respiration
cahaya
Energy lost as
reflected light

1) Cahaya matahari 2) Pengeluar, iaitu tumbuhan hijau, 3) Pengguna adalah organisma Pengguna sekunder
ialah sumber memerangkap tenaga cahaya yang mendapat tenaga daripada ialah karnivor yang
utama tenaga melalui fotosintesis, dan kemudian organisma hidup yang lain. makan haiwan lain
dalam rantai menukarnya kepada tenaga kimia Consumers are organisms that obtain (pengguna primer).
makanan. dalam sebatian makanan. energy from other living organisms. Secondary consumers are
Sunlight is the main A producer, usually green plants captured ✓ Pengguna primer ialah herbivor carnivores which feed on
source of energy in light energy through photosynthesis, and yang makan pengeluar. other animals (primary
the food chain. then is converted to chemical energy in consumers).
Primary consumers are herbivores
food compound. which feed on producers.
5 5 5
3 3
Anak panah
menunjukkan arah
aliran tenaga di Pengguna
rantai makanan. sekunder boleh
4) Pengurai, kulat dan bakteria, memperoleh tenaga dan nutrien Arrows point the
daripada bahan buangan (najis) dan sisa (bangkai) organisma direction of energy flow
dimakan oleh
lain. along the food chain. pengguna tertier.
Secondary
Decomposers, fungi and bacteria, obtain the energy and nutrients
consumers can be
from the wastes (eg. faeces) and remains (eg. dead bodies) of other
4 eaten by tertiary
organisms
consumers.
5) Tenaga hilang melalui perkumuhan dan bahagian yang tidak dimakan. Ia juga hilang sebagai haba semasa respirasi.
Energy is lost through excretion and in the form of uneaten body parts. It is also lost in the form of heat during respiration.

Piramid Ekologi
Ecological Pyramids
• bilangan; biomas; tenaga / numbers; biomass; energy
1) Piramid bilangan / Pyramid of numbers

• Piramid bilangan menunjukkan bilangan organisma pada setiap aras trof dalam ecosistem tertentu.
A pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.
• Luas setiap bar adalah berkadaran dengan bilangan organisma di setiap aras trof.
The area of each bar is proportional to the number of organisms at that trophic level.
Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers 1 Helang / Eagle
Saiz individu Pengguna sekunder

Secondary consumers 4000 Katak / Toads Bilangan organisma
bertambah
berkurang
The size of
The number of
each individual Pengguna primer
increases Primary consumers 70 000 Belalang / Grasshoppers organisms decreases
Pengeluar 6 000 000 Rumput / Grass plants

Producers
Masalah: Dalam kes tertentu, piramid boleh disongsangkan.

Problems: In some cases, pyramid may be inverted.
Kes 1 / Case 1 Kes 2 / Case 2

Pengeluar adalah sangat besar (contoh pokok rambutan) Parasit (contoh kutu) hidup di perumah (contoh kucing)
The producer is very large (eg. a rambutan tree) Parasites (e.g. fleas) feed on the consumers (eg. a cat)
Pengguna sekunder 10 Burung / Birds

Secondary consumers
Parasit
Parasites 2 000 Kutu / Fleas
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers 10 000 Ulat / Caterpillars
Perumah 1 Kucing / Cat
Host
Pengeluar 1 Pokok / Tree
Producers
Jadi / So
2) Piramid biojisim / Pyramid of biomass

• Piramid biojisim mewakili jumlah biojisim [bilangan individu × jisim individu] setiap aras trof pada suatu masa.
A pyramid of biomass represents the total biomass [number of individuals × mass of each individual] at each trophic level at any one time.
• Ini dapat menyelesaikan masalah berkaitan skala dan piramid bilangan songsang.
This should solve the scale and inversion problems of the pyramid of numbers
Pengguna sekunder Burung / Birds (20 g/m2)
Secondary consumers
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Ulat / Caterpillar (80 g/m2)
Pengeluar Pokok / Tree (1600 g/m2)

Producers
Walaupun begitu, masih ada masalah

Even so, there are still problems

• Piramid biojisim akan menjadi songsang apabila organisma di aras trof rendah membiak dengan kadar yang lebih tinggi
berbanding organisma pada aras trof yang lebih tinggi.
A pyramid of biomass may become inverted when organisms at a lower trophic level have a much higher reproduction rate than organisms at a
higher trophic
Pengguna primer Zooplankton (21 g/m2)

Primary consumers Zooplankton
Pengeluar Fitoplankton (4 g/m2)

Producers Phytoplankton (4 g/m2)
Jadi adalah lebih baik untuk pertimbangkan

So it might be better to consider
3) Piramid tenaga / Pyramid of energy

• Piramid tenaga menunjukkan kandungan tenaga setiap aras trof bagi suatu ekosistem dalam tempoh masa tertentu.
A pyramid of energy represents the energy content of each trophic level of an ecosystem over a period of time.
Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers Helang / Eagle 10 kJ m–2
Pengguna sekunder
Secondary consumers Katak / Toads 1,00 kJ m–2 year–1
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Belalang / Grasshoppers 1,000 kJ m–2 year–1
Pengeluar Rumput / Grass

Producers 10,000 kJ m–2 year–1
Jenis Interaksi antara Komponen Biosis

Types of Interaction Between Biotic Components Bakteria pengikat nitrogen (Rhizobium) dan tumbuhan kekacang
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) and legumes plants
• Untung; rugi / benefit; harmed
(a) simbiosis / symbiosis
(i) Mutualisme / Mutualism (+,+)
(ii) Komensalisme / Commensalism (+,0)
(iii) Parasitisme / Parasitism (+,-)
Simbiosis
Symbiosis
• Simbiosis / Symbiosis
• Simbion / symbionts Tumbuhan membekalkan Bakteria hidup dalam nodul
molekul organik tinggi akar, membekalkan sebahagian
1. Mutualisme / Mutualism
tenaga kepada bakteria besar nitrogen yang diperlukan
• Mutualisme, simbiosis, keuntungan (+, +) simbion. oleh tumbuhan kekacang.
Mutualism, symbiotic, benefit (+, +) The plants supply energy- The bacteria live inside nodules on
rich organic molecules to the the root of legumens, supply the
bacterial symbionts. plants with the most of the nitrogen
their required.

Mikoriza - gabungan antara kulat dan akar tumbuhan (b) Ikan badut dan tentakel buran laut.
Mycorrhizae - associations between fungi and the roots of plants Clownfish among sea anemone’s tentacles
Tumbuhan membekalkan
karbohidrat kepada fungi.
The plant provideds carbohydrates
to the fungi
Fungi yang tumbuh ke dalam

tanah dan akar memindahkan
mineral seperti fosforus kepada Ikan badut terlindung daripada pemangsa, kerana kebanyakan
tumbuhan. ikan lain mengelakkan diri dari tentakel buran laut.
The fungi which grow into the Clownfishes are protected from predators, because most fishes avoid
surrounding soil and the root transfer the stinging sea anemone’s tentacles
minerals such as phosphorus to the
plant.
Jika ikan badut mengundang ikan lain untuk dimakan oleh
buran laut. → Mutualisme.
If the clownfish attract other fishes to be eaten by the sea anemone
→ Mutualism
Umang-umang dan buran laut.
Hermit crabs and sea anemones
3. Parasitisme / Parasitism
• simbiosis, parasit, perumah (+,─)
symbiotic, parasite, host (+, ─)
Parasit bertambah
Parasite increases
Perumah bertambah Parasitisme Perumah berkurang

Host increases Parasitism Host decreases
Buran laut mendapat pengangkutan dan makanan.

The sea anemone gets a free ride and food.
Parasit berkurang
Umang-umang menggunakan tentakel buran laut untuk Parasite decreases
mendapatkan makanan dan perlindungan diri.
The crab uses the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone to gather (a) Ektoparasit / Ectoparasites
food and to protect itself. Luar; ektoparasit / surface; ectoparasites
(b) Endoparasit / Endoparasites
2. Komensalisme / Commensalism dalam, endoparasit / within, endoparasites
• Komensalisme; keuntungan (+,0) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
Commensalism; benefit (+, 0) • Saprofitisme; mati / Saprophytism; dead
• Saprofit / Saprophytes
(a) Ikan remora dan jerung / Remora fish and the shark • Penguraian; nutrien / Decomposition; nutrients
Saprofit: Organisma yang
mendapat nutrien daripada bahan
organik yang mati atau reput.
Saprophytes: Organisms which obtain
nutrients from dead or decaying
organic matter.
✓ Contoh: kulat, bakteria
Examples: fungi, bacteria
Ikan remora melekat di badan jerung mendapat keuntungan Persaingan / Competition

dengan mendapat pengangkutan percuma dan makanan • Makanan; air; cahaya; tempat / food; water; light; space
daripada serpihan makanan jerung. • kerugian / harmed (─,─)
Remoras which attach themselves to the beliefs of sharks benefit by
getting a free ride and feeding on a shark’s leftover. Persaingan intraspesies / Intraspecific competition
• individu / individuals
Jerung untung jika ikan remora menyingkirkan ektoparasit di • lebih; keperluan / more; needs
badannya. → Mutualisme. Persaingan interspesies / Interspecific competition
The shark benefits if remoras remove its ectoparasites. → Mutualism • berlainan / different

Pemangsaan / Predation Spesies penyesar / Successor species

• pemangsa; mangsa / predator; prey Rhizophora sp.
• pemangsa; mangsa / predator; prey • jangkang; lumpur; pemendapan / prop; mud; firmer
• tinggi; kering / higher; drier
Mangsa bertambah
Prey increases • Bruguiera sp. / Bruguiera sp.
Bruguiera sp.
• banir; lingkaran; lumpur / buttress; loops; mud
• laut / sea
Pemangsa berkurang Pemangsaan Pemangsa bertambah • menjauhi / further
Predator decreases Predation Predator increases • Pandanus sp. / Pandanus sp.
Kepentingan Ekosistem Paya Bakau
The Importance of Mangrove Ecosystem
(a) Kayu / Wood
Mangsa berkurang (b) Perlindungan persisiran / protection
Prey decreases
(c) Sumber / Resources
(I) mangsa; pemangsa / prey; predator (d) air / Water
• makanan / food (e) iklim / Climate
(II) pemangsa; mangsa / predator; preys • sinki karbon / carbon sinks
• mangsa / prey (f) Habitat; kawasan pembiakan / Habitat; nurseries
(III) pemangsa / predator (g) Ekopelancongan / Ecotourism
• pemangsa; mangsa / predators; prey
Ekologi Populasi
Ekosistem Paya Bakau 9.2 Population Ecology
A Mangrove Ecosystem
Taburan tumbuhan dipengaruhi oleh faktor abiotik berikut
• tropika / tropical
Plant distributions are affected by abiotic factors such as
Komponen biosis / Biotic components • Cahaya / Light
(a) Pengguna / Consumers • Suhu / Temperature
(b) Pengeluar / Producers • Air / Water
• pH / pH
(c) Pengurai / Decomposers
• Kandungan garam / Salinity
Komponen abiosis / Abiotic components • Mineral / Minerals
(a) cahaya / sunlight Taburan haiwan dipengaruhi oleh / Animal distributions are affected by
(b) Angin / winds • Makanan / Food
(c) Air laut / Seawater • Suhu / Temperature
(d) Tanah / Soil • Air / Water
• Tapak pembinaan / Breeding sites
Penyesuaian Pokok Bakau / Adaptations of Mangrove Trees • Faktor geografi / Geographical factors
(a) Oksigen; lentisel / Oxygen; lenticles Taburan organisma akuatik dipengaruhi oleh
(b) pneumatofor / pneumatophores Aquatic organism distributions are affected by
(c) bercabang luas; sokongan / cable; support • Cahaya / Light
(d) jangkang; menyokong / prop; anchor • pH / pH
• Kandungan garam / Salinity
(e) vivipari / viviparous
(f) Hidatod; garam / Hydathodes; salt Faktor biotik yang mempengaruhi taburan organisma seperti
Biotic factors affecting distribution of organisms such as
(g) sukulen / succulent • Pemangsaan / Predation
(h) berkutikel / cuticle • Herbivor / Herbivory
• Persaingan / Competition
Pengkolonian dan Sesaran Suhu / Temperature
Colonisation and Succession • suhu optimum / optimum temperature
• enzim / enzymes
• sesaran ekologi / ecological succession • ternyahasli / denaturation
• mengubah; pertumbuhan / modify; replace • tenaga; pertumbuhan / energy; growth
• kepelbagaian; bertambah; komuniti klimaks Cahaya / Light
diversity; increases; climax community • Cahaya matahari / Sunlight
Spesies perintis / Pioneer species • pertumbuhan / grow
Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp.
pH / pH
• lumpur; organik / sediments; matter • besar / larger
• padat; tinggi / compact; firm • mineral / mineral
• Rhizophora sp. / Rhizophora sp. • nitrogen; fosforus / nitrogen; phosphorus

Contoh / Examples:
Menganggarkan Saiz Populasi Organisma
Estimate Population Size of Organisms 1. Saiz populasi pepatung =
The population size of the dragonflies =
• kuadrat / Quadrat (30 × 20)
• Kuadrat / quadrat N= = 120
5
2. Saiz populasi siput =
The population size of the snails =
Menggunakan Kuadrat
Use of The Quadrat (200 × 130)
N= = 520
50
1. rawak / random
2. dikenal pasti / identified
3. Frekuensi; kepadatan; peratus litupan / frequency; density; Praktis SPM 9
coverage percentage
(i) Frekuensi / frequency Soalan Objektif
(ii) Kepadatan / density 1. C 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. D
(iii) litupan / coverage 6. D 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. A
Contoh / Examples:
Soalan Struktur
1. Frekuensi / Frequency
F = ( 3 / 5) x 100 = 60% Bahagian A
Kepadatan / Density = 1. (a) (i) • Unit yang terdiri daripada organisma hidup /
D = 7 / (5 x 1m2) = 1.4 m-2 komponen komponen biotik dan persekitaran
2. F = ( 6 / 10 ) x 100 = 60% abiotik yang saling berinteraksi
Unit made up of living organisms / biotic component and
Kepadatan / Density = the abiotic environment which interacting together
D = 81 / (10 x 1 m2) = 8.1 m-2
(ii) • Fotoautotrof / menjalankan fotosintesis / menukar
3. Peratus litupan / Percentage coverage = tenaga cahaya kepada tenaga kimia
C = (0.32+0.78+0.18+0.64+0.20+0.15) / (6 x 1 m2) x 100 = Photoautotrophic / carries out photosynthesis / converts
2.27 / 6 x 100 = 37.8 % light energy to chemical energy
• Sintesis sebatian organik kompleks dari sebatian
Teknik tangkap-tanda-lepas tangkap semula bukan organik
Capture-mark-release-recapture technique Synthesises complex organic compounds from inorganic
• haiwan; kutu kayu; serangga / animals; woodlice; insects compounds
• Menduduki aras trof terendah / pertama
Populasi kutu kayu (N) Occupies lowest / first trophic level
A population of woodlice (N) (iii) Tempat organisma hidup yang menyediakan
makanan, perlindungan dan tapak untuk membiak.
The place where an organism lives that can provide food,
Sampel ditangkap secara rawak (n1) shelter and a breeding site for a living organism.
Random sample captured (n1) (b) (i) Populasi / Population
(ii) Komuniti / Community
Ditandakan dengan (iii) Fotoautotrof / pengeluar primer
Ditanda cincin, tag, cat berwarna Photoautotroph / primary producer
Marked atau varnis kuku. (iv) Nic / Niche
Marked with a ring, tag,
coloured paint or nail varnish. 2. (a) (i) • Pokok bunga / Flowering plant
(ii) • Ular dan burung / Birds and snakes
Dan dilepaskan (b) (i) Pokok bunga → ulat beluncas → burung → helang
And released Flowering plant → caterpillars → birds → eagles
(ii)
Helang
Sampel bergaul dengan populasi Eagle
Sample mixed with population Burung
Birds
Ulat beluncas
Caterpillars
Beberapa hari kemudian, sampel kedua Satu pokok bunga
ditangkap di kawasan yang sama (n2) A flowering plant
A few days later, a second sample is caught in the
same locality (n2) (c) Tenaga / haba pada setiap aras hilang
Energy / heat at each level loss because of
1. bahagian tidak dimakan / bukan semua bahagian
Sampel bertanda dikira (n3) organisma boleh dimakan
inedible parts / not all the organism can be eaten
Marked sample is counted (n3)

2. bahagian tidak dicerna / bukan semua dicerna / 3) Apabila populasi pemangsa bertambah, populasi
pembuagan tinja mangsa berkurang
indigestible parts / not all is digested / egestion / faeces When the population of predator increases, the population
3. hilang semasa respirasi / pergerakan / perkumuhan / of prey decreases
pencernaan 4) Lebih banyak mangsa dimakan oleh pemangsa
loss from respiration / movement / excretion / digestion More prey are eaten by predators
(d) (i) 1) Pada mulanya, populasi belalang bertambah kerana (c) Simbiosis / Symbiosis
kurang pemangsa (ular) yang memakannya dan Simbiosis adalah interaksi rapat di antara dua atau lebih
dapat membiak dengan lebih banyak spesies yang hidup bersama.
Initially, the grasshopper population increases as there Symbiosis is a close interaction between two or more species which
are less predators (snakes) feeding on them and they can live together.
reproduce more • Simbion sama ada mendapat untung, tidak terjejas, atau
2) Walau bagaimanapun, populasi menurun secara rugi.
mendadak kerana persaingan untuk makanan The symbionts may benefit from, be unaffected by, or be harmed
However, their population decreases later dramatically due by the relationship.
to the competition for food • Terdapat tiga jenis perhubungan simbiosis:
3) Pokok bunga satu-satunya pengeluar makanan di There are three types of symbiotic relationships
jaring makanan ini / tidak menghasilkan makanan 1) Mutualisme / Mutualism
yang mencukupi untuk populasi yang semakin Mutualisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
meningkat. kedua-dua organisma mendapat untung → (+,+).
The flowering plant is the only producer of food in this Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both
food web / does not produce enough food for the growing organisms benefit → (+,+).
population
2) Komensalisme / Commensalism
(ii) 1) Pada awalnya, populasi ulat beluncas kekal kerana Komensalisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
tergolong dalam rantai makanan berlainan / ular satu organisma mendapat untung, dan organisma
bukan pemangsa lain tidak untung atau rugi. → (+,0).
Initially, the caterpillar population remains constant because Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one
they belong to two different food chains / snakes / do not organism benefit, and the other one is neither benefit nor
prey on them harmed → (+, 0).
2) Kedua-dua belalang dan ulat beluncas memakan
3) Parastisme / Parastism
sumber makanan yang sama (daun pokok bunga),
Parasitisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
pertambahan populasi belalang akan bersaing
satu organisma hidup di organisma lain. Oleh itu,
dengan ulat untuk makanan
parasite untung dan organisma perumah rugi.
However, both grasshoppers and caterpillars feed on the
same food source (leaves of flowering plant), an increase → ( + , – ).
in the population of grasshopper provides competition for Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism
food with the caterpillars lives in or on another organism. Thus, the parasite benefits
and the host organism is harm. → ( + , – ).
3) Tiada ular, populasi belalang meningkat, lebih
Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
banyak makanan untuk burung, populasi burung
meningkat, lebih banyak ulat beluncas akan Saprofitisme adalah interaksi di mana organisma hidup
dimakan. mendapat makanan daripada bahan organik yang mati.
No snakes, grasshopper population increases, more food Saprophytism is an interaction in which living organisms feed on
for birds, bird population increases, more caterpillars are dead organic matter.
eaten. • Saprofit menguraikan bahan organik itu.
Saprophytes responsible for decomposition of the organic
Bahagian B matter.
3. (a) (i) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism • Penguraian membebaskan nutrien ke ekosistem yang
(ii) • Cendawan tumbuh pada bahan organik yang dapat diserap oleh tumbuhan.
mati  Decomposition releases nutrients into the ecosystem which can
Mushrooms grow on dead organic materials be absorbed by plants.
• Cendawan mengeluarkan enzim Pemangsaan / Predation
Mushrooms secrete enzyme Pemangsaan adalah interaksi antara spesies, pemangsa,
Mengurai sebatian organik kompleks kepada produk membunuh dan memakan spesies yang lain, mangsa.
yang ringkas / glukosa Predation is an interaction between species in which one species,
Break down complex organic compound into simple product / the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey
glucose • Dalam pemangsaan, pemangsa untung (+) sementara
(b) (i) Mangsa / Prey: Arnab / Rabbit mangsa rugi (–)
In predation, the predator gains benefit (+) while the prey is
Pemangsa / Predator: Musang / Fox
harmed (–).
(ii) 1) Apabila populasi mangsa meningkat, populasi
pemangsa meningkat
When the population of prey increases, the population of Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 9
predator also increases
2) Ini kerana pemangsa mempunyai lebih makanan 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. B
dan membiak dengan cepat
This is because the predators have more food and
6. A 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. D
reproduce faster

10
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Kelestarian Alam Sekitar
10 Environmental Sustainability
Ancaman Alam Sekitar

10.1 Threats to Environment
Bermaksud
Means
Keadaan alam sekitar yang kekal sama Keperluan masa kini dipenuhi
The responsible interaction with the environment
Memastikan tanpa menjejaskan keperluan
To ensure
• tanpa mengalami masalah kekurangan atau penurunan sumber semula jadi generasi akan datang.
to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources The needs of today’s population
are met without jeopardising the
• dan kualiti alam sekitar yang terjamin untuk satu tempoh masa yang panjang. ability of future generations to
and allow for long-term environmental quality. meet their needs.
Ancaman Alam Sekitar

Threats to Environment
Pembakaran bahan api fosil

Pertanian / Agriculture
Combustion of fossil fuels
Penyahhutanan / Deforestation
Sebab / Causes
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouse gases CO2 Pengasidan lautan
Karbon dioksida, gas metana, oksida nitrogen, CFC Ocean acidification
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC
Kesan rumah hijau Pemanasan global dan perubahan iklim

Greenhouse effect Global warming and climate change
Kesan ke atas persekitaran / Effects on the environment

Kehilangan habitat / Habitat destruction
Perubahan iklim ketara / Extreme climatic change
• Gelombang haba / Heat waves
• Kehilangan biodiversiti • Taufan / Hurricanes
Kemusnahan Loss of biodiversity • Banjir / Flood
ekosistem • Kepupusan spesies • Kemarau / Drought
Ecosystem collapse Species extinction • Kebakaran hutan / Forest fire
Pelunturan karang laut / Coral bleaching Pencairan ais kutub • Kenaikan aras laut
Penurunan tangkapan ikan / Fish stock decline dan glasier Sea level rise
Melting of polar ice • Persisiran pantai tenggelam
Jangkitan penyakit / Spreads of diseases caps and glaciers Coastal submersion
Kesan langsung ke atas kesihatan manusia Migrasi manusia Banjir di bandar dan ladang
Direct impact on human health Human migration Flooding of cities and farmland
Kesan ke atas manusia

Effects on humans Kehilangan hasil tanaman dan ladang
Loss of crops and farmlands
Kecederaan fizikal kepada manusia

Direct physical harm to humans

Kesan rumah hijau / The greenhouse effect Tanah runtuh dan banjir kilat / Landslide and flash flood
1. solar / solar • tadahan / catchment
2. atmosfera / atmosphere • tanah runtuh / landslides
3. inframerah / infrared • sungai / rivers
4. rumah hijau / greenhouse • Banjir / flood
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouses gas Perubahan kitar semula bahan
(a) Karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide Changes in recycling of materials
(b) metana / Methane - fotosintesis; rumah hijau / photosynthesis; greenhouse
(c) nitrogen / Nitrous - berkurang / drops
(d) CFC Perubahan iklim / Climatic changes
Penyahhutanan / Deforestation • transpirasi / transpiration
hutan / forest • hujan / rainfall
• panas / drought
Kesuburan tanah mengurang / Reduction in soil fertility
• hakisan / erosion Kehilangan biodiversiti dan kepupusan spesies
- akar / root Loss of biodiversity and species extinction
• subur / Fertile • perubatan / medicinal
• kesuburan / fertility • habitat; kepupusan / habitats; extinction
• rantai / chains
Pencemaran Pencemaran ialah pembebasan bahan dari aktiviti manusia yang menjejaskan alam sekitar.
Pollution Pollution is the release of substances from human activities that are harmful to the environment.
2. Kedua-dua SO2 dan NOx bergabung dengan wap air dalam atmosfera untuk
1. Pembakaran bahan api fosil di loji janakuasa, membentuk asid sulfurik dan asid nitrik.
Both SO2 and NOx combine with water vapour in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
kilang perindustrian dan kenderaan bermotor and nitric acid.
membebaskan sejumlah besar sulfur dioksida
(SO2) dan oksida-oksida nitrogen (NOx). Sulfur dioksida Asid sulfurik
The combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, Sulphur dioxide H 2O Sulphuric acid
factories and motor vehicles release large quantity of
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
Oksida nitrogen Asid nitrik
Nitrogen oxides Nitric acid
4. Hujan asid terbentuk (pH air hujan < 5.0) 3. Asid sulfurik dan asid nitrat melarut dalam air hujan.
Acid rain is formed (pH of rain water < 5.0) Sulphuric acid and nitric acid dissolve in rain water.
Kesan / Effects
Tanah Air tasik dan sungai Hutan Bangunan

Soils: Water in lakes and rivers: Forests: Buildings:
• Tanah menjadi berasid. • Ion aluminium tidak larut (Al3+) • Merosakkan daun tumbuhan • Menghakis landasan
The soil becomes acidic. berkumpul di tasik dan sungai Damages the leaves of plants dan jambatan logam
• Ion yang penting (kalium, Insoluble aluminium ions (Al3+) • Kurang pembentukan Corrodes metal railing
kalsium dan magnesium) accumulate in lakes and rivers. klorofil, maka and bridges
terlarut resap. • Kepekatan Al3+ yang tinggi mengurangkan fotosintesis. • Merosakkan struktur
More valuable ions (potassium, akan menyebabkan kematian Poor chlorophyll formation, batu kapur dan marmar.
calcium and magnesium) are ikan dan invertebrata lain. thereby reducing Damages imestone and
leached away. The high concentration of Al3+ photosynthesis. marble structure.
• Ini melambatkan pertumbuhan cause fish and invertebrates die.
tanaman.
This slows the growth of crops.

Eutrofikasi Pengayaan suatu ekosistem akuatik dengan baja berlebihan (nitrat, fosfat, dll.)
Eutrophication The enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem with chemical nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, etc.)
Input kumbahan
tanpa rawatan. Pengaliran baja
Input of untreated bukan organik dari
sewage. Peningkatan kepekatan nitrat dan ladang pertanian.
Leaching of inorganic
fosfat terlarut.
fertilisers from
Increased concentration of soluble
agricultural land.
nitrates and phosphates.
Alga menggunakan nutrien Ini menghalang penembusan cahaya

untuk tumbuh dengan pesat. matahari untuk tumbuhan akuatik lain.
Algae use nutrients to grow very This restricts the penetration of sunlight for
rapidly – algal bloom. other aquatic plants.
Mati / Die
Organisma akuatik mati Tumbuhan tidak

kerana kekurangan Kuantiti bahan organik menjalankan
oksigen. Mati / Die yang banyak. Mati / Die fotosintesis dan
Aquatic organisms die from Large quantities of organic mati.
lack of oxygen. materials Plants cannot
photosynthesise
and die.
Menggalakkan pertumbuhan bakteria aerob (pengurai) yang

menggunakan oksigen.
Stimulates the growth of aerobic bacteria (decomposers) which consume oxygen.
Kandungan oksigen di dalam air menurun - BOD tinggi.

Oxygen levels in the water decreases - high BOD. BOD: Keperluan oksigen
biokimia
Biochemical oxygen
demand
BOD: Jumlah oksigen yang diperlukan oleh mikroorganisma aerob untuk menguraikan bahan organik dalam suatu sampel air.
BOD: The amount of oxygen consumed by aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic materials in a sample of water.
Sebab / Causes Isu / Issues

baja / fertilisers • mengelirukan / disorients
kumbahan / sewage Pencemaran bunyi / Noise pollution
buangan / wastes tidak diingini; berlebihan / Unwanted; excessive
Akibat / Effects Sebab / Causes
oksigen; kematian / oxygen; death • Mesin / machine
Pencemaran cahaya / Light pollution Isu / Issues
terlalu terang; berlebihan / Too bright; excessive • pendengaran / hearing
Sebab / Causes • kemurungan / stress
• jalan / Streetlights • ekosistem / ecosystems

Kehilangan biodiversiti / Loss of biodiversity
Punca / Causes
Pemburuan
Kemasukan berlebihan Pencemaran
spesies luar Overexploitation Pollution
Perubahan iklim &
Kehilangan Invasive species
pemanasan global
habitat
Climate change &
Habitat loss
global warming
Pengaruh /Influencers
• Pertumbuhan populasi
manusia
Human population growth
• Peningkatan penggunaan
Increasing consumption Kehilangan biodiversiti / Biodiversity loss
• Penurunan kecekapan sumber Penurunan bilangan gen, individu organisma, spesies, dan
Reduced resource efficiency ekosistem di kawasan tertentu
Reduction in the number of genes, individual organisms, species,
and ecosystems in a given area
Ledakan pertumbuhan populasi manusia / Human population explosion
Populasi dunia
World population
7 billion
6 billion Pertumbuhan pesat populasi manusia disebabkan oleh kemajuan

berterusan dalam bidang nutrisi, perubatan dan teknologi.
5 billion The rapid increase of human population is due to continuing improvements
in nutrition, medicine and technology.
4 billion
3 billion
2 billion
1 billion
0
10,000 BCE 8,000 BCE 6,000 BCE 4,000 BCE 2,000 BCE 0 2019
Pertambahan penggunaan sumber seperti tanah, makanan, air, udara,

bahan api fosil dan mineral Pertambahan keperluan asas manusia
Increase consumption of resources such as land, food, water, air, Increase of human needs
fossil fuels and minerals
Akibat / Effects
Pengurangan sumber semula jadi Pertambahan bahan sisa buangan seperti bahan pencemar udara dan air, bahan toksik
Depletion of natural resources
dan gas rumah hijau.
Increase waste products as a result of consumption such as air and water pollutants, toxic materials
and greenhouse gases
Kehilangan biodiversiti
Loss of biodiversity
Kemusnahan alam sekitar / Environmental degradation

Eksperimen 10.1
Keputusan / Results
Botol reagen Sampel air Masa yang diambil bagi warna larutan metilena biru luntur (jam) Nilai BOD
Reagent bottle Water sample Time taken for methylene blue solution to decolourise (hour) Bod value
A Air sungai / River water 1 6
B Air kolam / Pond water 2 5
C Air longkang / Drain water 3 4
D Air paip / Pipe water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 2
E Air telaga / Well water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 3
F Air suling / Distilled water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 1
Perbincangan / Discussion 5. • Nilai BOD yang lebih rendah menunjukkan kualiti air lebih
1. Digunakan sebagai penunjuk untuk menguji kehadiran oksigen baik, dan air tidak tercemar.
dalam sampel air. Ia berwarna biru dengan adanya oksigen dan Low BOD values indicate better water quality, and therefore the
luntur jika tiada oksigen. water is not polluted.
Used as an indicator to test for the presence of oxygen in the water • Nilai BOD yang lebih tinggi menunjukkan sampel air lebih
samples. It is blue when oxygen is present and colourless where there tercemar. Sampel air mengandungi banyak bahan organik,
is no oxygen.
ini mendorong pertumbuhan pengurai khususnya bakteria
2. Untuk mengelakkan teroksida oleh oksigen atmosfera. aerob.
To avoid being oxidised by atmospheric oxygen.
High BOD values indicate the water samples are more polluted. The
3. Untuk mengelakkan oksigen berlebihan terlarut dalam sampel air. water sample contains high organic matter, such condition encourage
To avoid more oxygen from dissolving in the water samples. the growth of decomposers especially aerobic bacteria.
4. Jika warna larutan metilena biru menjadi luntur dengan cepat, ini • Ini menurunkan tahap oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air.
menunjukkan oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air adalah rendah, This reduces the level of dissolved oxygen in water sample.
dan sampel air sangat tercemar.
If the methylene blue solution decolourises rapidly, this shows that the
dissolved oxygen in the water sample is low, and the water sample is Pemeliharaan, Pemuliharaan dan Pemulihan
highly polluted. 10.2 Ekosistem
Preservation, Conservation and Restoration of Ecosystem
Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem
Usaha melindungi suatu ekosistem supaya dapat mengekalkan Pemulihan ekosistem

Restoration of ecosystem
keadaan semula jadi.
To maintain some part of the ecosystem unchanged.
Proses memperbaiki kemusnahan ekosistem
semula jadi akibat aktiviti manusia dan berusaha
Elak perubahan iklim mengembalikan ke keadaan asal.
Revert climate change The processes of repairing the damage human activities have
caused to natural ecosystems and seek to return them to
Pembangunan lestari an earlier state.
Sustainable development
Ekosistem utuh Penanaman semula Kawalan hakisan

Intact ecosystem Replanting Erosion control
Pemulihan tanah / Soil restoration
Pemuliharaan ekosistem / Conservation of ecosystem

Pemuliharaan in situ / In situ conservation
• Mengekalkan spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di habitat asalnya Tindakan melindungi spesies, habitat semula jadi dan
Maintains plant and animal species within their natural habitats. keseluruan ekosistem daripada kepupusan.
• Contoh: Taman Negara dan Taman Laut The act of protecting species, their natural habitats and entire
Examples: National Park and Marine Park. ecosystems from extinction.
• Perlindungan spesies terancam
Pemuliharaan ex situ / Ex situ conservation Protection of endangered species
• Memulihara spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di luar habitat asalnya • Mengurangkan penggunaan sumber semula jadi dan
Conserves plant and animal species outside their natural habitats penghasilan sisa buangan.
• Contoh: Zoo dan Taman Botani Reduction in the use of natural resources and waste production.
Examples: Zoos and Botanical Gardens

10.3
Amalan dalam Melestarikan Alam Sekitar
Practices in Environmental Sustainability
Praktis SPM 10
Soalan Objektif
Amalan yang Menyumbang kepada Kelestarian Alam
Practises that Contribute to Environmental Sustainability 1. A 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. C
6. D 7. A 8. B
(a) Konsep 5R / 5R concept
1) Fikir semula / Rethink Soalan Struktur
2) Kurangkan / Reduce
3) Guna semula / Reuse Bahagian A
4) Baiki semula / Repair 1. (a) 1. Karbon dioksida memerangkap / menyerap sinaran
5) Kitar semula / Recycle haba yang dipantulkan dari bumi
(b) tenaga / energy Carbon dioxide traps / absorbs heat radiation reflected from
(c) diperbaharui / Renewable earth
(d) air / Water 2. Membawa kepada peningkatan suhu atmosfera
(e) pokok / trees Leading the an increase in the atmosphere temperature
(f) tenaga / energy 3. Menyebabkan pemanasan global
Cause global warming
(g) Pengangkutan / transportation
(h) angin / wind (b) (i) Karbon dioksida adalah bahan mentah proses
fotosintesis
Carbon dioxide is a raw material for photosynthesis
Status Sekuriti Makanan di Malaysia 1. Peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
The Statue of Food Security in Malaysia akan meningkatkan kadar fotosintesis
An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
1. Ketersediaan makanan / Availability of food
will result in an increase in the overall photosynthetic rate
2. Akses makanan / Access to food
2. Oleh itu, lebih banyak karbon dioksida atmosfera
3. Penggunaan makanan / Food Utilisation
akan diserap
4. Kestabilan makanan / Food Stability Hence, more carbon dioxide will be absorbed to counteract
Sekuriti makanan / Food security the increase
mencukupi; selamat; berkhasiat; pemakanan (ii) 1. Ketumpatan stomata tumbuhan menurun dengan
sufficient; safe; nutritious; dietary peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
Stomatal density of plants decrease with an increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
Teknologi Hijau
10.4 Green Technology

2. Ini mengurangkan kadar pertukaran gas tumbuhan
As a result, it will reduce the rate of gas exchange in plants
3. Dan mengurangkan pengambilan CO2 atmosfera
This reduce the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere
Mendefinisikan Teknologi Hijau
Define Green Technology
4. Kadar fotosintesis mungkin tidak meningkat kepada
tahap yang dijangka
produk; sistem; alam sekitar; manusia Photosynthetic rate may not increase to the expected extent
products; systems; environment; human (c) 1. Penurunan kepadatan stomata mengurangkan
Tonggak Dasar Teknologi Hijau Negara transpirasi tumbuhan
Pillars of National Green Technology Policy A decrease in stomatal density will reduce the transpiration in
(a) Tenaga / Energy plants
(b) Ekonomi / Economy 2. Ini akan mengurangkan hujan
This will reduce rainfall
(c) Alam sekitar / Environment
3. Iklim persekitaran akan berubah
(d) Sosial / Social The regional climate will be altered
Kriteria Teknologi Hijau / Criteria of Green Technology 2. (a) (i) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut menurun ketika air
(a) alam sekitar / environment mengalir dari Lokasi X ke Lokasi Y
(b) rumah hijau / greenhouse The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases as water
flows from from Location X to Location Y.
(c) sihat / healthy
2. Pembuangan kumbahan mengandungi sejumlah
(d) tenaga / energy besar bahan organik
(e) diperbaharui / renewable Sewage discharge contains large amount of organic matter
Aplikasi Sains Sosial untuk Menyelesaikan Masalah dan Cabaran 3. Mikroorganisma di hilir menggunakan oksigen
Alam Sekitar terlarut
The Applications of Social Science to Solve Environment Problems and Microorganisms downstream used dissolved oxygen
Challenges 4. Untuk penguraian bahan organik
For the decomposition of the organic matter
(a) Penglibatan / Participation
(b) Kemahiran / Skills (ii) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut adalah sangat rendah
di Lokasi Y, organisma akuatik aktif mati kerana
(c) Sikap / Attitudes
kekurangan oksigen
(d) Pengetahuan / Knowledge As the concentration of dissolved oxygen is very low at
(e) Kesedaran / Awareness Location Y, active aquatic organisms die because lack of
oxygen

2. Y hanya spesies yang toleransi kepada oksigen - Penanaman semula / Replanting

rendah dapat hidup di Lokasi Y - Pemulihan tanah / Soil restoration
Y only low-oxygen tolerant species can survive at location Y - Kawalan hakisan / Erosion control
(b) (i) 1. Bahan organik kian habis digunakan, semakin Pemuliharaan ekosistem / Conservation of ecosystem
kurang mikroorganisma melakukan penguraian / - Tindakan melindungi spesies, habitat semula jadi
penguraian menurun dan keseluruan ekosistem daripada kepupusan.
As organic matter has been used up, less microorganisms The act of protecting species, their natural habitats and
carry out decomposition / decomposition decreases entire ecosystems from extinction.
2. Oksigen terlarut bertambah dalam air disebabkan
• Perlindungan spesies terancam:
oleh fotosintesis tumbuhan akuatik Protection of endangered species:
Oxygen continue to dissolve in the water due to
photosynthesis of aquatic plants Mengurangkan penggunaan sumber semula jadi
dan penghasilan sisa buangan.
(ii) 1. Lokasi Z mempunyai habiat yang berbeza.
Reduction in the use of natural resources and waste
Location Z has different habitat.
production
2. Ciri biotik dan abiotik lokasi Z adalah berbeza.
The biotic an abiotic properties of location Z are different. Pemuliharaan in situ / In situ conservation:
3. Kadar aliran air lebih perlahan di Lokasi Z. / daun • Mengekalkan spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di
gugur dari pokok berdekatan. habitat asalnya
The rate of water flow is slower in Location Z / fallen leaves Maintains plant and animal species within their natural
from trees nearby habitats.
• Contoh: Taman Negara dan Taman Laut
Bahagian B Example: National Park and Marine Park
3. (a) (i) 1. Pada asalnya tidak banyak Pemuliharaan ex situ / Ex situ conservation:
Not many to begin with • Memulihara spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di luar
2. Adalah karnivor habitat asalnya.
Are carnivorous Conserves plant and animal species outside their natural
3. Bilangan mangsa kurang habitats.
Prey number few • Contoh: Zoo dan Taman Botani
4. Kadar pembiakan lebih perlahan Example: Zoos and Botanical Gardens
Slower reproduction rate (c) 1. Elakkan gangguan pada penyu betina yang bertelur
5. Menghijrah ke kawasan lain Avoid disturbance to nesting females
More likely to migrate to other rate
2. Melindungi penyu kecil daripada pemangsa
(ii) 1. Faktor berkaitan ketumpatan Protect young from predators
Density dependent factors 3. Elakkan pencemaran laut // Jangan membuang
2. Persaingan untuk makanan / tempat tinggal / sumber sampah ke laut / elakkan bahan buangan daripada
Competition for food / nesting sites / resources kapal / elak pencemaran cahaya di pantai
3. Populasi besar memudahkan penyebaran penyakit Avoid sea pollution // Do not throw rubbish into sea / avoid
Large population spreads disease more easily discharge from boats / light pollution at beaches
4. Populasi besar menarik perhatian mangsa 4. Berhati-hati ketika manjala ikan
Large population attracts predators
Take care when fishing with nets
(b) Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem 5. Hentikan pemburuan penyu dewasa / larangan
- Usaha melindungi suatu ekosistem supaya dapat penjualan produk penyu
mengekalkan keadaan semula jadi. Stop hunting of adults / trading ban on turtle products
To maintain some part of the ecosystem unchanged
6. Program Pembiakbakaan dalam Kurungan
- Elak perubahan iklim / Revert climate change Captive Breeding Programmes
- Pembangunan lestari / Sustainable development 7. Pusat pemeliharaan / Zoo / Conservation areas / Zoos
- Ekosistem utuh / Intact ecosystem
8. Pendidikan / ekopelancongan / Education / ecotourism
Pemulihan ekosistem / Restoration of ecosystem
- Proses memperbaiki kemusnahan ekosistem
semula jadi akibat aktiviti manusia dan berusaha Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 10
mengembalikan ke keadaan asal.
The processes of repairing the damage human activites 1. B 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. C
have caused to natural ecosytems and seek to return them
to an earlier state. 6. C 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. C

11
Bab
Jawapan
Eksperimen Mendel / Mendel’s experiments
• kacuk; tulen / cross; pure
Bab Pewarisan • induk; P; tinggi; rendah / Parental; P; tall; short
11 Inheritance • F1, tinggi / F1, tall
• F2 / F2
• 3:1
Pewarisan Monohibrid
11.1 Monohybrid Inheritance Kesimpulan / Conclusion
• gen / genes
• dua / two
• pokok kacang pis / pea plants • induk / parent
• sama / equal
Kacukan Monohibri • alternatif / alternative
Monohybrid Cross • dominan / dominant
• monohibrid; tunggal / Monohybrid; single

• satu / one
Istilah yang Berhubung dengan Pewarisan / Terms related to Inheritance:
Gen / Gene Alel / Allele
Unit asas pewarisan yang terdiri daripada satu segmen molekul Bentuk alternatif gen bagi trait tertentu yang menduduki lokus gen yang sama
DNA pada kromosom. pada sepasang kromosom homolog.
The basic unit of inheritance consisting of a segment of a DNA molecule Alternative forms of the same gene for a trait which occupying same gene
on a chromosome. locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Gen ketinggian pokok

Gene for height of plant
Alel pokok tinggi Alel pokok rendah

Allele for tall plant Allele for short plant
Gen
Gene
Gen bagi ciri-ciri

berlainan
Genes for different
characteristics
Molekul DNA
DNA molecule
Kromosom / Chromosome Sepasang kromosom homolog / A pair of homologous chromosome
Ciri / Characters Trait / Traits
Sifat ketara organisma yang diwarisi dan ditentukan oleh gen. variasi bagi setiap ciri khusus.
A heritable feature that varies among organisms which is determined by gene. Each variant for a character.

Tujuh ciri kacang pis dikaji oleh Mendel (setiap ciri mempunyai dua trait berbeza).
Seven characters in Mendel’s study of peas plants (each character had two distinctly contrasting traits).
Ciri-ciri / Characters Trait dominan / Dominant trait Trait resesif / Recessive trait
Ketinggian pokok Rendah / Short

Tinggi / Tall
Stem height
Batang
Stems
Kedudukan bunga Aksial / Axial Terminal / Terminal

Flower position
Warna pod Hijau / Green Kuning / Yellow

Pod colour
Pod
Pods
Bentuk pod Licin / Inflated Berkedut / Constricted
Pod shape
Bentuk biji benih

Bulat / Round Berkedut / Wrinkled
Seed shape
Biji / bunga Warna biji benih Kuning / Yellow Hijau / Green

Seed colour
Seeds / flowers
Warna bunga Ungu / Purple Putih / White

Flower colour
Alel dominan / Dominant alleles

(a) Fenotip / Phenotypes (b) Genotip / Genotypes • fenotip / phenotypes
• besar / capital
Ciri yang dapat dilihat Alel resesif / Recessive allele
Kandungan gen suatu organisma,
yang ditonjolkan oleh suatu • fenotip / phenotypes
biasanya ditunjukkan dalam simbol.
organisma. • kecil / lower
The genetic makeup for the organism,
An organism’s appearance or Homozigot / Homozygotes
which is most often shown in symbols.
observable traits.
• serupa / identical
• dominan; resesif / dominant; recessive
(a) Trait dominan / Dominant traits
(b) Trait resesif / Recessive traits Heterozigot / Heterozygous
• berbeza / different

Rajah Kacukan Pewarisan Monohibrid/ / Monohybrid Cross Diagrams
Kekunci alel / Allele Key:

T = pokok tinggi / tall plant
t = pokok rendah / short plant
Induk / Parental (P) Pokok tinggi Pokok rendah
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Tall plant Short plant
TT tt baka tulen
Setiap pokok induk
X mempunyai dua alel yang sama (TT atau
Meiosis tt).
true-breeding
Gamet / Gametes: T t Each plant of the
parental generation has two identical alleles
(TT or tt).
Persenyawaan
Generasi F1 Fertilisation
F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Tt Gabungan gamet induk menghasilkan
Fenotip / Phenotypes : All hibrid
Semua tinggi / tall F1 yang mempunyai
kombinasi Tt.
Pendebungaan Union of parental gametes produces F1
sendiri / Self-pollination hybrids
having a Tt combination.
F1 × F1 Pokok tinggi X Pokok tinggi

F1 Selfed Tall plant Tall plant
Genotip / Genotypes :
Tt Tt
Alel terpisah kepada gamet yang
Segregasi
Meiosis berbeza. (= Hukum )
Alleles have separated into different gametes.
Gamet / Gametes: t T T t (= Law of Segregation )
Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Punnett
Persenyawaan T t Segi empat
menunjukkan semua kombinasi alel anak
Gamet betina / Female gametes
Fertilisation
yang mungkin dalam kacukan ini.
TT Tt Punnett
A square shows all the possible
T tinggi / tall tinggi / tall combination of alleles in offspring in the cross.
( ) ( )
Tt tt Kedua-dua gamet bagi dan adalah T

t empat
tinggi / tall rendah / short atau t, ini menghasilkan
( ) ( ) genotip yang mungkin.
Generasi F2 Both and gametes can be T or t, giving
F2 Generation four
Genotip / Genotypes : TT Tt tt possible genotypes.

Nisbah genotip 1 2 1
: :
Genotypes ratio : 144424443
tinggi / tall rendah / short

3 1
:

• warna; bentuk / colour; shape

Hukum Mendel I
Mendel’s First Law Eksperimen Mendel / Mendel’s Experiments
1. dua; warna; bentuk / two; colour; shape
segregasi / segregation
1. alel / alleles 2. kuning; bulat; hijau; berkedut / round; yellow; wrinkled; green
2. terpisah; meiosis; gamet / segregates; meiosis; gamete 3. kuning bulat / yellow round
3. gamet; satu / gamete; one 5. 9; 3; 3; 1
Langkah Kacukan Dihibrid / The Steps of The Dihybrid Cross
Pewarisan Dihibrid
11.2 Dihybrid Inheritance
Biji benih kacang pis kuning bulat baka tulen.
Pea plants from pure-breeding yellow round seeds.
Biji benih kacang pis hijau berkedut baka tulen.
Kacukan Dihibrid Pea plants from pure-breeding green wrinkled seeds.
Dihybrid Cross
• dihibrid; dua; dua / Dihybrid; two; two
Rajah Kacukan Dihibrid/ / A Dihybrid Cross Diagrams

Induk / Parental (P) Kuning bulat Hijau berkedut
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Yellow round Green wrinkled
Genotip / Genotypes : YYRR yyrr
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: YR Persenyawaan yr

Fertilisation Anak F1 adalah heterozigot bagi
YyRr kedua-dua gen.
Generasi F1 Semua F1 progeny are heterozygous for both
F1 Generation bijih benih kuning bulat genes.
Genotip / Genotypes : All
yellow round seeds
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Pendebungaan sendiri
F1 × F1 Self-pollination
Kuning bulat Kuning bulat Empat jenis gamet terbentuk dengan
F1 Selfed Yellow round Yellow round
kadar yang sama (pengaturan
Genotip / Genotypes : YyRr YyRr
bebas).
Four different types of gametes are
X formed in equal proportions (independent
Meiosis assortment).
Gamet / Gametes : YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr
Persenyawaan : Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Fertilisation :
YR Yr yR yr Terdapat 16 kombinasi gamet
apabila persenyawaan gamet
Gamet betina / Female gametes
berlaku di antara kedua induk F1

YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr secara rawak.
There are 16 possible combinations of
gametes when random fertilisation of
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr gametes from the two F1 parents occurs.
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Generasi F2 : 1 YYRR
F2 Generation : 2 YYRr 1 YYrr 1 yyRR 1yyrr
Genotip / Genotypes : 2 YyRR 2 Yyrr 2 yyRr
4 YyRr
Empat fenotip
Kuning bulat Kuning berkedut Hijau bulat Hijau berkedut muncul di generasi
Fenotip / Phenotypes : F2.
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Green round Green wrinkled
Four phenotypes
Nisbah fenotip : appear in the F2
9 3 3 1 generation.
Phenotypic ratio : : : :

Kesimpulan Mendel / Mendel’s conclusion

• Bentuk; Warna; berlainan / shape; colour; different Gene and Alel
• Kombinasi / combinations 11.3 Genes and Alleles
• terpisah; bebas / seperate; independently
Lokus gen merupakan kedudukan gen tertentu pada suatu kromosom.
A gene locus is the position for a particular gene on a chromosome.
Hukum Mendel II
Mendel’s Second Law
• pengaturan / assortment.
• tidak bergantung; gamet / independently; gamete
• rawak / randomly
Sepasang kromosom homolog, satu diwarisi daripada
Gen – satu segmen molekul tertentu DNA di kromosom, berada
induk jantan, dan satu lagi daripada induk betina.
pada kedudukan yang disebut lokus. A pair of homologous chromosomes, one is inherited from the
Gene – a segment of a DNA molecule on a chromosome, occupying a male parent, and the other from the female parent.
position called a locus.
Alel – bentuk alternatif gen bagi trait tertentu.

Alleles – the alternative forms of gene for a trait.
A a Di setiap lokus, individu mempunyai dua alel, setiap
satu pada setiap kromosom homolog.
At each locus, an individual has two alleles, one on each
homologous chromosome.
D D
Pada lokus ini, gen adalah homozigot (alel yang sama).
At these loci, the genes are homozygous (same alleles).
F F
j j Tiga pasang alel di tiga lokus berlainan.
Pada lokus ini, gen adalah heterozigot (alel berbeza). Three pairs of alleles at three different loci.
At this locus, the gene is heterozygous (different alleles). R r
1 pasang kromosom seks (Pasangan ke 23)

Pewarisan Manusia 1 pair of sex chromosomes (23rd pair)
11.4 Inheritance in Humans • jantina / sex
• Perempuan; XX / female; XX
Jenis Kromosom Manusia • Lelaki; XY / Male; XY
Types of Human Chromosomes
• homolog; tidak homolog / homologous; not homologous
Setiap sel manusia biasanya mempunyai 23 pasang, sejumlah 46 Kariotip manusia / Human karyotypes
kromosom. • Kariotip / karyotype
In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total
• homolog; saiz / homologous; size
of 46 of chromosomes.
• autosom; seks / autosomes; sex
22 pasang autosom / 22 pairs autosomes
• jantina / sex
• saiz; panjang / size; length
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
44 autosom
44 autosomes
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18
16 17 18
2 kromosom seks 2 kromosom seks

19 20 21 22 XX 19 20 21 22 XY Sex chromosomes
Sex chromosomes
Kariotip seorang perempuan normal Kariotip seorang lelaki normal

The karyotype of a normal female The karyotype of a normal male

A) Kumpulan darah ABO / ABO blood groups

Kariotip seorang perempuan
Sindrom Down • ABO
1 2 3 4 5
The karyotype of a Down syndrome female • tunggal; berbilang / single; multiple
• Bilangan kromosom = 47 - A / A
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (45 + XX) - B / B
Number of chromosomes = 47 - Tiada / No
(45 + XX)
• dominan / dominant
13 14 15 16 17 18 • M e m p u n y a i l e b i h s a t u
• kodominan / codominance
kromosom di kromosom 21.
Has an extra copy of
19 20 21 22 XX chromosome number 21. Fenotip (Kumpulan darah) Genotip
Phenotype (Blood group) Genotype
A IAIA / IAIO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 B IBIB / IBIO
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 AB IAIB
17 18 19 20 21 22 X Y O IOIO
Kromosom tersusun mengikut saiz / Chromosomes organised by size
Kacukan yang mungkin di antara ibu bapa yang mempunyai kumpulan darah yang berlainan:
The possible cross between parents with different blood groups:
Kes 1 / Case 1:
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
IAIO IBIO
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes : IA IO IB IO

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes
IB Io
Female gametes
Gamet betina
IA IAIB IAIO
IO IBIO IOIO
Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO IBIO IOIO

AB A B O
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah
AB A B O
Blood group Blood group Blood group Blood group
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :

Kes 2 / Case 2:
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes:
IAIA X IBIB
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: IA IA IB IB

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation
Gamet jantan / Male gametes
IB IB
Gamet betina
Female gametes
IA IAIB IAIB
IA IAIB IAIB
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB

AB AB
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio : Semua All
berkumpulan darah AB / blood group AB
Kes 3 / Case 3
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
IAIA X IBIO
Meiosis
IA IA IB IO
Gamet / Gametes:
IB IO
Female gametes
Gamet betina
IA IAIB IAIO
IA IAIB IAIO
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO

AB AB A A
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:

Kes 4 / Case 4
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
IAIO X IBIB
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: IA IO IB IB

IB IB
Female gametes
Gamet betina IA IAIB IAIB
IO IBIO IBIO
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IBIO

AB AB B B
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
B) Faktor Rhesus (Rh) / Rhesus factor (Rh)
Rh-positif / Rh-positive (Rh+) Rh-negatif / Rh-negative (Rh-)
Individu yang mempunyai faktor Rhesus. Individu yang tidak mempunyai faktor Rhesus.
An individual that has the Rhesus factor. An individual that does not has the Rhesus (Rh) factor.
Rh+ Rh–
Antigen D
D antigen
Antibodi Rh
Rh antibody
• Faktor Rh dikawal oleh sepasang alel: alel Rh dan alel rh.

The Rh factor is controlled by a pair of alleles: Rh allele and rh allele.
Alel Menentukan penghasilan Dominan atau resesif

Allele Responsible for the production of Dominant or recessive
Rh Antigen Rh Dominan / Dominant
Tiada penghasilan antigen Resesif / Recessive

rh
Not producing antigen
• Pengaglutinan berlaku apabila antigen bertindak balas dengan antibodi seseorang tanpa antigen.
The antigen results in agglutination when it reacts with antibodies from an individual without the antigen.

Kes 1 / Case 1
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Genotip / Genotypes : Rh Rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh Rh rh rh

rh rh
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh

Fenotip / Phenotypes: Rhesus positif (heterozigot) / Rhesus positive (heterozygous)
Nisbah fenotip Semua All

Phenotypic ratio: rhesus positif / rhesus positive
Kes 2 / Case 2
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh rh rh rh

rh rh
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Rh Rh rh Rh rh
rh rh rh rh rh
Genotip / Genotypes : Rh rh rh rh

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive : Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :
C) Talasemia / Thalasemia
• Talasemia ialah sejenis penyakit pewarisan yang mengurangkan pembentukan hemoglobin normal dalam sel darah merah.
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the production of normal haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
• Talasemia disebabkan oleh gen autosom resesif.

Thalassemia is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

Kes 1: Jika salah seorang induk adalah pembawa / Case 1: If one parent is a carrier:
Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
BB Bb
Genotip / Genotypes : X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B B B b

B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B BB Bb
B BB Bb
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal Normal Pembawa Carrier

/ /
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Kes 2: Jika kedua-dua induk adalah pembawa / Case 2: If both parents are carrier:
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu pembawa / Carrier mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb Bb
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B b B b

B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb Bb bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal Normal Pembawa Carrier Talasemia Thalassemia
/ / /
Nisbah fenotip 1 2 1
Phenotypic ratio : : :

Kes 3: Jika salah seorang induk pengidap Talasemia / Case 3: If one parents is Thalassemia patient:
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa talasemia / Thalassemia father
Genotip / Genotypes : BB bb
X
Meiosis
B B b b

b b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
B Bb Bb
B Bb Bb
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Pembawa Carrier

/
Nisbah fenotip Semua pembawa All carrier
Phenotypic ratio : /
Kes 4: Jika salah seorang induk pengidap Talasemia dan satu lagi adalah pembawa
Case 4: If one parents is Thalassemia patient and another a carrier
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu talasemia / Thalassemia mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Genotip / Genotypes : bb Bb
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: b b B b

B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina
b Bb bb
b Bb bb
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Pembawa Carrier Talasemia Thalassemia
/ /
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
D) Kebolehan menggulung lidah / Ability to roll the tongue

• Kebolehan menggulung lidah (R) adalah dominan kepada tidak boleh menggulung lidah (r)
In humans, the ability to roll tongue (R) is a dominant over inability to roll tongue (r).

Kes 1 / Case 1
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah
Ability to roll tongue Inability to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : RR rr
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: R R r r

r r
Female gametes
Gamet betina
R Rr Rr
R Rr Rr
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kebolehan menggulung lidah Ability to roll tongue

/
Nisbah fenotip Semua All
Phenotypic ratio : boleh menggulung lidah / able to roll tongue
Kes 2 / Case 2
Able to roll tongue Unable to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr X rr
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: R r r r

r r
Female gametes
Gamet betina
R Rr Rr
r rr rr
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr rr


Ability to roll tongue Inability to roll tongue
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1
:

E) Bentuk lekapan cuping telinga / Types of earlobe

• Bentuk cuping telinga bebas (F) manusia adalah dominan kepada cuping telinga melekap (f).
In humans, having free earlobes (F) is dominant over having attached earlobes (f )

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Cuping telinga bebas / Free earlobes Cuping telinga bebas / Free earlobes
Genotip / Genotypes : Ff Ff
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: F f F f

F f
Female gametes
Gamet betina
F FF Ff
f Ff ff
Genotip / Genotypes : FF Ff Ff ff

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Cuping teinga bebas / Free earlobes Cuping teinga melekap / Attached earlobes

Nisbah fenotip 3 1
F) Penentuan jantina / Sex determination

• Dalam sel badan manusia, kromosom seks menentukan jantina individu.
In a human body cell, the sex chromosomes determine the sex of an individual.
Anak perempuan
Female child
44 + XX Sperma membawa kromosom Y atau
Semua ovum yang dihasilkan
kromosom X.
membawa kromosom X.
A sperm carries either a Y chromosome or an X
All the ova produced carry X chromosomes.
chromosome.
Sell soma perempuan mempunyai 44 Sel soma lelaki mempunyai 44 +

+ XX kromosom. XX XY XY kromosom.
The somatic cells of a female have 44 + XX The somatic cells of a male have 44 +
chromosomes. XY chromosomes.
Ibu Bapa
Mother Father
Anak lelaki
Male child
44 + XY


Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu / Mother Bapa / Father
Perempuan / Female ( ) Lelaki / Male ( )
44 + XX X 44 + XY
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: 22 + X 22 + X 22 + X 22 + Y

22 + X 22 + Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY
22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY
Genotip / Genotypes : 44 + XX 44 + XY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan / Female Lelaki / Male

Nisbah fenotip 1 1
:
Phenotypic ratio :
• sama / equal G) Pewarisan ciri terangkai seks (buta warna, hemofilia)

Sex-linked inheritance (colour blindness, haemophilia)
• rawak; 50% / random; 50%
1. terangkai seks / sex-linked
• lelaki / male
2. genetik; X / genetic; X
3. Buta warna; hemofilia; resesif; X
Colour blindness; haemophilia; recessive; X
4. Lelaki / Males
Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female (XX)

Lelaki / Male (XY) Perempuan / Female (XX)
Gen berkaitan dengan seks berada pada bahagian kromosom

seks ini.
The genes concerned with sex are located on this part of the sex
chromosomes.
Gen untuk penglihatan warna – alel

resesif menyebabkan buta warna
Gene for colour vision – the recessive
allele causes colour blindness
Mana-mana alel dominan atau resesif yang terletak di

kawasan ini akan muncul dalam fenotip lelaki.
Any dominant or recessive allele located in this region will show up
in the phenotype of the male.

Pewarisan buta warna / The inheritance of colour blindness Pewarisan hemofilia / The inheritance of haemophilia
merah dan hijau / red and green membeku / cloth
Kunci / Key – XB : Alel dominan / Dominant allele Kunci / Key – XH : Alel dominan / Dominant allele
Xb : Alel resesif / Recessive allele Xh : Alel resesif / Recessive allele
Fenotip Genotip / Genotype Fenotip Genotip / Genotype
Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female
Penglihatan normal Penglihatan normal
XB Y XB XB X Y
H
XH XH
Normal vision Normal vision
Pembawa / Carrier – XB X b Pembawa / Carrier – XH X h
Buta warna / Colour-blind Xb Y Xb Xb Buta warna / Colour-blind Xh Y Xh Xh
Kes 1: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki buta warna dan isterinya yang penglihatan normal.
Case 1: A cross between a colour-blind man his wife with normal vision.
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan normal / Normal female Lelaki buta warna / Colour-blind male
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XbY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XB XB Xb Y

Xb Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XB XBXb XBY
XB XBXb XBY
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XBY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Kes 2: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri yang buta warna.
Case 2: A cross between normal vision man and his colour-blind wife.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan buta warna Lelaki normal
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Colour-blind female Male normal
Genotip / Genotypes : XbXb XBY

X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Xb Xb XB Y

XB Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Xb XBXb XbY
Xb XBXb XbY
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XbY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki buta warna / Male colour-blind

Nisbah fenotip 1 1

Kes 3: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri pembawa alel buta warna.
Case 3: A cross between a normal vision man and his wife who carries of colour-blind allele.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Carrier female Male normal
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XBY

X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XB Xb XB Y

XB Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XB XBXB XBY
Xb XBXb XbY
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XBXb XBY XbY

Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki buta warna
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Male colour-blind

Nisbah fenotip
: : :
Kes 4: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki hemofilia dan isterinya yang normal.
Case 4: A cross between a haemophiliac man and his normal wife.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan normal Lelaki hemofilia

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal female Haemophiliac male
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXH XhY

X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XH XH Xh Y

Xh Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XH XHXh XHY
XH XHXh XHY
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XHY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal

Nisbah fenotip 1 1

Kes 5: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki normal dan isteri hemofilia.

Case 5: A cross between a normal man and his haemophiliac wife.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan hemofilia Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Haemophiliac female Normal male
Genotip / Genotypes : XhXh XHY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Xh Xh XH Y

XH Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
Xh XHXh XhY
Xh XHXh XhY
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XhY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki hemofilia / Male Haemophiliac

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1
:
Kes 6: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki normal dan isteri yang pembawa alel hemofilia.
Case 6: A cross between a normal and his wife who is a carrier of haemophiliac allele.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Carrier female Male normal
Genotip / Genotypes : X X H h
XHY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XH Xh XH Y

XH Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina
XH XHXH XHY
Xh XHXh XhY
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXH XHXh XHY XhY

Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki hemofilia
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Haemophiliac male

Nisbah fenotip
: : :

Pewarisan manusia dengan mengkaji pedigri keluarga / Human inheritance by studying family pedigrees
• Pedigri; trait / pedigree; traits
Garisan ini menghubungkan bapa dan ibu

This link links the faher and the mother
Kunci /Key:
Lelaki normal
Setiap baris I Garisan ini Normal male
mewakili
menghubungkan
generasi 1 2
ibu bapa kepada
baharu Perempuan normal
anak-anak.
Each horizontal Normal female
This line links
row represents a
the parents to
new generation.
their offspring. Lelaki mempunyai trait
Male with the trait
II
Perempuan mempunyai trait
Female with the trait
1 2 3
Ini menunjukkan anak-anak yang mempunyai ibu bapa yang sama.
This show the offspring from the same father and mother.
Individu 5 = kumpulan darah A / Individual 5 = blood group A Individu 8 = kumpulan darah AB / Individual 8 = blood group AB
• I0 • A ; B
• IA ; B • O ; IA IB
• IA I0 ; A • AB
(iii) 1. R menerima kedua-dua alel dominan, T daripada
Praktis SPM 11
kedua-dua induk untuk trait tinggi.
R received both dominant alleles, T from both parents for
tall trait
Soalan Objektif 2. R menerima alel dominan B dari induk P dan alel
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. A resesif b dari Q untuk trait bunga ungu.
R received dominant allele B from parent P and recessive
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. A 10. A allele b from Q for purple flower trait.
11. A 12. B 13. B 14. B 3. Alel dominan (T, B) menunjukkan trait.
Dominant allele (T, B) shown the trait.
Soalan Struktur
(c) (i)
Bahagian A
1. (a) Trait : Pokok rendah dan bunga putih TB Tb tB tb
Trait: Short plant and white flower
1. Trait pokok rendah dan bunga putih tidak ditunjukkan TTBB TTBb TtBB TtBb
di generasi F1
The traits of short plant and white flower is not shown in TTBb TTbb TtBb Ttbb
F1 generation
2. Trait resesif hanya ditunjukkan apabila kedua-dua TtBB TtBb ttBB ttBb
alel resesif hadir
Recessive trait will be shown when both recessive alleles
TtBb Ttbb ttBb ttbb
present
(b) (i) (iii) 1. Berdasarkan Hukum Mendel kedua / Hukum
Induk / Parents : P Q pengaturan bebas
Fenotip / Phenotype : Based on Mendel second law / Law of independent
Genotip / Genotype : TtBb TTbb assortment
2. Semasa pembentukan gamet, setiap ahli daripada
Gamet pasangan alel boleh bergabung secara rawak
Gametes dengan mana-mana satu ahli pasangan alel yang
lain
TB Tb tB tb Tb During gamete formation, each member of a pair of alleles
may combine randomly with member of another pair of
allele
3. Nisbah 9: 3: 3: 1 / The ratio = 9:3:3:1
4. Nisbah fenotip = 9 tinggi, ungu : 3 tinggi, puith : 3
Anak TTBb TTbb rendah, ungu : 1 rendah, putih
Offspring R TtBb Ttbb Phenotypic ratio : 9 tall, purple : 3 tall, white : 3 short,
purple : 1 short, white

2. (a) 1. Bapa Aminah adalah buta warna, kromosom X mesti 2. Rajah hanya menunjukkan bilangan dan bentuk
mengandung alel resesif untuk buta warna. kromosom.
As Aminah’s father is colour blind, he must has a X chromosome The diagram only show the number and the appearance
bearing the recessive allele for colour blindness of chromosomes
2. Sebagai seorang perempuan, Aminah mewarisi 3. Rabun warna disebabkan oleh kehadiran alel resesif
kromosom X yang mengandungi alel resesif dari pada kromosom seks
bapanya. Colour blindness is due to the presence of recessive allele
Being a female, Aminah must has inherited the X chromosome on the sex chromosome
bearing the recessive allele from her father. (ii) Perempuan / Female
3. Sebaliknya, Aminah adalah normal, dia mempunyai 1. Pasangan kromosom ke-23 dalam kariotip
kromosom X dengan alel dominan untuk penglihatan mempunyai saiz yang sama
normal daripada ibunya. The 23rd pair of chromosome in the karyotype have a similar
On the other hand, Aminah is normal, therefore she must have size.
a X chromosome bearing dominant allele for normal eye sight
2. Fetus mempunyai kedua-dua kromosom X
from her mother.
The foetus has both X chromosomes
4. Oleh itu, Aminah adalah heterozigot
Therefore, Aminah is a heterozygote.
(b) (i) Tidak / No Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 11
1. Rajah tidak menunjukkan kandungan genetik fetus.
The diagram cannot reveal the genetic make-up of the
foetus.
1. C 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. D
6. D 7. C 8. D 9. D 10. B

12
Bab
Jawapan
Jenis Variasi
Bab Variasi The Type of Variation
12 Variation
• Terdapat dua jenis variasi / There are two types of variations:
Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
Jenis dan Faktor Variasi Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
12.1 Types and Factors of Variation
Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
Variasi Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Variation
1. tidak ketara / not distinctive 1. ketara / distinctive
• fenotip; spesies / phenotypes; species 2. perantaraan; ekstrim 2. tiada; tiada / no; no
(a) membezakan / distinguish intermediate; extremes intermediate; extremes
(b) kemandirian / survival 3. kuantitatif; boleh 3. kualitatif; tidak boleh
(c) penyesuaian / adapt quantative; can qualitative; cannot
4. genetik; persekitaran 4. genetik; tidak
genetic; environmental genetic; not
5. normal / normal 5. diskrit / discrete
Variasi selanjar / Continuous variation

Variasi selanjar disebabkan oleh gabungan kesan genetik dan persekitaran.
18 Continuous variation is due to the combined effects of genes and the environment.
16
Number of individuals
Bilangan individu
14
Carta bar ‘bilangan individu’ boleh dilukis semula sebagai graf lengkung licin
12
kerana ada ketinggian perantaraan yang mungkin di antara dua ekstrim.
10
The bar chart of ‘number of individuals’ can be redrawn as a smooth curve because there
8 are many possible intermediate height between the two extremes.
6
4
2
1.59 1.66 1.75 1.83 1.92 2.00 2.08 2.33 Terdapat julat ketinggian yang berbeza.
Ketinggian / Height (cm) There could be differences about the range of the heights.
Variasi tidak selanjar / Discontinuous variation
Variasi tak selanjar disebabkan oleh kesan genetik sahaja.

46
Discontinuous variation is due to the effect of genes only.
42
Percentage of population
Peratus populasi
Carta bar ‘peratus populasi’ tidak dalam bentuk graf lengkung licin kerana
tiada kumpulan darah perantaraan.
The bar chart of ‘percentage of population’ cannot be a smooth curve because there is
no intermediate blood group.
9
3
Hanya ada kumpulan darah A, B, AB atau O.
AB A O B
There can only be A, B, AB or O blood group.

Punca Variasi dengan Jenis Variasi / Causes of Variation to Types of Variation:
Faktor genetik / Genetics factor Faktor persekitaran / Environmental factors
Pindah silang semasa meiosis

Crossing over at meiosis
Suhu / Temperature
Penyusunan bebas kromosom semasa meiosis

Independant assortment of chromosomes at meiosis
Cahaya / Light
Persenyawaan rawak gamet

Random fertilisation of gametes pH / pH
Mutasi / Muttation
Pembiakan Seks Membawa kepada Variasi / Sexual Reproduction Leads to Variation
1. Kromosom homolog 2. Pertukaran bahan genetik

berpasangan semasa di antara kromatid tidak
meiosis bermula. seiras. 3. Kombinasi gen
C
a
Homologous chromosomes Genetic material is exchanged baharu.

paired up as meiosis begins. between non-sister New gene
A
chromatids. combinations
Bilangan gamet berlainan

tanpa had.
a
a
C
b
C
b
Limitless number of different

B
c
A
B
A
gametes.
Kedua proses berlaku secara rawak dalam penghasilan gamet jantan (sperma) dan gamet betina
(ovum).
Both processes occur randomly in the production of male gametes (sperms) and female gamete (ovum).
2. Empat jenis gamet Mana-mana satu

berbeza terbentuk hanya sperma boleh
daripada dua pasang bersenyawa dengan
kromosom. Dengan mana-mana ovum.
cara ini, manusia dapat Any sperm can fuse
with any ovum.
menghasilkan gamet
1. Pasangan kromosom homolog yang berlainan.
tersusun secara rawak, Atau / or There are four different
gametes form just two pairs
menghasilkan gamet dengan
of chromosomes. Each
kombinasi gen yang berlainan. human produces many
Homologous pairs may arrange randomly, different gametes in this way.
producing different combinations of genes
in the gametes.
Variasi di kalangan anak.

Variation among offspring.

Faktor persekitaran / Environmental factors
• Sesetengah variasi fenotip disebabkan oleh persekitaran dan tidak diwarisi melalui gen.
Some phenotypic variation is caused by the environmental and not passed on through genes.
Suhu / Temperature: Cahaya / Light: pH / pH:

Primrose Cina / Chinese primrose • Pokok yang menerima lebih Hydrangea
• Suhu panas – Bunga berwarna putih. banyak cahaya matahari • Dalam keadaan beralkali – bunga berwarna merah
Warm temperature – white flowers. tumbuh dengan lebih baik jambu.
• Suhu sejuk – bunga berwarna merah. Plants which receive more In alkali condition – pink flowers.
Cool temperature – red flowers. sunlight grow better. • Dalam keadaan berasid – bunga berwarna biru.
In acidic condition – blue flowers.
Variasi yang Berpunca daripada Interaksi antara Faktor Genetik • Fenotip organisma terhasil daripada genotipnya, dan
dengan Faktor Persekitaran pengaruh faktor persekitaran.
Variation Caused by Interaction between Genetic and Environmental The phenotype of an organisms is the product of genotype and
Factors influences of the environment.
• Rupa wajah suatu organisma adalah dipengaruhi oleh faktor
genotip dan persekitaran. Fenotip = Genotip + kesan persekitaran
The appearance of an organism is influenced by both its genotype
Phenotype = Genotype + effects of the environment
and its environment.
Julia Julia
Julia & Kiki Makan makanan Gen obesiti tidak
J J J
Kembar seiras mempunyai J K rendah lemak. dirangsang.
gen yang dapat menyerap Eats low fat foods. Obesity genes not triggered.
lemak dua kali ganda lebih
cepat daripada orang biasa.
Identical twins have genes that
absorb fats twice as fast as the Kiki Kiki
average person.
Makan makanan Gen obesiti dirangsang.
JK tinggi lemak. K Obesity genes triggered.
Eats fatty food.
Variasi dalam Manusia Eksperimen 12.1

12.2 Variation in Humans
(A) Variasi selanjar / Continuous variation
Variasi selanjar Variasi tak selanjar Perbincangan / Discussion
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
1. Apakah julat yang paling umum? / What is the most common?
• genetik; persekitaran • gen / genes (a) Julat ketinggian? / height range? 150-154 cm
genetic; environmental • Tidak / Not
(b) Julat berat badan / body weight range? 50 - 54 kg
• Contoh / Example: • Contoh / Example:
- Ketinggian - Kumpulan darah 2. Apakah bentuk graf? / What is the shape of the graph?
Height Blood group Lengkung taburan normal / Normal distribution curve
- Warna kulit - Jenis corak cap ibu jari (B) Variasi tak selanjar / Discontinuous variation
Skin colour Fingerprint patterns
- Berat badan - Jenis cuping telinga
Ear lope shape x
Body weight 1. (a) × 100
- Kebolehan menggulung lidah y
- Lilitan dada
Chef circumference Tongue rolling ability x = bilangan murid / number of pupils
y = jumlah murid dalam kelas / total number of pupils in the class
x
(b) × 100
y
x = bilangan murid / number of pupils
y = jumlah murid dalam kelas / total number of pupils in the class
2. • Kebolehan menggulung lidah / The ability to roll the tongue
• Kumpulan darah / Blood group
• Bentuk cuping telinga / Shape of the ear lopes

Mutasi
12.3 Mutation
Mutasi / Mutation
• spontan; kekal / sudden; permanent
• gamet; soma / gametes; somatic
• semulajadi; rawak; mutagen / naturally; randomly; mutagen
Mutagen / Mutagen
Jenis mutagen / The types of mutagen
Agen fizikal / Physical agents Agen kimia / Chemical agents Agen biologi / Biological agents
• Radioaktif / Radioactive • Benzena / Benzene • virus / viruses
• Sinar - X / X - rays • Fomaldehid / Formaldehyde • makanan / Food
• ultra-ungu / Ultra-violet • Abestos / Abestos - kulat / fungi
• gamma / Gamma • mustard / Mustard - kekacang / nuts
• Suhu / temperature • Tar / Tar - daging / meat
Mutan / Mutan
Gen atau organisma yang diubah secara genetik / Genetically altered genes or organisms.
Jenis mutasi / Types of mutation:
Jenis mutasi / Types of mutations
Mutasi gen / Gene mutation Mutasi kromosom / Chromosomal mutations
Contoh Perubahan bilangan kromosom Perubahan struktur kromosom

Examples Change in chromosome number Change in chromosome structure
Contoh / Examples Contoh / Examples
1. Anemia sel sabit 1. Sindrom Down / Down syndrome

Sickle cell anaemia 2. Sindrom Turner / Turner syndrome 1. Sindrom cri du chat
Cri du chat syndrome
2. Albinisme / Albinism 3. Sindrom Klinefelter / Klinefelter syndrome
4. Sindrom Jacob / Jacob syndrome
Mutasi gen / Gene mutation
DNA Polipeptida / Polypeptide
Normal ATG CAG TTT TTA CGC AAT Met – Gln – Phe – Leu – Arg – Asn
(a) Penggantian bes

Base substituition Met – Gln – Phe – Ser – Arg – Asn Satu asid amino
ATG CAG TTT TCA CGC AAT yang berbeza dalam
polipeptida terhasil.
One different amino acid in
(b) Penyongsangan bes the polypeptide produced.
Base inversion ATG CAG TTT TAT CGC AAT Met – Gln – Phe – Tyr – Arg – Asn
(c) Pelenyapan bes

Base deletion ATG CAG TTT TAC GCA AT - Met – Gln – Phe – Tyr – Ala – ––
Protein yang dihasilkan
biasanya tidak berfungsi.
The resulting protein is
usually non-functional.
(d) Sisipan bes
Base insertion ATG CAG TTT TTT ACG CAA T Met – Gln – Phe – Phe – Thr – Gln

Mutasi gen dan anemia sel sabit / Gene mutation and sickle-cell anemia
1. Anaemia sel sabit disebabkan oleh mutasi gen yang menghasilkan hemoglobin sel sabit (Hbs) pada gen β-hemoglobin.
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by gene mutation that produces sickle cell haemoglobin (Hbs) is in the gene for β-haemoglobin.
2. Ini terhasil daripada gantian satu bes pada gen yang mengkod rantai polipeptida di hemoglobin.
It results from the substitution of a single base in the gene that code for a polypeptide chain in haemoglobin.
Bes ganti / Substituted base

1. Di gen, bes T digantikan dengan bes
3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ A pada satu kedudukan.
DNA C T C C A C In the gene, base T is replaced by base A
at one position.
Sebahagian gen Sebahagian gen
hemoglobin normal hemoglobin mutasi
Part of normal Part of mutated
haemoglobin gene haemoglobin gene
2. Polipeptida yang terbentuk mempunyai

mRNA G A G G U G asid amino valina dan bukan asid
5’ 3’ glutamik.
5’ 3’ The polypeptide made has one different
amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid.
mRNA normal mRNA rosak
Normal mRNA Faulty mRNA
3. Apabila aras oksigen rendah, molekul

Val hemoglobin abnormal menyebabkan
Protein Glu
sel darah merah menjadi berbentuk
sabit.
Hemoglobin normal Hemoglobin sel sabit When oxygen levels are low, the abnormal
Normal haemoglobin Sickle cell haemoglobin haemoglobin molecules cause the red
(Hbs) blood cells to become sickle - shaped.
4. Sel sabit tidak cekap dalam

mengangkut oksigen dan menyekat
salur darah, mengakibatkan kerosakan
tisu akibat kekurangan oksigen.
The sickle cell is less efficient at carrying
oxygen and blocks blood vessels, resulting
in tissue damage from lack of oxygen.
Sel darah merah normal Sel sabit / Sickle cells
Normal red blood cells
Mutasi gen dan albinisme / Gene mutation and albinism Sindrom cri du chat / Cri du Chat syndrome
• melanin / melanin • pelenyapan / deletion
• mutasi / mutation
• resesif / recessive
Suara tangisan bayi seperti anak kucing ‘miao’.
Mutasi kromosom / Chromosomal mutations The infant’s cry sounds like a kitten mewing.
• struktur; bilangan / structure; number
A) Perubahan dalam struktur kromosom
Change in chromosome structure Individu terlibat mempunyai / The affected individual has
1. Penyelapan / Deletion • Kepala kecil / Small head
terputus; kehilangan / breaks; loss • Wajah muka abnormal (muka seperti bulan’)
2. Penggandaan / Duplication Facial abnormalities (‘moon face’)
penambahan / gain • Terencat akal / Mental retardation
3. Penyongsangan / Inversion B) Perubahan dalam bilangan kromosom
tersongsang / reversed Change in chromosome number.
4. Translokasi / Translocation • kromosom; kromatid; Tak-disjunsi
terputus; tertukar / breaks; exchanged chromosomes; chromatids; Non-disjunction

Tak-disjunsi di meiosis I
Non-disjunction at meiosis I
Tak-disjunsi di meiosis II n+1 n+1 n–1 n–1

n n n+1 Non-disjunction at meiosis II
Gamet Gamet
Gametes n–1 Persenyawaan Gametes
Fertilisation
Persenyawaan
Fertilisation Zigot
Zigot
Zygote Zygote
2n 2n 2n + 1 2n – 1 2n + 1 2n – 1
Sindrom Down / Down syndrome:

• Sindrom Down disebabkan oleh terlebih satu kromosom nombor 21 di sel badan.
Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome number 21 in each body cell.
• Bilangan kromosom = 47 (2n+1) / Number of chromosomes = 47 (2n+1).
Agihan kromosom induk tidak

Bilangan kromosom sama semasa meiosis.
Sel organ seks
Agihan kromosom diploid: 46 (manusia) 46 Uneven distribution of parental
Cell in sex organ
sama di gamet. Diploid number of chromosomes at meiosis.
Chromosomes distributed chromosomes:
equally between the 46 (humans)
gametes Meiosis
Meiosis normal
Normal meiosis
Bilangan haploid Bilangan haploid Gamet 24 22

Haploid number Haploid number Gametes
n = 23 n = 23
Jika persenyawaan
berlaku
If fertilisation occurs
Genotip seperti ini

This genotype
Sel mempunyai 47 kromosom

(3 kromosom 21)
Cell has 47 chromosomes
(3 copies of chromosome 21)
Hasilkan fenotip ini
Results in this phenotype
• Leher pendek / Short neck

• Semasa meiosis, pasangan kromosom 21 gagal terpisah secara normal
• Muka bulat / Distinctive round face
dan kedua kromosom ke sel anak yang sama.
• Mata sepet / Slanted eyes
During meiosis, the pair of chromosome 21 fails to separate normally and both
• Hidung penyek members of the pair go to the same daughter cell.
Flat nose
• Jika gamet yang mempunyai 24 kromosom bergabung dengan gamet
• Lidah terjelir
normal, zigot terhasil akan mempunyai 47 kromosom.
Protruding tongue
If the gamete containing 24 chromosomes fuses with a normal gamete, the resulting
• Terencat akal zygote will have 47 chromosomes.
Mental retardation

Contoh Bilangan kromosom Kromosom terlibat Ciri-ciri

Example No of chromosomes Chromosomes involved Characteristics
• Perempuan / Female
Kekurangan satu
(a) Sindrom Turner 45 • Organ seks tidak matang / Sex organs do not mature
kromosom X.
Turner syndrome (44+X0) • Mandul / Infertile
Has less one X chromosome.
• Mempunyai kecerdasan normal / Most have normal intelligence
• Lelaki / Male
• Mempunyai testis kecil, menghasilkan kurang sperma
(b) Sindrom Klinfelter 47 Lebih satu kromosom X
Have small testes, produce few sperm
Klinefelter syndrome (44+XXY) Has an extra X chromosome
• Mandul / Infertile
• Payudara membesar / Developed breast
• Lelaki / Male
• Biasanya lebih tinggi / Usually taller than average
• Mengalami masalah jerawat yang berterusan
(c) Sindrom Jacob 47 Lebih satu kromosom Y
Suffer from persistent acne
Jacobs syndrome (44 + XYY) Has an extra Y chromosome
• Mengalami masalah pertuturan dan membaca
Have speech and reading problems
• Tidak mandul / Fertile
Mutasi gen melibatkan Perubahan urutan bes

perubahan dalam urutan mengubah kod genetik Protein yang rosak atau
Ciri organisma berubah.
bes gen tertentu. untuk sintesis protein. tiada protein terhasil. Berlaku variasi.
Characteristics of an
A gene mutation involves a Changes in the base A defective protein or no Variation occur.
organism change.
change in the sequence of sequence alter the genetic protein may be produced.
bases of a particular gene. code for protein synthesis.
(a) Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic cells (b) Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes
• sel / cells • semua / every
• diwarisi / inherited • diwarisi / inherited
Gamet
Gametes Mutasi gamet
Gamete mutation
Embrio
Mutasi soma Embryo
Somatic mutation
Kesan tompok Organisma

Patch of affected Organism
area Mutasi di
seluruh badan
Entire body carries
the mutation
Gamet organisma
Gametes of the organism
Tiada gamet Separuh gamet
membawa mutasi membawa mutasi
None of gametes Half of gametes
carry mutation carry mutation
(a) Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic (b) Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes

• Gaya hidup / stress / lifestyle / stress

Praktis SPM 12 • Budaya / culture
(c) Faktor / Factors:
Soalan Objektif Faktor persekitaran contohnya: cahaya, nutrien, air
Environmental factors such as sunlight, nutrient, water
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. D Penerangan / Explanation:
7. D 8. D 9. D 10. C 11. C Buah pisang lebih besar menerima lebih banyak nutrien /
cahaya matahari berbanding dengan buah pisang lebih
Soalan Struktur kecil yang mendapat kurang nutrien / cahaya matahari
The bigger banana fruits receive more nutrients / sunlight compared
Bahagian A to the smaller banana fruits which receive less nutrients / sunlight
1. (a) (i) Ketinggian : Variasi selanjar / Height : Continuous variation 2. (a) (i) Mutasi kromosom / pelenyapan gen
Chromosomal mutation / gene deletion
Kumpulan darah : Variasi tak selanjar
Blood group: Discontinuous variation
(ii) • Pendedahan kepada bahan radioaktif
Exposure to radioactive substances
(ii)
• Pendedahan kepada sinar-X / sinar gamma / sinaran
Variasi selanjar Variasi tak selanjar ultraviolet
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Exposure to X-ray / gamma ray / ultraviolet light
1. Tunjukkan perbezaan tidak 1. Tunjukkan perbezaan yang • Bahan kimia karsinogenik / carcinogenic chemicals
ketara ketara (b) Punca: Mutasi gen / Cause: Gene mutation
Show not distinctive differences Show distinctive differences
Penerangan / Explanation:
2. Mempunyai ciri perantaraan 2. Tiada ciri perantaraan • Perubahan bes bernitrogen di DNA
antara individu No intermediates Changes of nitrogenous base in DNA.
Has intermediates between the • Perubahan urutan asid amino untuk sintesis protein
individuals Changes in the sequence of amino acids for protein synthesis
3. Ciri-ciri adalah kuantitatif – 3. Ciri-ciri adalah kualitatif – • Protein cacat terbentuk / Defective protein formed
boleh diukur tidak dapat diukur (c) 1. Mutasi kromosom / mutasi gen mengubah urutan DNA /
The characteristics are The characteristics are qualitative struktur kromosom atau bilangan kromosom
quantitative – can be measured – cannot be measured Chromosome / gene mutation changes DNA sequence /
chromosome structure or number
4. Dipengaruh oleh faktor 2. Ini mewujudkan variasi DNA baru / alel baru
4. Dipengaruh oleh faktor
persekitaran dan genetik This creates new DNA variation / new alleles
genetik
Influenced by environmental and 3. Alel baru memberi kombinasi alel baru
Influenced by genetic factor
genetic factors New alleles create different combinations of alleles
4. Gen yang mengalami mutasi menghasilkan protein
5. Dikawal oleh pelbagai gen 5. Dikawal oleh satu gen berlainan dan mengakibatkan ciri / genotip yang
Controlled by multiple genes Controlled by a single gene berbeza
The mutated gene will be expressed differently and lead to
different characteristics / genotypes
6. Lengkung taburan normal 6. Lengkung taburan diskrit
berbentuk lonceng berbentuk bar berasingan
Normal distribution bell-shaped Discrete distribution separate Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 12
curve bar chart
1. C 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. A
(b) • Diet / Tabiat makan / Diet / Eating habit
• Penyakit / disease 6. D 7. A 8. A 9. D 10. A

13
Bab
Jawapan
Bab Teknologi Genetik
13 Genetic Technology
Kejuruteraan genetik
13.1 Genetic Engineering
Kejuruteraan Genetik dan organisma terubahsuai genetik (GMO)

Genetic Engineering and Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
Proses manipulasi urutan DNA organisma untuk membentuk kombinasi gen baharu dengan trait baharu.
The manipulation of DNA sequences in organisms to produce new combination of genes with new traits.
Secara / By
Gen dari satu spesies dipindahkan ke spesies lain melalui teknologi

Suatu gen yang diubah suai dimasukkan semula ke dalam individu
DNA rekombinan untuk menghasilkan organisma transgenik.
spesies yang sama.
A gene from one species may be transferred to another via recombinant
A gene may be altered and reinserted into an individual of the same species.
DNA technology to produce a transgenic organism.
Menghasilkan
Creates
Organisma terubahsuai genetik (GMO)

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
GMO ialah organisma di mana maklumat genetik telah diubah secara bukan semula jadi.
GMO is an organism of which genetic information has been changed in a way that does not occur naturally by mating.
(a) Mikroorganisms GM
(c) Haiwan GM
GM microorganisms GM animals
Contoh: Bakteria, yis
Examples: Bacteria, yeast Contoh: Ikan salmon, lembu, kambing
Examples: Salmon, cow, goat
(b) Tumbuhan GM
GM plants
Contoh: Padi, kelapa sawit, kapas, nenas, jagung, kacang soya dan tomato
Examples: Rice, oil palm, cotton, pineapple, corn, soybean and tomato

Teknik Asas Kejuruteraan Genetik 4. • membahagi / divides

The Basic Technique of Genetic Engineering • protein / protein
1. Memotong / Cutting Aplikasi Kejuruteraan Genetik / The Application of Genetic Engineering
• Enzim / enzyme
• makanan; insulin / food; insulin
2. • vektor / vector
• DNA ligase / DNA ligase A) Penghasilan Makanan Terubahsuai Genetik
Production of Genetically Modified Food (GMF)
3. perumah / host
• bereplikasi / replicate • makanan / food
Susu yang dihasilkan oleh lembu GM Kambing GM menghasilkan faktor Beras GM dengan gen dafodil dapat
mengandungi protein manusia yang sesuai pembeku darah dalam susu untuk pesakit menghasilkan b-karoten yang akan ditukar
untuk bayi pramatang. hemofilia. kepada vitamin A dalam manusia.
Powdered milk from GM cows contains a human GM goats produce clotting factor in their milk for GM rice with daffodil genes can produce b-carotene
protein which is good for premature babies. haemophiliacs. which converted to vitamin A in humans.
Tomato GM boleh disimpan lebih lama Kacang soya GM dengan gen rintang racun Salmon GM dengan gen pengawal hormon
kerana gen yang menyebabkan pelembutan perosak membolehkan petani menyembur pertumbuhan dapat membesar ke saiz
tomato telah disingkir. ladang untuk mematikan rumpai dan bukan pasaran dalam jangka masa yang lebih
GM tomatoes can last longer because a gene pokok kacang soya. singkat.
causing the softening of tomatoes is removed. GM soybeans with a herbicide resistance gene GM salmon with growth hormone regulating genes
allow farmers spray fields and kill weeds, not can grows to market sizes in significantly less time.
soybean plants.
B) Penghasilan Insulin / The Production of Insulin
Pada masa dahulu / In the past Kejuruteraan genetik / Genetic engineering
• Insulin haiwan (lembu dan babi) disuntik pada pesakit • Insulin manusia boleh dihasilkan oleh bakteria terubahsuai
diabetes. genetik (E. coli).
Animal (cows and pigs) insulin was injected into patients to control Human insulin can be produced by genetically modified bacteria (E.
diabetes. coli).
• Insulin haiwan adalah / Animal insulin was: • Insulin GM terhasil adalah / The GM insulin produced is:
– mahal – Lebih murah dan tulen
Expensive Cheaper and purer
– Pembekalan terhad – Terdapat dalam kuantiti yang banyak
Available in large quantities
Its supply was limited
– Adalah sama secara kimia dengan insulin manusia.
– Struktur kimia adalah berbeza daripada insulin manusia. Chemically the same as human insulin.
The chemical structure is slightly different from human insulin. – boleh diterima oleh orang ramai yang mempunyai
– Sebilangan pesakit diabetes alergi erhadap protein haiwan kepercayaan agama yang pelbagai
Some diabetics were allergic to the animal forms Acceptable to people with a range of religious beliefs

Sel manusia yang membawa gen insulin. Sel E.coli dengan plasmid
Human cell carrying the insulin gene E. coli cell with plasmid
Gen insulin
Insulin gene
Plasmid 2. Dapatkan plasmid dari
Plasmid bakteria E. coli.
1. Dapatkan fragmen DNA yang Obtain a plasmid from E. coli
mengandungi gen insulin bacterium
Obtain a DNA fragment containing
the insulin gene.
Plasmid
Plasmid
Gen insulin
Insulin gene
3. Potong fragmen DNA dan plasmid dengan menggunakan enzim pembatasan yang
sama (yang berfungsi seperti gunting).
Cut the DNA fragment and the plasmid with the same restriction enzyme (works like a pair of
scissors).
Plasmid terbuka
Open plasmid
4. Gen insulin disisipkan ke dalam plasmid dan

disambungkan dengan menggunakan DNA
Plasmid
Plasmid rekombinan
rekombinan
ligase.
Recombinant
Recombinant plasmid
plasmid
The insulin gene is inserted into plasmid and joins
together using DNA ligase.
5. Plasmid rekombinan dimasukkan ke dalam sel

bakteria.
The recombinant plasmids can be introduced into the
bacterial cells.
6. Apabila E. coli mengganda, banyak gen

insulin terhasil. Sejumlah besar insulin Insulin
boleh dihasilkan melalui sintesis protein. Insulin
As the E. coli multiplies, copies of the insulin gene
are also produced. Large amounts of insulin are
made by protein synthesis.
Insulin
7. Insulin diekstrak dan ditulenkan untuk digunakan. Insulin
The insulin is extracted and purified for use.

(d) Penghasilan tumbuhan bertoleransi herbisid / serangga perosak

Kebaikan dan Keburukan Penghasilan GMO dan GMF
The Advantages and Disadvantages of GMOs and GMF Productions Production of insect / herbicide tolerant plants
(e) Bioinformatik / Bioinformatics
(f) Penghasilan metabolit mikrob
Kebaikan penghasilan Keburukan penghasilan Production of microbial metabolites
GMO dan GMF GMO dan GMF (g) Nanobioteknologi / Nanobiotechnology
Advantages of Disadvantages of
GMO and GMF productions GMO and GMF production Terapi gen / Gene therapy
genetik / genetic
1. hasil pertanian / crop yields 1. kesihatan / health
• kesihatan / health Prinsip asas / Basic principle
• antibiotik; patogen • normal / normal
antibiotic; pathogens • protein / protein
• gejala / symptoms
2. persekitaran / environment
2. nutrisi / nutritional Penyakit genetik akibat mutasi gen tunggal:
• ekologi / ecological
Genetic diseases caused by mutations in a single gene:
3. rintangan / resistance 3. bersaing / compete 1. Anaemia / anaemia
4. alergi / allergy 4. etika / Ethical 2. fibrosis / fibrosis
3. Huntington / Huntington
5. perisa / flavour
4. SCID
6. pembaziran; kos Pesakit penyakit genetik / Patient with genetic disease
wastage; cost
1. sumsum tulang / bone marrow
2. Virus / viruses
3. normal / normal
Bioteknologi
13.2 Biotechnology
Pemprofilan DNA / DNA profiling
Pemprofilan DNA; DNA / DNA profiling; DNA
Aplikasi Pemprofilan DNA / Application of DNA profiling
Bioteknologi 1. forensik / forensic
Biotechnology
2. ibu bapa / parentage
Bioteknologi / Biotechnology 3. mangsa / victims
organisma; biologi; produk / organisms; biological; products 4. genetik / genetic
Bidang bioteknologi / Fields of biotechnology 5. penderma / donors
(a) Bioteknologi hijau / Green biotechnology Bagaimana pemprofilan DNA berfungsi?
- Pertanian / Agriculture How does DNA profiling work?
(b) Bioteknologi perang / Brown technology 1. darah; kulit; rambut / blood; skin; hair
- Zon kering & gurun / Arid zone & desert – +
–
(c) Bioteknologi emas / Gold biotechnology +
+ +
–
– +
- Bioteknologi nano, bioinformatik +
+
–+
–
Bioinformatics, nano biotechnology – – – + –
–+ + – –
+ +
(d) Bioteknologi hitam / Dark biotechnology +
–
– – – +
– +
- Bioterorisme & senjata biologi –
+ –
Bioterrorism & biological weapons
Sel kulit / Skin cells
(e) Bioteknologi putih / White technology
- Industri penghasilan / Industrial production 2. DNA / DNA
(f) Bioteknologi merah / Red technology
- Perubatan & kesihatan manusia / Medicine & human health
(g) Bioteknologi biru / Blue technology
- Penggunaan sumber marin / Use of marine resources
(h) Bioteknologi kelabu / Grey technology
- Alam sekitar , bioremediasi / Environmental, bioremediation
(i) Bioteknologi ungu / Violet technology
- Undang-undang, etika & falsafah / Law, ethics & philosophy
(j) Bioteknologi kuning / Yellow technology
- Penghasilan makanan & pemakanan Sampel DNA
DNA sample
Food production & nutrition
Aplikasi bioteknologi dalam kehidupan 3. DNA; enzim / DNA; enzyme
Applications of biotechnology in life
(a) Terapi gen / Gene therapy
(b) Pembersihan tumpahan minyak / Cleaning of oil spills
(c) Pemprofilan DNA / DNA profiling
DNA


Bioinformatik / Bioinformatics
komputer; perisian; data / computer; software; data
(a) DNA / DNA
(b) gen / genes
(c) protein / proteins
Fragmen DNA (d) protein / proteins
DNA fragments
Kepentingan bioteknologi dalam kehidupan
The importance of biotechnology in life
(a) kesihatan / health
- nutrien / nutrients
4. elektroforesis / electrophoresis (b) pertanian / agriculture
- kualiti / quality
Fragmen DNA pada permulaan DNA (c) perubatan / medicine
Fragments at start - penyakit / diseases
(d) haiwan / animals
– - transgenik / transgenic
Fragmen besar (e) tumbuhan / plants
Fragmen bergerak dengan - ciri-ciri / characteristics
DNA negatif perlahan (f) alam sekitar / environment
bergerak Large fragments move
- pencemaran / pollution
ke hujung slowly
positif Fragmen kecil
Negative DNA
fragments
bergerak pantas
melalui gel
Praktis SPM 13
move to Small fragments move
positive end quickly through gel Soalan Objektif
1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D
+ 6. C 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. B
5. saiz / size Soalan Struktur
Kegunaan cap jari DNA sebagai bahan bukti jenayah Bahagian A

Uses of DNA fingerprinting as criminal evidence
suspek 1 / suspect 1 1. (a) 1. Terminal B / Terminal B
Perkembangan tumbuhan GM bertolenrasi serangga perosak 2. DNA adalah molekul bercas negatif
Developing insect-resistant GM plants DNA is a negatively charged molecule.
toksin Bt / Bt toxin 3. Dari terminal negatif A, ia tertarik ke terminal positif B
It is attracted to the positive terminal B from the negative
Bacillius thiurengensis membawa gen toksin Bt
terminal A.
Bacillius thiurengensis carrying the gene for Bt toxin
(b) Jalur M / Band M.
1. Berbanding dengan jalur N, jalur M lebih mendekati
titik permulaan
Compared to band N, band M is near to the starting point
Gen toksin Bt 2. Ini menunjukkan bahawa fragmen DNA lebih besar
Gene for Bt toxin bergerak dengan lebih perlahan berbanding jalur N
This indicated that it contains larger DNA fragments which
move slower than those in band N.
(c) • Q
• Jalur Q adalah sama dengan En. Abu atau Pn. Siti
Gen toksin Bt
Gene for Bt toxin The bands of Q are either common to those of En. Abu or
those of Pn. Siti
Plasmid (d) • Separuh daripada bahan genetik seseorang individu
Plasmid berasal daripada bapa
Plasmid rekombinan Half of the genetic material of an individual comes from the
father
Recombinant plasmid
• Dan separuh lagi daripada ibu
And the other half from the mother.
1. toksin Bt; enzim / Bt toxin; enzyme 2. (a) 1. Kacukan selektif melibatkan kacukan pelbagai variasi
2. toksin Bt; plasmid / Bt toxin; plasmid spesies yang sama atau spesies terdekat
Selective breeding involves crossing different varieties of the
3. Plasmid / plasmid same species or different species of closely related species
4. plasmid; toksin Bt / plasmid; Bt toxin 2. Gen yang terlibat dalam menghasilkan b-karoten tidak
terdapat di dalam pokok yang akan dikacuk dengan
6. toksin Bt / Bt toxin
padi
The genes involved in producing b-carotene were not in a plant
that would cross breed with rice
Sel jagung
Corn cell

(b) 1. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap racun (c) 1. Pertambahan kuantiti hasil makanan / hasil pertanian
rumpai Increase quantity of food produced / crop yields
Crop plants modified to be resistant to herbicides 2. Pertambahan kualiti hasil makanan / nilai pemakanan /
• Untuk mengurangkan persaingan dengan rumpai perisa dan tekstur makanan
To reduce competition with weeds Improved quality of food produced / nutritional value / flavour
2. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap serangga and texture of food
perosak 3. Peningkatan rintangan terhadap perosak / mengurangkan
Crop plants modified to be resistant to insect pests pembaziran makanan akibat dimakan perosak
• Untuk meningkatkan hasil tanaman Increased resistance to pests / reduce wastage of food to pests
To increase crop yield 4. Penyingkiran ciri penyebab alergi dalam makanan
3. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk menghasilkan protein bagi Elimination of allergy-causing properties of food
kegunaan perubatan
Plants modified to produce proteins use in medicine
• Untuk mengelakkan masalah pencemaran oleh protein Jawapan Praktis Ekstra SPM 13
haiwan
To avoid any problem of contamination by animal proteins
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. C
4. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk melambatkan kematangan
buah 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. C
Plants modified to delay ripening of fruits
• Kurangkan pembaziran makanan
There is less wastage of food

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1

Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan Tisu Meristem dan Pertumbuhan

Jenis Tisu Tumbuhan dan Fungsi Utama

Daun Tisu vaskular

Tisu asas (ii) Kambium gabus

Tisu epidermis (iii) Kambium vaskular

(iv) Meristem apeks akar

Zon pertumbuhan sel

(a) Tisu parenkima / Parenchyma tissues (a) Zon pembahagian sel

• seragam, lignin / uniformly, lignin Floem

(c) Tisu kolenkima / collenchyma tissues Hujung akar

• vakuol besar / large vacuoles

• air, garam mineral / water, minerals salts Jidal akar

J1 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J2

(a) batang, akar / stems, roots Graf / Graph:

J3 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

(a) cahaya matahari / sunlight

Struktur Dalaman Lamina Daun

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J4

Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular

2. • Untuk mengurangkan kehilangan air secara transpirasi

J5 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

(a) Keamatan Cahaya / Light Intensity

Pada keamatan cahaya tinggi tertentu, kadar transpirasi menjadi

Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat,

(b) Suhu / Temperature

The rate of transpiration increases when temperature increases.

(c) Pergerakan udara / Air movement

Angin bertiup menyingkirkan wap air berdekatan stoma. Ini

(d) Kelembapan relatif udara / Relatif air humidity

Kelembapan relatif udara persekitaran rendah,

Kelembapan relatif udara yang tinggi apabila kelembapan relatif udara

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J6

(b) Stroma / Stroma

Karoten (oren) / Carotene (orange)

Penyesuaian Struktur Dalaman Daun dengan

Struktur Kloroplas 1. cahaya; klorofil; karbon dioksida; glukosa

J7 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

3. oksigen; air / oxygen; water

(b) Suhu / Temperature

Pada suhu yang tinggi, enzim tenyahasli,

Kadar fotosintesis bertambah dengan peningkatan suhu.

(c) Kepekatan karbon dioksida / Concentration of carbon dioxide

Pada permulaan, kadar

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J8

Eksperimen 2.3 Kesan Perubahan Keamatan Cahaya dan Warna

Average number of bubbles / minute

biru; merah / Blue; red

biru; merah / Blue; red

• keamatan cahaya / light intensity

Fotosintesis Respirasi sel

Photosynthesis Cellular respiration

Anabolisme / Anabolism Katabolisme / Catabolism

Kloroplas / Chloroplast Mitokondrion / Mitochondrion

klorofil / chlorophyll semua sel / all cells

1. Karbon dioksida 1. Glukosa

J9 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

© Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. J10

J11 © Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn. Bhd.

Akar eudikot / Eudicot root

Akar bercabang dan mempunyai banyak akar

Menambah luas permukaan untuk

Sistem akar tunjang

(c) • isang yang telah masak akan membebaskan