UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES FOUNDATION

Cebu City

GRADUATE SCHOOL

Name: Joevan W. Alcala

COURSE CODE: EDUC 200
COURSE TITLE: PHILOSOPHICAL, LEGAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION
Submitted to: Carmelita A. Alcala Ed. D
Instructor

MIDTERM:

1. IN TABULAR FORM, TRACE THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION AND SIGNIFICANT

ACHIEVEMENTS AND ITS IMPACT TO THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

Historical Significant Achievements Impact to present

Developments educational system
Jewish a. synagogues – temple schools Introduction of values and
Education b.Bible and the Talmud religious education
c. Rabbis – teacher/priests
Chinese Analects for Confucius Adaptation of Confucius
Education 1. Analects for Confucius teachings in academics
2. Civil Service Examination (Han Dynasty 206 BC) Eligibility Exams for
qualification in government
offices
Egyptian practical and empirical education Development of literature
Education Hieroglyphics writings through the use of
Papyrus paper
Mathematics – value of pi =3.16 Greater emphasis on the study
Engineering and Architecture - pyramids, dams, of the aforementioned
dikes and palaces achievements which pave the
Geometry – land measuring and surveying way for the creation of
Astronomy – position of stars and other heavenly scientific inventions and
bodies to determine tides, season, floods, Calendars wonderful innovations that
composed of 24 hours a day-7 days a week-months of contributed to the
30 days with 365 days a year. development of society.
Medicine – explored human anatomy, mummification
of the dead.
Greek Education - liberal and democratic education Gave rise to rational
1. Olympic games individuals to become more
2. mythology functional in the society.
3. democracy Study of literature was given
4. philosophy importance.
Emphasis on athletic
tournaments.
System of governance was
introduce.

Roman Pragmatic and progressive Education Formal Schooling became a

Education a. Latin Language priority which gave rise to
b. The Laws of the Twelve Tables increasing number of
c. The Roman Senate educational institutions both
The Roman Schools in private and public
1. Elementary – School of the litterator or Ludi
Magister
2. Secondary - School of the Grammaticus or
Literatus
3. Higher Education – rhetorical schools

Influences of Parable His teachings have become the

Jesus Christ Conversational Method bases of religious principles
Proverbial or Gnomic Method which are practiced today.
EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION The rise of sectarian schools
a. Catechumenal – school for new converts that can be traced with a
b. Catechetical – school for leadership training similarity to early Christian
c. Cathedral/Episcopalian – school for the clergy education.

Medieval Monasticism, Scholasticism, Medieval University, Religious Vocations were

Movements in Chivalric Education, Guild System, established, Colleges and
Education Universities became prevalent

Islamic Established the most complete curricula from Academic curriculum was
Influences elementary to university. enhanced.
Hindu-arabic numerals Number systems in math
Advanced learning in Pharmacy, surgery and became more systematic.
medicine for the preservation of life. Medical studies were
Taught geography using globes developed and enhanced
Invented the pendulum clock, discovered the nitric further.
acid and sulfuric acid. Navigation and geographical
Used compass, gunpowder studies became more accurate
Cultivated rice, silkworm, sugar and cotton and precise
Determined the height of the atmosphere, weight of Agriculture, physics, scientific
the air and specific gravity of bodies. studies notably flourished and
became a means for improving
people’s lives.

2. CRITICIZE THE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES. MENTION IT’S NEGATIVE AND

POSITIVE EFFECTS.
Realism
Realism is the belief that reality exists independently of observers. There is an emphasis on
freedom of the mind and spirit but on the other hand it can be confused with Idealism. Realism in the
classroom focuses on the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic. Classroom environment is highly
structured and organized. Utilization of standardized testing is done in a realist class. In realism,
education should be fun and interesting for the student. Education should prepare students for life in
the real world.
The disadvantage of Realism is that it greatly stresses upon the physical world. Realism accepts
real needs and real feelings only. It doesn’t believe in imagination and sentiments. Realism emphasizes
on scientific subjects and neglects art and literature. This creates an imbalanced curriculum. Aside from
that it doesn’t give any importance to ideals and values. It fails to answer illusion and faulty
knowledge.
Constructivism
 Constructivism stresses the importance in the discovery of knowledge rather than the learning.
In a constructivist class, learners are actively involved in the class room. However, if false information
is given out, no one learns. There are some advantages to constructivism teaching. This method of
teaching is effective for students who learn better in a hands-on environment and helps students to
better relate the information learned in the classroom to their lives. The constructivism curriculum also
caters to the students' prior knowledge, encourages teachers to spend more time on the students'
favorite topics and allows teachers to focus on important and relevant information. In a constructivism
classroom, students often work in groups. This helps students learn social skills, support each other's
learning process and value each other's opinion and input.
There are also some disadvantages to constructivism teaching. The training necessary for
constructive teaching is extensive and often requires costly long-term professional development. This
may be unreasonable for school budgets as well as disruptive to the students' learning. With an average
number of students in one classroom, teachers are unable to customize the curriculum to each student,
as their prior knowledge will vary. The constructivism curriculum also eliminates standardized testing
and grades. This eliminates grade-centered goals and rewards as well as the comparisons of student
statewide or district-specific progress.

Essentialism
Essentialism is based firmly on a pass/fail system of education. Students must master grade or
course content before being promoted to the next level. Essentialist educators place emphasis on
standardized test scores as a means of determining mastery. Bagley himself was a proponent of failing
students when they could not meet the accepted grade or test score standards. He felt that democracy
required all students to meet the same level of achievement. In an essentialist classroom, students of
various ages and abilities would be taught the same curriculum. Students who have disabilities or
limited English proficiency are taught with the same techniques and materials. Essentialists believe it is
unfair to give students a different or less rigorous education based on their special circumstances.
In an essentialist classroom, the teacher must be highly knowledgeable in the academic content.
In the elementary grades, the content areas are primarily math, writing and reading. In secondary
education, literature, natural science, math, language and history make up the core curriculum. The
arts and social sciences -- or "soft sciences" -- are not considered important in an essentialist education,
except as a means for transmitting American cultural values. Student interests are not considered in an
essentialist classroom. Bagley believed that young people often develop interests in subjects they did
not like at first. He felt it was the duty of teachers to expose students to important subjects, and
students’ interests would eventually follow.
The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational
essentialism. The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary.
Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning; effective teaching cannot take place
in a loud and disorganized environment. It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in the
classroom. The teacher must interpret essentials of the learning process, take the leadership position
and set the tone of the classroom. These needs require an educator who is academically well-qualified
with an appreciation for learning and development. The teacher must control the students with
distributions of rewards and penalties.
A disadvantage of Essentialism is that it is “undemocratic in its overemphasis on the place of
adults and the need for conservation of the culture”. Since it mainly follows routines and has no
emphasis on the student’s interest, it may also cause a cultural delay between the student and society.

Perennialism
Perennialism just like essentialism, places a great emphasis on the roles teachers play in
teaching and learning. Perennialists argue that teachers are more knowledgeable than students who are
incompletely formed human beings. Therefore, teachers should assume the authority and command in
the classroom. In addition, Hutchins (1936), a strong advocate of perennialism, argued that education
implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. Knowledge is truth. Truth is everywhere the same.
Hence, education should be everywhere the same. Consequently, all students are supposed to pursue
the same curriculum regardless of individual differences.
 The disadvantage of this is that it is limited by the reliance on great books but the education
should address the changing context of the society and should make an individual to adjust in the
same, but it can’t address the learner’s desires, interests and the present needs of an individual.
Students are obliged to follow the limited, already set things. They are not allowed to choose the
subject they are interested in and whatever their interest is, so it limits their creativity and lacks
individual initiations, so makes individual passive. It cannot account for individual learning
differences because it focuses on the same education all around the world neglecting that every
individual is different from one to another. The main disadvantage of this view is it cannot address the
learner’s differences and their changing demands of the changing context; the things suitable in the
past may not be the same now.
This philosophy is teacher centered.Aside from that, it is a very conservative and inflexible
philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-
especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that
goodness is found in rational thinking.As a result, schools exist to teach reason and God's will.
Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills. Although it is strong on methods
of learning for students, discipline equity of education, high standard and common base of knowledge
but it is weak on individual learning, initiation, only limited on great books and creativity.

Progressivism
Progressivism, in direct contrast to essentialism and perennialism, advocates a student-centered
education. It is based on John Dewey’s (1916) theory of education, which explores the relationship
between democracy and education. Dewey Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation
believed that democracy is a way of life. In a democratic society, people should work cooperatively to
solve the problems and schools are responsible for equipping students with the problem-solving
ability. Progressivists argue that schools are miniature societies and should focus on real-life problems
students face in school or will face in the future. Therefore, education should revolve around authentic
activity in a social setting and cater to student needs.
Not everyone admired and adopted Progressive practices. Progressive education could easily
exhaust teachers who took its tenets seriously. For instance, the constraints of teaching 150 students in a
high school without plentiful supplemental materials made it hard to be a facilitator of projects suited
to the individual needs and interests of each student.
The ultimate purpose of the broader curriculum, gentler pedagogy, and scientific outlook was a
point of dispute among Progressives. One prominent faction boldly called for the "reconstruction" of
American society to empower the disenfranchised, strengthen government, and regulate corporations.
On the political left, the Reconstructionist embraced the New Deal reforms of the 1930s, and some
leaders even admired socialist and communist regimes. In contrast, a larger faction rallied under the
banners of "efficiency" and "adjustment." The goal of education was to equip youth to fit, not challenge,
society as it was. A useful education prepared a graduate to earn a living, vote intelligently, shop
wisely, and in other ways conform to the demands of adult life. What both factions shared was the
conviction that schooling mattered enormously and that educators held the future of the race in their
hands.
In addition to internal schisms, Progressives encountered stinging criticisms of their ideas.
Whenever their praise of the goodness of children sounded too rapturous, they were mocked as
sentimental and soft, willing to coddle rather than discipline the young. If their political preferences
drifted too far to the left, they were condemned as subversive and anti-American. Should their
innovations require higher tax rates, frugal voters might spurn Progressive education as superfluous
"fads and frills." Above all, critics doubted if Progressive schools were academically rigorous. Students
who enjoyed school and felt good about themselves might never learn chemistry and calculus, many
parents feared. Those anxieties intensified as college enrollment became, after World War II, not just a
wish but an expectation for middle-class youth. Progressivism might be appropriate in elementary
schools, but there were enduring doubts that it would prepare a talented teenager for admission to and
success in a first-rate college.

Reconstructionism
 Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and
a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was
the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized
the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to
create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974)
recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome
domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits
information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the
child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and
inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature),
inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the
world into the classroom are also strategies.
Changing the traditional classroom to one based on the ideas of social reconstruction is not
without its flaws and potential obstacles. The first roadblock to social reconstruction is the obligation of
teachers to help students master specific standardized content. Social reconstruction in its purest form
asks teachers to forget about content and how they traditionally view education. It also requires more
time to be spent on each unit. Tackling social reform is not a one day or even one week lesson. Students
are asked to think critically and then participate in the learning. This cannot happen effectively with an
extensive laundry list of standards to cover. For this reason, the area of social studies is still the safest
avenue for a social reconstruction curriculum. As accountability and testing change however, this
might change as well. Unfortunately, this type of curriculum requires administration and those in
charge of schools to put a lot of trust in teachers. Our current system of standards and high-stakes
testing is not a system based on trust of teachers at all.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding social reconstruction education. This is another
obstacle that teachers may face when trying to implement this type of instruction in their classroom.
This particular form of curriculum requires teachers to bring controversy and a discussion of conflict
into each lesson. Themes of social reform are generally very political and therefore can stir controversy
easily. In terms of quality education, this may not be a bad thing in itself. Diane Ravitch (2011) agrees
curriculum should “engage vigorously in discussion of controversial topics.” However, with
controversy comes resistance. Community and parent support in a child’s education is undoubtedly
important.
Considering this well-known assumption, do teachers have the right or should they teach social
reform if the change the students advocate for is in opposition to the views of their home environment?
This type of education unfortunately will sometimes walk a fine line between important social change
and decreasing family and community support. Without a solid ethics guideline in which everyone can
agree, there will always be some resistance. We experience dominance and oppression today because
society as a whole has allowed it. For this reason, social reform education would be in direct opposition
to what the majority has put in place.

Existentialism
Firstly, the underlying notion about this ideology needs to be explained. Existence is
consciousness, while essence is genetic and environmental makeup. In traditional western philosophy,
essence always precedes existence. We are defined by our genetic and environmental characteristics;
they determine our behavior. Generally shared genetic and environmental characteristics across the
species are typically termed “human nature”. Existentialism rejects the existence of a common human
nature by proposing that existence comes before essence, meaning that our consciousness has the
opportunity to determine how we feel about the world around us independent of our basic genetic and
environmental characteristics.
There are certain limitations to this that existentialists recognize a person cannot by force of
consciousness wish for different genetic characteristics or environmental background. One cannot
simply will oneself into a bird or will an abusive childhood away. What the existentialists do propose,
however, is that since one’s consciousness comes first, one can choose how to respond to or feel about
one’s genetic background or environmental characteristics, both historically and in the present
moment. Taken together, genetics and environment are typically referred to by existentialism as
“facticity”, the objective facts about the external world that the consciousness can respond to in a
variety of ways. Importantly, because under existentialism the consciousness has the opportunity to
choose how to respond, there can be no determinism and consequently no prediction of human
behavior based on general principles. It also means that people have personal responsibility for
everything that they do and are autonomous individuals, a very popular and comforting belief.
The key problem with this is that if the consciousness, the thing deciding how to respond to
facticity, is not itself made up of facticity–of genetic and environmental background and structuring–
what is it? Existentialism proposes that existence comes first, but how can a consciousness exist
produced from no source with a fundamental facticity? Furthermore, we know scientifically that
consciousness is produced by a physical implement–the brain. If you damage a person’s brain, the level
of consciousness will decline. Imagine, for example, that a person is confronted with a given situation
and asked how to respond to that situation–in other words, how that person’s consciousness will
respond to the facticity. The answer in which the person would likely give is very different if, prior to
asking the question, I removed a portion of the person’s brain known to handle say, critical thinking.
What this means is that existence cannot precede essence–in order to have consciousness, one must
have a functional brain, and the facticity of that brain–its genetic characteristics and environmental
influences, will give one a nature that will limit one’s scope of response to a given situation or stimulus.
It is as if one attempts to evaluate the properties of a metal using a lens made of the very same
metal–one cannot know what impact the lens is having on the analysis and on the data, but one thing is
certain, and that is that, unless the metal is absolutely perfect for use in lenses, the data is going to be
both inaccurate and useless.This is not to say that a person cannot choose to view a situation differently
in accordance with existentialist teaching, but it does mean that the extent to which a person can view a
situation differently or take personal responsibility for behavior is dependent upon that given person’s
nature. In other words, ability to, from time to time transcend one’s nature must, inevitably, come from
a nature that permits occasional self-transcendence. Existentialism is not metaphysical truth, but people
can be of a nature such that they are inclined to ethically aspire to it.
This has grave implications. Because existentialism and ethic of personal responsibility appeal
to some people due to their nature, those people embrace existentialism and personal responsibility
and expect others to do so. Their existentialism by definition precludes them from recognizing or
acknowledging that non-existentialists are not of a nature such that they can embrace or practice
existentialism. This leads to unrealistic expectations on the part of existentialists. Their own seeming
transcendence of their nature is in fact an expression of their nature, but they nonetheless expect other
people to be able to do the very same thing despite lacking natures favorable to self-transcendence. The
typical existentialist response to the existence of these inherently non-existentialist individuals is one of
condemnation–their unwillingness to take personal responsibility is deemed an intellectual or moral
failing, when in fact it is a consequence of their nature, as immutable as the existentialist’s own ability
to decide to see a situation or a fact in a different light. A person inclined to self-transcendence is every
bit as locked into that behavior as a person who is disinclined is locked into disinclination.
What is the result? The widespread belief by those with the inherent natural psychological
ability to overcome difficult upbringings or unfavorable genetic backgrounds that those who don’t
have failed to take responsibility and are themselves deficient. This leads to a lack of sympathy and a
lack of compassion, and our political policies reflect the dominance of the existentialist ideology. Those
who are poor are assumed to be lacking in virtue or initiative due to incompetence, immorality, or
irresponsibility rather than a nature and upbringing that not only makes success difficult, but makes
choosing to transcend said nature and upbringing difficult, if not biologically and psychologically
impossible.
 This existentialist belief that denies nature altogether either denies neuroscience or asserts that
consciousness comes from something immaterial or requires that our brains act independently of their
own structure. In either case, it is extremely unreasonable, and leads to equally unreasonable
consequential beliefs that require the impossible from one’s fellow man. It is self-delusive and a
philosophical dead end. It leads to a total misunderstanding of the nature of man and of man’s
possibilities. It would be wise to put it aside and resume the age old discussion of what elements in
man’s nature are most critical in understanding what man’s limits are and how man can best organize
societies and projects in consequence of and in accordance with those limits. It is no more sensible to
reject man’s behavioral limits than it is to reject man’s inability to fly or subsist underwater. Better to
recognize those limits and devise tools and structures that help us to surmount them than to jump off
of cliffs and hope to will ourselves to survive the splat.

3. WRITE AN ESSAY ON THE EDUCATION IN THE NEW SOCIETY. RELATE IT TO THE

PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

Education increasingly interpenetrates virtually every aspect of modern life. Vertically, more
and more people are spending longer periods of their lives in school of various sorts. Schooling is also
growing horizontally—as it increasingly structures where people live, who they marry, and how they
raise their children—among other domains.
Firstly, education is growing metaphorically, providing cognitive templates for organizing
arenas of social life that was previously non-schooled. These shifts have had consequences for our
society, politics, and even notions of self. These themes were explored in a number of classic works in
the 1960s and 1970s when the shift to a knowledge economy first became apparent, but they have not
been revisited over the past 40 years.
Changes in our educational system are inevitable. In order to prepare our young learners for
this new world we need to modify certain aspects as to the way in which we educate them. In the 21st
century, a curriculum must be crafted in such a way that will help students connect with the world and
understand the critical issues that our world faces.
Schools in the 21st century will become nerve centers, a place for teachers and students to
connect with those around them and their community. Teachers in this new environment will have
fewer instructors and more orchestrators of information, giving children the ability to turn knowledge
into wisdom.
In order to educate in the 21st century, teachers and administrators need to cultivate and
maintain the student's interest in the material by showing how this knowledge applies in the real
world. They must also try to increase their student's curiosity, which will help them become lifelong
learners. Next they should be flexible with how they teach and give learners the resources to continue
learning outside of school.
There are many skills that children will need in order to be successful in the 21st century. Here
are a few of the most important 21st century skills: Ability to collaborate, work in teams, critical
thinking skills, oral presentation skills, written communication skills, ability to use technology,
willingness to examine civic and global issues, ability to conduct research to learn about issues and
concepts, chance to learn about new career opportunities.
In the ideal 21st century classroom, kids are actually excited about going to school, and there
are little or no discipline problems because everyone is eager to learn. In this type of classroom
activities and lessons are related to the community, whether local or global. Students collaborate with
people from different schools and different countries to learn about issues that affect us all, as well as
how we can solve them today and in the future.
The curriculum in the classroom is designed to incorporate many skills and intelligence levels,
and makes use of technology and multimedia. The lessons are not based on textbooks, instead they are
project based. Skills and content are learned through their research and projects, and textbooks are
provided as one of many possible resources.
A new addition to 21st century curriculum is the study of green education and environmental
issues. Kids are taught awareness of their world and real experts such as scientist and politicians are
brought in to answer student's questions.
 New schools in the 21st century will be bright and spacious, and kids will have room for group
projects and individual assignments. Walls will be hung with student work, and there will be places for
students to put on performances for their parents and members of the community. Students have full
access to technology and, if possible, every student will have a laptop.
Within the school, there will be labs and learning centers, as well as studios for art, music,
theatre, and so on. Each classroom will be equipped with a television so that all students can watch
school productions and other school presentations.
While it may take some time before schools and teachers are equipped to properly educate in
the 21st century once they are the results will be dramatic. Children will be engaged and eager to learn.
In fact, they will carry on learning at home and over holidays, and they will have the resources they
need to keep learning no matter where they are. This ability to foster a love of learning is truly the role
of education in the 21st century.

4. CRITICISE THE EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE PHILOSOPHERS. MENTION

IT’S NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE IMPACTS.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - Pestalozzi’s School

Although his ideas were adopted with considerable initial success in many parts of the world,
the social problems he sought to solve continued, and even his own schools were unable to maintain
the harmonious "family" atmosphere he advocated, finally closing due to bitter disputes and conflicts
among the teachers that lasted several years. Without solving the problematic relationships within
families, which, after his time, increasingly led to divorce and family breakdown, his educational
method was doomed to suffer the same failures.

Pestalozzi had a profound effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from
being exhausted. However, his hope that this method of education would lead to the resolution of
social problems and regeneration of society has not been realized. In fact, even his own schools failed
and were closed after serious disputes erupted among the teachers—not exactly the loving family
atmosphere he advocated. Unfortunately, there is a clear parallel between these problems in his schools
and the problems within families, leading to family breakdown and divorce. In this case, it appears that
the well-known sociologist Emile Durkheim was correct in his observation that education is a reflection
of society, and so problems in education cannot be solved without first solving those problems in
society.

Friedrick Froebel –Modern kindergarten, Froebel Method

There is much strength to the Froebel method. One of the main strengths for students who
attend a Froebel School is that they learn to see problems from many angles and to solve them
independently. As they work with materials, they gain perseverance as they attempt to figure out how
to manipulate them to create the output they want.
The Froebel method also works well to encourage independence in students. Since they are
used to solving problems that arise during their play, they feel confident in their ability to handle
issues as they arise.
The Froebel classroom develops fine motor skills in students, which aids them with later
learning and activities, such as writing and advanced art skills.
On the other hand, critics of the Froebel education believed that the structure of the program
was too rigid. More progressive educators modified the original program into the kindergarten that we
know today, which includes more free and imaginative play. In addition to the Froebel gifts, other
unstructured materials were added such as doll houses and large blocks where children could
experience more free-play and social interaction. Reformers decided that children needed other ways to
express themselves, and also added music, art and movement activities to Froebel’s original ideas.
There are also those who believe that there is too much focus on fine motor skills, and that more
language, writing and reading would benefit students. Many think that the focus on the gifts and
occupations should be supplemented with more academic types of activities, reading and writing
specifically, so that children who are developmentally ready for these types of activities will have the
opportunity available to them.

Maria Montessori – Montesorri Method, Montesorri Schools

Children in this school are prepared for the real world, where they work side by side with
people of all ages and dispositions. They also develop self-discipline, independence and analytical
thinking. All materials in a Montessori classroom have a proper place, and it is the responsibility of
each student to properly store their materials when they are done to maintain order, which is very
important to this philosophy.
Students who learn under the Montessori Method develop a true understanding of their work, instead
of just rote memorization. They develop a true life-long love for learning. This is a method that focuses
on personal growth and development, and has been shown to foster maturity and creativity in
students. Lessons fall into three main categories: lessons for practical life, sensory and language, so
they become well-rounded and independent individuals.
Critics of the Montessori Method refer to the cost of maintaining a program. Since the approach
uses sanctioned furniture and materials, the costs can be rather high. The program relies on high
quality expensive materials and furniture which is expensive.
Another criticism of the approach is that the classrooms contain only one of each pieces of “work” as
the activities are referred to. In theory, this should encourage children to share, but critics state that it
often creates a competition between students and that older students often win out over the younger
ones.
A final criticism many people have is that it can be difficult for Montessori students to transition
into a “regular” classroom, where they may be sitting in rows and working on prescribed curriculum.
Many parents send their children to Montessori programs for preschool and first grade, but then move
them into traditional elementary schools.

Jonathan Herbart - Herbartian Education

With the reforming pedagogics of the early twentieth century, Herbartianism was gradually
relegated to the background and his educational theory seemed likely to be all but forgotten.
Admittedly, Herbart and the Herbartians did have a distinct influence on some of the early proponents
of the reforming educational movement. But the school concept of the reforming educators stood
insharp contrast, both in Germany and elsewhere, to the concept of the Herbartians. The original
writings of Herbart were no longer read and he was seen as the proponent of a ‘book school’ in which
pupils swore by the words of their teacher and were denied access to their own experience. Herbart
was accused of trying to shape the mind through external influences and of wanting to impose the
teaching material needed for this purpose). Herbart was said to have denied the existence of active
functions in man.
Criticisms of this kind, which were rightly leveled against the excesses of Herbartianism,
seemed likely to bring Herbart himself into disrepute. His theory of educational teaching was no longer
properly understood. The critics forgot that the pupil’s own experience enjoyed a central function in
educational teaching and that interest, which implied independent mental activity on the part of the
pupil, had not only been the end, but also the principal means, of educational teaching. The true
differences between Herbart’s reforming pedagogics and the reforming pedagogics of the years
between 1900 and 1950 lie much deeper than over-hasty criticism of Herbart would have us believe.
The understanding of experience and personal activity had in the meantime changed completely and
the relationship between the individual, the community and society had also undergone a tidal change.
To that extent, the pedagogics of John Dewey, for example, are indeed poles apart from the educational
theory of Herbart in some respects.
Since 1950, a renaissance of interest in Herbart has appeared in Germany and also in some ofits
neighboring countries. Students of Herbart have now distanced themselves from the Herbartian’s own
image of him which distorted his original work. Instead, they tried to find their way back to the ‘living
Herbart’ (Nohl, 1948). This new route involved abandoning Herbart’s philosophy as the basis from
which his pedagogics was deduced. Instead, his pedagogics were to be presented as a science which
was relatively independent of philosophy. It was now believed that Herbart himself had been in favor
of that concept.
The most recent Herbartian research rejects as untenable the distinction between Herbart as
aliving educationalist and a philosopher who has long since had his day. It sets out to reappraise
Herbart’s pedagogics as an integral part of his philosophy from the angle of the history of the moral
sciences and so to learn from Herbart. In this reappraisal, the topicality of Herbart’s pedagogics has
become clear. For example, man today must learn to reshape his behavior patterns in relation to
himself and to nature around him on the basis of a correct insight. This problem can be described
admirably using Herbart’s concepts. The gulf which separates our contemporary world from the
decades after the French Revolution means that there is no possibility of solving today’s problems in
the spirit of a renewed Herbartianism. Herbart wanted to improve man through teaching, i.e. through a
representation of the world. Even under the conditions prevailing in his own day, the route of
education passing from ideas to feelings and from feelings to principles and forms of action was
constantly in jeopardy. People today can learn from Herbart by examining why the path of character
development suggested by him is no longer accessible under the conditions prevailing in our modern
world.

John Dewey – Pragmatism

His views were more confusing than clarifying, and that they appeared to be more akin to
idealism than the scientifically based naturalism Dewey expressly avowed. Notable in this connection
are Dewey's disputes concerning the relation of the knowing subject to known objects.
According to what appears to be a consistent "party line" about Dewey, his ideas about
education have resulted in a recent surge of juvenile violence, a marked reduction in subject-matter
knowledge and basic skills among America’s children, a pernicious increase in state control of
education and of thought, and an epidemic of dishonesty in business and public life.
The standard objection to Dewey's instrumental theory of value judgments is that it concerns
the value of things as means only, and not as ends. It fails to fix on what is ultimately important:
intrinsic values or final ends. Some ultimate end outside of practice must be postulated as given, as the
standard against which the value of acts as means can be judged, lest we fall into an infinite regress.
We either need some conception of a summum bonum, justified apart from practical reasoning, toward
which acts must aim, or Dewey's theory reduces to a form of Human instrumentalism, in which ends
are given by ourdesires or immediate likings, and the only question is how to satisfy them.

Jean Piaget

During the 1960's and 1970's, researchers identified shortcomings in Piaget's theory. Critic’s
main argument was that Piaget described tasks with confusing and abstract terms and using overly
difficult tasks. Basically, Piaget underestimated children's abilities. Researchers have found that young
children are capable and can succeed on simpler forms of tasks requiring the same skills. Second,
Piaget's theory predicts that thinking within a particular stage would be similar across tasks. For
example, all preschool children should perform at the preoperational level in all cognitive tasks.
 Third, his efforts to teach children developmentally advanced concepts would be unsuccessful.
However, researchers have found that in some circumstances, children often learn more advanced
concepts with brief instruction. All of this research has led up to the belief that children may be more
competent that Piaget gives them credit form, especially in their practical knowledge.
Some believe that Piaget overlooked the effects of student's cultural and social groups. It seems
as though the stages of development constructed by Piaget are representative of Western society and
culture. In his work, scientific thinking and formal operations are presumed worthy levels to be
reached by children. However, in other cultures there may be a much higher regard for the basic level
of concrete operations.
Piaget's work is characterized by: lack of controls, small samples, and absence of statistical
analysis in his research. Much of this form of criticism has originated from Empiricism and Logical
Positivism, which was extremely popular at the time. However, Piaget was a structuralist and his
scientific orientation was very different from tradition research being done at this time in America.
Piaget attempted to identify universal features of cognitive development by observing children
in specific situations. He believed that small samples of children and the methods he used were
adequate as long as he was able to identify the structures common to all individuals. However, it is
reasonable to question the reliability of Piaget's work.
Although there has been much criticism surrounding Piaget's theory over time, it is probably
not very damaging to his basic theory. There have been various substantiated contradictions to suggest
that the stages of development are approximate rather than absolute, a point that Piaget himself always
maintained. Basically criticisms point out that children's cognitive development is far more complex
than Piaget had thought.
Despite the critics, an examination of Piaget's theory shows that his theory is remarkably
consistent, coherent, and comprehensive. However, research suggests that Paget’s system may not
reflect the facts accurately. Occasionally, it underestimates the abilities of children while over
estimating at other times.
Finally, Piaget's theory has been very influential, impacting psychology and education over the
years while also being controversial. He is largely responsible for helping teachers, parents, and
childcare workers to become fascinated observers of children's development.

Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect

Thorndike's law of effect and puzzle box methodology were subjected to detailed criticism by
behaviorists and many other psychologists. The criticisms over the law of effect mostly cover four
aspects of the theory: the implied or retroactive working of the effect, the philosophical implication of
the law, the identification of the effective conditions that cause learning, and the comprehensive
usefulness of the law.
The major criticism of Thorndike’s behaviorist theories may be summarized in two points. First,
Thorndike’s approach restricted psychology by limiting behavior solely to the peripheral events of
stimulus and response elements. In dismissing mental events, Thorndike also ignored the central
mediation of stimulus and response bonds.“Thorndike’s approach restricted psychology by limiting
behavior solely to the peripheral events of stimulus and response elements. In dismissing mental
events, Thorndike ignored the central mediation of stimulus and response bonds”. What this is saying
is that Thorndike focused primarily on behavior in regards to events in the environment that are of
little importance. He based his stimulus and response relationships off these minute events. In
addition, he also failed to recognize how important those bonds can be.
The second problem with Thorndike’s behaviorist theories concerns the issue of reductionism.
In fact, for Thorndike, mind was reduced to behavior, and behavior, in turn, was reduced to
environmental stimuli and observable responses.
 With regard to his behaviorist theories, specifically the concern of reductionism, the nature of
complex things is reduced to the nature of sums of simpler or more fundamental things. In correlation
to Thorndike’s theories of behaviorism, the mind, behavior, and stimuli in the environment are all
interrelated.

Emile Durkheim

Durkheim remains a fundamental and prominent figure for sociology and social theory in
general. Yet, in comparison with Marx and Weber, the influence of Durkheim’s thought has been
somewhat muted, especially with regards to philosophy. This can be partly explained by the fact that
the Durkheimian school of thought was greatly reduced when many of his most promising students
were killed in WWI, that Durkheim went to such great lengths to divorce sociology from philosophy,
or by the fact that his thought has been, and continues to be, simplified and misunderstood.

Nevertheless, his ideas had, and continue to have, a strong impact in the social sciences,
especially in sociology and anthropology. Members of his research group, such as Marcel Mauss, Paul
Fauconnet, CélestinBouglé, and Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, and later thinkers, such as Maurice Halbwachs,
Talcott Parsons, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude Levi-Strauss, were all strongly influenced by him.
Philosophers such as Henri Bergeson and Emmanuel Levinas acknowledge the influence of
Durkheim’s ideas, and his work is also present in that of Jacques Lacan and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. In
addition to this, Durkheim’s ideas are latent in the structuralist thought that emerged in post WWII
France, for example in Alain Badiou, Louis Althusser, and Michel Foucault. However, these thinkers
never discuss Durkheim at length, or acknowledge any intellectual debt to to him. More recently, social
theorists such as Pierre Bourdieu, Robert Bellah, and Steven Lukes, and philosophers such as Charles
Taylor and Hans Joas, have been influenced by Durkheim’s thinking.