Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.

Ayman Rabie 2015

Chapter 3 Diffraction
Lecturer (5)
Diffraction of Light
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The
amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of
the opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will
be almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of
bending is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye
eye.
We have two models of diffractions, one observed when the viewing screen is placed
close to the narrow slit (known as Fresnel diffraction)
diffraction),, and another observed when the
viewing screen is placed very far from the slit (known as Fraunhofer diffraction).

Fraunhofer diffraction (Far

(Far-field diffraction)
Both the light source and the observation plane are far
away from the aperture. The wavefronts arriving at the
aperture and observation screen may be considered
planar.

Fresnel diffraction (Near

(Near-field diffraction)
Both the light source and the observation plane are
close to the aperture. The wavefronts arriving at the
aperture and observation screen are not planar. The
curvature of the wavefronts must be taken into account.

Diffraction phenomena ena can conveniently be divided into two groups (i) Fresnel
diffraction phenomena and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena.
In the Fresnel class of diffraction, the source or the screen or both are at finite distances
from the aperture or obstacle caucausing diffraction. In this case, the effect at a specific
point on the screen due to the exposed incident wavefront is considered and no
modification is made by lenses and mirrors. In such a case, the phenomenon observed on
the screen is called Fresnel diff
diffraction pattern.

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

In the Fraunhofer class of diffraction phenomena, the source and the screen on which the
pattern is observed are at finite distance from the aperture or the obstacle causing
diffraction.
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern can be easily observed in practice. The incoming light is
rendered parallel with lens and the diffracted beam is focused on the screen with another
lens. Observations of Fresnel diffraction phenomena do not require any lenses.
Theoretical treatment of Fraunhofer
unhofer diffraction phenomena is simpler. We will consider
only the second model, since it is easier to analyze. In this model, we need to focus the
parallel rays by using a converging lens.

Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Single Slit

Figure a shows a light wave of wavelength λ
entering a single slit of width a and diffracted
towards a viewing screen. Fig. b shows a
representation of a photograph obtained for a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. Notice the
existence of a wide bright central fringe
followedd by successive narrower dark fringes.
Figure 2 displays the geometry as viewed from
above the slit. According to Huygens’ Principle,
each point on the wave front within the slit acts
like a secondary wave source. Waves reaching
the screen from different portions of the slit
differ in phase because they travel different path
lengths. Differences in phase of the arrived
secondary waves produce the diffraction
pattern.
We can take advantage of the symmetry of path
differences about the central axis by first adding
the interference effect from two equal portions of the slit, each of width a/2, one above
the central axis and one below it, see Fig.
Fig.2a. This means that the diffraction pattern is
actually an interference pattern!
The second step is to applyly this strategy to locate the first dark fringe at point P, which
makes an angle θ with the central line. If the screen is far away from the slit, D≫a, the
three rays of Fig.2aa are almost parallel, as shown in Fig. 2b. This figure indicates that
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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

the path difference between rays r1 and r is (a/2) sin θ. Similarly, the path difference
between rays r and r2 is (a/2) sin θ. If this path difference is exactly λ/2, λ then the two
waves at P cancel each other and produce a destructive interference. In other words,
waves from the upper half interfere destructively with waves from the lower half.
Consequently, we have:


  →  

2 2
Applying the same reasoning to the wavefronts from four equally spaced points a
distance apart, the path difference would be ⁄4 , and the condition for destructive
interference is


  →   2

4 2
The argument can be generalized to show that destructive interference will occur when
 
 1,2,3..  
"
Figure 3 illustrates the intensity distribution for a single
single-slit
slit diffraction. Note that   0
is a maximum.
By comparing, we see that the condition for
minima of a single-slit slit diffraction becomes the
condition for maxima of a dou double-slit interference
when the width of a single slit a is replaced by the
separation between the two slits d. The reason is
that in the double-slit
slit case, the slits are taken to be
so small that each one is considered as a single
light source, and the interference rference of waves
originating within the same slit can be neglected.
On the other hand, the minimum condition for the
single-slit
slit diffraction is obtained precisely by
taking into consideration the interference of waves
that originate within the same slit.
In Fig. 2a,
a, the distance y from the central maximum to the first diffraction minimum is
related to the angle θ and the distance d from the slit to the screen by     .
Generally, we have:
     1,2,3 …

Intensity of Single-Slit
Slit Diffraction Patterns

The total path difference between r1 and r2 is !    .. Consequently the total
phase difference δ between the two rays is:
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 2% 2%
Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

∆! = a sin θ

$

The intensity I of the diffraction pattern as a function of θ is given, without proof, in

sin $/2
terms of δ as follows:
1

, = ,- . 0
$/
2
Where I0 is the intensity at the central maximum (when θ =0◦). Substituting the
expression of δ into the last equation leads to:

% 1
sin 3 a sin θ4
, = ,- 2 %
5
3
a sin θ4

A minimum of I occurs when:

%
a sin θ = mπ m = 1,2,3 … "

Or    =
,  = 1, 2, 3, . . . ",. Part (a) of Fig. 4 displays the variation of I as a
function of δ/2. Part (b) is a representation of the obtained photograph.

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

In Figure 5 the intensity is plotted as a function of the angle θ, for a=λλ and a=2λ.
a We see
that as the ratio a/λ grows, the peak becomes narrower, and more light is concentrated in
the central peak.

Intensity of Double-Slit
Slit Diffraction Patterns

In the previous sections, we have seen that the intensities of the single
single-slit
slit diffraction
and the double-slit
slit interference are given by:

% 1
sin 33 a sin θ4
,  ,- 2 %
5 single @ slit Diffraction
3
a sin θ4

; % sin 
,  ,8 9 1 : <  ,8 9 1 : < double @ slit Interference
ference
2

Suppose we now have two slits, each having a width a, and separated by a distance d.
The resulting interference pattern for the double
double-slit
slit will also include a diffraction
pattern due to the individual slit. The intensity of the total pattern is simply
si the product
of the two functions:

% 1
% sin  sin 3 a sin θ4
,  ,8 9 1 : <2 %
5

3
a sin θ4

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

The first and the second terms in the above equation are referred to as the “interference
factor” and the “diffraction factor,” respectively. While the former yields the
interference substructure, the latter acts as an envelope which sets limits on the number
of the interference peaks

We have seen that the interference maxima occur when  sin  

. On the other
diffraction minimum is  sin  
.. Thus, a particular
hand, the condition for the first diffractio
interference maximum with order number m may coincide with the first diffraction
minimum. The value of m may be obtained as:
 sin 

 → =
 sin 

Since the mth fringe is not seen, the number of fringes on each side of the central fringe
is m-1.. Thus, the total number of fringes in the central diffraction maximum is

K = 2 @ 1" L 1  2 @ 1

Diffraction Grating

Diffraction grating is one of the most useful devices used to analyze light sources. This
device is somewhat
omewhat like the double
double-slit experiment but it has a much greater number of
slits1, perhaps as many as several thousands of slits per millimeter. We deal with two
types of diffraction gratings:

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

• Transmission gratings: can be obtained by cutting parallel grooves on a glass plate

with a highly precise ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves act as separate
slits and produce transmitted interference fringes.
• Reflection gratings: can be obtained by cutting parallel grooves on a reflecting
surface with a highly precise ruling machine. The reflections of light from the spaces
between the grooves form the reflected interference fringes.
When monochromatic light of wavelength λ is sent through any type of diffraction
grating, it forms narrow interference fringes that can be analyzed to determine the
wavelength of the light.
To study the effect of diffraction gratings, we first consider a small number of slits that
produce an interference pattern on a distant viewing screen. Each slit produces
diffraction, and the diffracted beams interfere with one another to produce the final
pattern. Then we gradually increase the number of slits to a larger number N. Figure 6a
shows a small section of a diffraction grating containing only five slits. The grating is
placed in front of a very distant screen.

As shown in Fig. 6b , the path difference between rays from any two adjacent slits is d
sin θ. If this path difference is equal to an integral multiple of the wavelength, then

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

waves from all slits reach point P in phase, and a bright fringe is observed. The
condition for a maximum to exist at P is thus:

 =
= 0,2,3.. OP  @ QRS TR
TR"

Where, m is the fringe orderder number. Generally, fringes are referred to as follows:
• The zeroth-order
order maximum, when m=0. All waves must meet at θ =0,

 U =
/,
• The first-order
order maximum, when m=1. Each wavelength corresponds to an angle

angle  1 = 2
/,, and so forth.
• The second-order
order maximum, when m=2. Each wavelength corresponds to an

Therefore, Eq. can be used to measure λ if the grating spacing d and θm are known.
The location of the maxima does not depend on the number of slits, N. However, the
maxima become sharper and more intense as N is increased. The width of the maxima
can be shown to be inversely proportional to N. In Figure 7,, we show the intensity
N
1
distribution as a function of for diffraction grating with N=10 and N=30.
N=30 Notice that
the principal maxima become sharper and narrower as increases

The observation can be explained as follows: suppose an angle θ which initially gives a
principal maximum is increased slightly, if there were only two slits, then the two waves
will still be nearly in phase and produce maxima which are broad. However, in grating
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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

with a large number of slits, even though è may only be slightly deviated from the value
that produces a maximum, it could be exactly out of phase with light wave from another
slit far away. Since grating produces peaks that are much sharper than the two-slit
two
system, it gives a more precise measurement of the wavelength.

Resolving Power of the Diffraction Gratings

Diffraction gratings are useful tools for accurately measuring wavelengths.

avelengths. To resolve
two similar light sources with nearly equal wavelengths λ1 and λ2 (near a wavelength λ),

av and the wavelength difference \λ as:

the diffraction grating should have a high resolving power R, defined in terms of the
average wavelength λav

WXYZW[Y
U L
1
V= →
WXYZW[Y = ≅
 ∆

1 @
U
∆
2

If N is the number of illuminated slits in the grating, then it can be shown that the
resolving power in the mth-order
order diffraction is:

V  K

Thus, R increases as N and m increase. When m=0, we know that all the wavelengths
are indistinguishable and hence R=0 as expected.

Resolution of single-slit
slit

Rayleigh’s criterion: the central maximum of one image falls on the first minimum of
the other image – the images are said to be just resolved.

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

The limiting angle of resolution,  =

^
W

Dispersion

To be useful in distinguishing wavelengths that are close to each other (as in a grating
spectroscope), a grating must spread apart the diffraction lines associated with the

∆
various wavelengths. This spreading, called dispersion, is defined as
=
∆

Here \θ is the angular separation of two lines whose wavelengths differ by \λ. The

differ by \λ. We show below that the dispersion of a grating at angle θ is given by
greater D is, the greater is the distance between two emission lines whose wavelengths

=
 cos 
Thus, to achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller grating spacing d
and work in a higher-order m. Note that the dispersion does not depend on the number
of rulings N in the grating. The SI unit for D is the degree per meter or the radian per
meter.

X-Ray Diffraction

X rays are electromagnetic radiation whose

wavelengths are of the order of 1 Å (= 10-10 m).
Figure shows that x rays are produced when
electrons escaping from a heated filament F are
accelerated by a potential difference V and strike
a metal target T.
A standard optical diffraction grating cannot be
used to discriminate between different
wavelengths in the x-ray wavelength range.
In 1912, it occurred to German physicist Max
von Laue that a crystalline solid, which consists of a regular array of atoms, might form
a natural three dimensional “diffraction grating” for x rays.

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

The idea is that, in a crystal such as sodium chloride (NaCl), a basic unit of atoms
(called the unit cell) repeats itself throughout the array. Figure 28a represents a section
through a crystal of NaCl and identifies this basic unit. The unit cell is a cube measuring
a0 on each side.
When an x-ray beam enters a crystal such as NaCl, x rays are scattered—that is,
redirected—in all directions by the crystal structure. In some directions the scattered
waves undergo destructive interference, resulting in intensity minima; in other directions
the interference is constructive, resulting in intensity maxima. This process of scattering
and interference is a form of diffraction.

 Fictional Planes
Although the process of diffraction of x rays by a crystal is complicated, the maxima
turn out to be in directions as if the x rays were reflected by a family of parallel
reflecting planes (or crystal planes) that extend through the atoms within the crystal and
that contain regular arrays of the atoms.
(The x rays are not actually reflected; we use these fictional planes only to simplify
the analysis of the actual diffraction process.)
Figure 2b shows three reflecting planes (part of a family containing many parallel
planes) with interplanar spacing d, from which the incident rays shown are said to
reflect. Rays 1, 2, and 3 reflect from the first, second, and third planes, respectively. At
each reflection the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are represented with u.
Contrary to the custom in optics, these angles are defined relative to the surface of the
reflecting plane rather than a normal to that surface. For the situation of Fig. 2b, the
interplanar spacing happens to be equal to the unit cell dimension a0.
Figure 2c shows an edge-on view of reflection from an adjacent pair of planes. The
waves of rays 1 and 2 arrive at the crystal in phase. After they are reflected, they must
again be in phase because the reflections and the reflecting planes have been defined
solely to explain the intensity maxima in the diffraction of x rays by a crystal. Unlike
light rays, the x rays do not refract upon entering the crystal; moreover, we do not define
an index of refraction for this situation. Thus, the relative phase between the waves of
rays 1 and 2 as they leave the crystal is set solely by their path length difference. For

of the wavelength λ of the x rays.

these rays to be in phase, the path length difference must be equal to an integer multiple

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Chapter 3 Lecture (5) Dr.Ayman Rabie 2015

 Diffraction Equation
By drawing the dashed perpendiculars in Fig. 2c, we find that the path length difference
is 2d sin u. In fact, this is true for any pair of adjacent planes in the family of planes
represented in Fig. 2b. Thus, we have, as the criterion for intensity maxima
maxim for x-ray
diffraction,
2 sin  

Where, m is the order number of an intensity maximum. Equation is called Bragg’s law
after British physicist W. L. Bragg, who first derived it. The angle of incidence and
reflection in Equation is called a Bragg angle.
Regardless of the angle at which x rays enter a crystal, there is always a family of planes
from which they can be said to reflect so that we can apply Bragg’s law. In Fig. 2d,
notice that the crystal structure has the same orientation as it does in Fig. 2a, but the
angle at which the beam enters the structure differs from that shown in Fig. 2b.This new
angle requires a new family of reflecting planes, with a different interplanar spacing d
and different Bragg angle u, in order to explain the x-ray diffraction
iffraction via Bragg’s law.

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