1

DIFFRACTION
Introduction:
Sound propagates in the form of waves. Sound produced inside one room reaches the
other room after bending the edges of the door/walls similarly the waves on the surface of
water bend round the edges of an obstacle and spread out into the region, behind it. This
bending of waves round the edges of the obstacle is called diffraction. This is the
characteristic property of the waves.
If light also propagates as waves, it has to bend round opaque obstacles placed in its
path. Because of its extremely shorter wavelength such bending is not pronounced and hence
light appears to travel in straight line.
The bending of light waves round the edges of obstacles and the spreading of light
waves into geometrical shadow of an obstacle is called diffraction. The diffraction produces
bright and dark fringes of varying intensity are called diffraction pattern.
There are two classes of diffraction, Fresnel’s diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

1. Either a point source or an Extended source at infinite distance is
illuminated narrow slit is used. used.
2. The source and the screen are The source and the screen are placed at
placed at finite distance from the infinite distance from the obstacle for
obstacle for producing diffraction producing diffraction pattern.
pattern.
3. The wave front undergoing The wave front undergoing diffraction is
diffraction is either spherical or a plane wave front.
cylindrical.
4. No lens is used to focus the rays. Converging (convex) lens is used to focus
the parallel rays.
5. Distances are important in this The angular inclinations are important in
class of diffraction. this class of diffraction.
6. Mathematical investigations are Mathematical investigations are accurate
complicated and only and easy.
approximate.

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 2

Interference Diffraction

Superposition is due to two separate wave Superposition is due to secondary wavelets

fronts originating from two coherent sources. originating from different parts of the same
wave front.

The fringe width may be may not be equal. The fringe width of various fringes is never
equal.

All the bright fringes have the same intensity. The intensity of bright fringes usually
decreases with increase of order.

All the dark fringes have zero intensity The intensity of dark fringes is not zero.

The regions of minimum intensity are The regions of minimum intensity are not
perfectly dark i.e., the fringes will appear perfectly dark and hence the fringes will not
with contrast. appear with contrast.

Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit:

Let AB represents a slit having width ‘a’ when the plane wave front of
monochromatic wavelength ‘λ’ strike the slit, diffraction of slit occurs.
The diffracted waves from different parts of the slit traveling normally to the slit will
converge at the point P0, where maximum intensity is observed.
The diffracted waves from AB inclined at an angle θ from the direction PP0. Let these
waves are focused at point ‘P’ on the screen. The P is of minimum or subsidiary maximum
intensity depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves originating from
the corresponding points of the wave front.

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 3

To find out the intensity at P draw a perpendicular AC. The path difference between
secondary wavelets from A and B in direction θ is equal to BC.
We know from Δle ABC
BC
sin  =
AB
 BC=AB sin
BC= a sin 
The phase difference corresponding to this path difference is given as
2
=  path difference

2
=  a sin  …… (1)

Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the
amplitude of the wave from each part is ‘h’.
The phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts would be
1/n [total phase]
2
a sin 

=  = d say ….. (2)
n n
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitudes R is given
by
nd
A' sin( )
R= 2
d
sin( )
2
 a sin 
A' sin( )
R= 
 a sin 
sin( )
n
A' sin   a sin 
R= …… (3) Where  =
 
sin( )
n
 
When n is very large the α/n is small, sin( ) =
n n

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 4

A' sin 
R=

n
nA' sin 
R=

A sin 
R= ….. (4) Where (nA'=A)

 sin  
The resultant amplitude R = A  
  
The intensity at P is
I = R2
 sin 2  
I = A2  
  
2

 sin  
2

I = I0   ……. (5) Where A2 = I0

  
Therefore the intensity I depends upon the value of α
Case i: Condition for minima
The intensity will be minimum, when
sin  = 0   = m (But   0 )
If  =  m
 a sin 
 =  m

a sin  = m Where m = 1, 2, 3 …..
This is the condition for minimum intensity

The first order minima occur at  =  sin −1  
a

 2 
The second order minim occur at  =  sin −1   and so on
 a 
Case ii: Condition for maxima
The condition for secondary maxima can be obtained by differentiating equation (5)
with respect to α and equating to zero.
dI
=0
d

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 5

d  I 0 sin 2  
 =0
d   2 

2sin   cos  − sin 

I0  =0
  2

sin  = 0 or  cos − sin  = 0

But the condition for minima is sin  = 0
So, the condition for the maxima is  cos − sin  = 0
  cos  = sin 
 = tan  ….. (6)
This equation is called transcendental equation. If we draw the graph between y = α
and y = tanα then the points of intersection of these two curves gives the maximum intensity.

The graphical solution of equation (5) gives

 = 1.43  for the first order maxima
 = 2.46  for the second order maxima
 = 3.46  for the third order maxima and so on
The zero intensity positions are  =  ,  2 ,  3 and so on.
The half way positions of zero intensity  = 1.5 ,  2.5 ,  3.5
It may be noted that the actual maxima are in between the zero intensity points, but
slightly shifted towards the central maxima.
The corresponding intensities are

 sin1.43 
2

I1 = I 0  = 0.0495 I 0
 1.43 

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 6

 sin 2.46 
2

I2 = I0  = 0.0168 I 0
 2.46 

 sin 3.46 
2

I3 = I 0  = 0.0083 I 0
 3.46 
The intensity distribution due to the diffraction at a single slit. The graph consists of
central maximum with minima and secondary maxima alternately.
Expression for width of Central Maxima:
The condition for central minima is
a sin  = m

For m = 1, sin  = …… (a)
a
If x is the half width of central bright maxima ad D is the distance between the slit and
screen then,
x
sin  = …… (b)
D
x  D
 = x=
D a a
Hence the lens (L2) is nearer to the slit or the screen is from away from the lens (L2)
then
x
sin  = (f is the focal length of L2)
f

We know that sin  =
a
x 
 =
f a
f
x=
a
The fringe width increased by decreasing the slit width (a). i.e., when slit becomes
narrower, the fringe becomes wide. If the wavelength is higher, the fringes become wider.

Fraunhofer Diffraction at Double Slit:

Let S1 and S2 are parallel slits of equal width ‘a’ and separated by an opaque
distance‘d’. The distance between corresponding points on the slits is (a+d). Let a parallel
beam of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally upon the two slits.

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 7

The light that is incident on the two slits diffracts at the two slits and these diffracted
light waves interfere. i.e., the diffraction at two slits is a combination of interference and
diffraction. The pattern on the screen is the diffraction pattern due to a single slit on which a
system of interference fringes is superposed.

When a plane wave front is incident normally on both slits, all points in the slits become
the source secondary wavelets which travel uniformly in all directions. The secondary waves
traveling in a direction of incident light come to a focus at straight. While the secondary
wavelets traveling in a direction making an angle θ with the incident direction come to a
focus at ‘P’.
According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit
Asin
R=

 a sin 
Where A is the amplitude and  =

Thus it can be considered that the two slits as equivalent to two coherent sources S1
Asin
and S2 be the mid points of the slits and each source send a wavelet of amplitude in

the direction θ.
Therefore the resultant amplitude at a point ‘P’ on the screen will be a result of
Asin
interference between two waves of amplitude and having a phase difference δ.

The resultant intensity is given by

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 8

 ASin  2 
2

 I = R2 = 4   cos
   2
It is clear from the above equation; the intensity in the resultant pattern depends on
the following two factors.

 ASin 
2

i.   This is the intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern due to single slit.
  

ii. cos 2 This gives the interference pattern due to diffracted waves from two slits.
2
The resultant intensity at any point on the screen is given by the product of these two
factors. These factors explained as follows.

Diffraction Grating:
One of the most important applications of diffraction is the diffraction grating. It
consists of a very large number of obstacles of equal widths arranged parallel and at equal
distances from one another. Usually the width of the obstacles is the same as the width of the
slits.
An arrangement consists of large number of equidistant parallel slits on a plane glass
plate is called as diffraction grating. The corresponding diffraction pattern is known as
grating spectrum.
Diffraction gratings are used one of the two ways, either as reflection grating or as
transmission grating. A reflection grating consists of a series of fine parallel grooves on a flat
metallic surface. This grating was made by Fraunhofer in 1820. The transmission grating
consists of series of parallel rulings made on flat glass plate.
A good quality of grating requires large number of slits about 15,000 per each.
Another requirement for a good quality of grating is that the lines should be as equally spaced
as possible consequently the pitch of screw must be constant. The distance between any two

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 9

consecutive lines is ‘d’. If width of each slit is 'a' then the combined width of a ruling (a+d) is
called rating element.
If there are 15,000 lines per inch on the grating surface, the spacing between lines is
2.54
d=
15000
d = 1.693 10−4 cm
Grating Spectrum:
The positions of the principal maxima are given by
(a + d )sin  n = n where n=0, 1, 2...

where (a+d) is the grating element, n is the order of maxima, λ is the wavelength of
incident light
The relation is called as grating equation.
The angle of diffraction depends upon the wavelength λ. The corresponding spectrum
is called grating spectrum.
When the number of lines on the grating are large, the maxima appears sharp and the
bright lines parallel to the ruling of the grating and are termed as spectral lines. The principal
maxima occurs at θ=0 and is irrespective of the wavelength λ.
The first order maxima obtained for n=1 then (a+d) sinθ1 = λ
The second order maxima obtained for n=2 then (a+d) sinθ2 = 2λ and so on.
If we are using while light then the central maximum will also be white. However, for
n≠0, in which order different colors are diffracted at different angles. The angles of
diffraction are different for different wavelengths and therefore various spectral components
appear at different positions. By measuring the angles of diffraction for various colors, we
can determine the values of wavelength.

Characteristics of grating spectra:

1. The spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of the central
image.

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 10

2. The spectral lines are straight and sharp.

3. Spectral lines are in the order from violet to red.
4. The spectral lines are more ordered and dispersed by increasing the order.
5. Most of the intensity goes to the central maximum and remaining is distributed for
various orders.
Determination of wavelength of light:
The position of the principal maxima in a grating
(a + d ) sin  = n Where n=0, 1, 2...
(a + d ) sin 
=
n
sin 
=
Nn
1
Where N = is the number of grating elements or lines per unit width of
(a + d )
grating.
Resolving Power:
The separation of such close objects is termed as resolution. The ability of an optical
instrument to form distinctly separate images of two objects very close together is called its
resolving power. If we want to see as separate objects, we make use of optical instruments
such as telescopes, microscopes, prisms, gratings etc.
Resolving Power of a Grating:
The ability to form separate spectral lines for wavelengths very close to each other is
called the resolving power of grating.
If dλ is the smallest difference in two wavelengths which just resolved by grating and
λ is the wavelength of either of them or mean wavelength, then the resolving power of grating
is λ/dλ.
Consider AB represents the surface of plane transmission grating having grating
element (a+d) and N be the total number of slits.
Let a beam of light having two wavelengths λ and ( + d  ) is incident normally on the
grating.
If XY is the field of view of the telescope, P1 is nth primary maximum of a spectral
line of wavelength λ1 at an angle of diffraction θn and P2 is nth primary maximum of a spectral
line of wavelength ( + d  ) , at an angle of diffraction ( + d n ) .

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 11

According to Rayleigh's criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the position
of P2. i.e., the two lines will be resolved if the principle maximum of ( + d  ) in a
direction ( + d n ) fall over the first minimum of λ in the same direction ( + d n ) .

The principle maximum of λ in direction θn is given by

(a + d )sin  n = n ......... (1)

The equation of minima is

N (a + d )sin  n = m ........ (2)

Where m takes all integral values except 0, N, 2N...... because these values of m give
0th, 1st, 2nd ......... principal maximum respectively.
Clearly, first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction (θn+dθn)
can be obtained by substituting the values of m as (nN+1).
Therefore the first minimum in the direction (θn+dθn) is given by
N (a + d )sin( n + d n ) = (nN + 1) ........... (3)

The principal maximum of λ+dλ in the direction (θn+dθn) is given by

(a + d )sin( n + d n ) = n( + d  ) .......... (4)

Multiplying above equation by N

N (a + d )sin( n + d n ) = Nn( + d  ) ............ (5)

From (3) and (5)

(nN + 1) = Nn( + d  )
nN +  = Nn + Nnd
 = nNd 

= nN
d
This is the expression for the resolving power of grating.

Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics
 12

From equation (1),

(a + d ) sin  n
n=

 N (a + d ) sin  n
=
d 
Rayleigh's Criterion for Resolving Power:
According to Rayleigh, two spectral lines of equal intensity should be regarded as
separate that is just resolved, if central maximum of the diffraction pattern due to one
coincides with the secondary minimum of the other and vice versa. This is known as
Rayleigh's criterion of resolution and can be conveniently applied to the resolving power of a
telescope, microscope, grating, prism etc.
Consider the diffraction pattern due to two wavelengths λ1 and λ2. If the difference in
wavelengths of two spectral lines is so small, the central maxima corresponding to the
wavelengths come closed. Then the intensity curves show a sufficient overlapping and the
two images cannot be distinguished as separate (figure (a)).

If the difference in wavelengths is smaller such that the central maximum of one
coincides with the first minimum of the other, the resultant intensity curve shows a distinct
dip in the middle of the two central maxima (figure (b)).
The difference in wavelength is such that the central maximum of two wavelengths is
quite separate and there is a distinct point of zero intensity in the middle of the resultant
intensity curve. The two spectral lines appear well resolved, that is distinctly separated
(figure (c)).

*******
Dr. K.S.D.L. Kalyan Prasad Dr. P. Peddi Naidu Dr. K.K. Brahmananda Rao
Applied Physics