Module 4 MET414 Quality Management

Module 4
Supporting Tools, Activities And Techniques in TQM Projects

Effect Analysis

4.1 Affinity Diagram – Brain Stroming (KJ method)

 Affinity Diagram (KJ method) - The affinity diagram, also known as the KJ method,
method was developed
in the 1960’s by Kawakita Jiro..

 This is essentially a brainstorming method

method. It is based on group work in which every participant
writes down his ideas which are, grouped and realigned by the subject matter.

 Affinity diagram is a tool that gathers a large amount of data and subsequently organizes the data
into groupings based on their natural interrelationships.

Goal or objective of Affinity diagram

1. For instance, there might be a need to find out the causes leading to defects in products.
products Affinity
diagram is quite useful to such teams for carrying out their work more effectively and efficiently.

2. This diagram allows the team to creatively generate a large number of issues/ideas.

3. Then logically group them for problem understanding and poss

possible
ible breakthrough solution.

EXAMPLE: Assume that an organization identifies finding 25 per cent defects in materials. Then the
organization constitutes a team to find out the causes. Such teams can use an affinity diagram to organize their
discussions and coming out with the most effective solutions. This tool is devised to capture the suggestions of
every team member.

An affinity diagram should be implemented when

1. Thoughts are too widely dispersed or numerous to organize.

2. New solutions are needed to circumvent the more traditional ways of problem solving.

3. Support for a solution is essential for successful implementation.

4. This method should not be used when the problem is simple or if a quick solution is needed.
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Various steps involved in creating an Affinity Diagram

Step 1: Constitution of six to eight member team for finding a solution to a problem.
Step 2: The moderator fixes the meeting, venue and time.
Step 3: Each member comes out with a solution to the problem and writes down his ideas in a card, sticky
notes/post it notes (which can be pasted to a white board and removed easily) or sheet and fixes it on the
board. No idea is discarded at this stage.
Step4: After all the members have posted their ideas, the team discusses and removes those sheets or cards
containing ideas, which either may be duplicate ideas or may not be directly relevant.
Step 5: Now the team discusses and categories the related ideas into groups. Each group of ideas is given a
logical group name.
Step 6: Now each card or sheet is pulled out and placed under a group name, depending on the affinity of the
idea to the group. The team may meet, may be the next day and finalize the affinity diagram.
Figure illustrates the technique for drawing affinity diagram

 A team formed for finding out the cause of delay in shipping posted all the ideas on the card.
 Then they found that the causes of delay in shipping could be grouped into three categories, viz.,
facilities, people and system (Fig a)
 Then the cards were moved to the corresponding groups.(Fig b)
An Affinity diagram for the causes of defective
incoming materials is given in the Figure

Fig a: Scambled ideas

Fig b: Ordered ideas

Large groups should be divided into smaller groups with appropriate headings
Use or Advantage of Affinity Diagram
1. Affinity diagrams encourage team creativity,
2. It break down barriers
3. It facilitate breakthroughs
4. It stimulate ownership of the process
5. Allow free flow of ideas, opinion and facts without causing any interruption.
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4.2.1 Cause and Effect Analysis

Cause and effect Diagram
 Cause and effect diagram is a graphic tool that helps identify, sort, and display possible causes of a
problem or quality characteristic
 Cause and effect diagram was developed by Ishikawa in 1943, and hence it is also called as Ishikawa
diagram.
 Cause and effect diagram is also called as Fishbone diagram because of its shape.
 Cause and effect diagrams can also be drawn as tree diagrams, resembling a tree turned on its side.
Objective or use of Cause and effect Diagram
 The cause and effect diagram is used to explore all the potential or real causes (or inputs) that result in
a single effect (or output).
 This can help to search for root causes, identify areas where there may be problems, and compare the
relative importance of different causes.
 C&E diagrams are used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to take action to correct the causes or a
“good” effect and to learn those causes that are responsible.
 For every effect, there are likely to be numerous causes
Cause and Effect Diagram
 Figure illustrates a C&E diagram with the effect on the right and causes on the left.
 The effect is the quality characteristic that needs improvement.
 Causes are sometimes broken down into the major causes of work methods, materials, measurement,
people, equipment, and the environment.
 Other major causes could be used for service-type problems.
 Each major cause is further
subdivided into numerous minor
causes.
 For example, under work methods, we
might have training, knowledge,
ability, physical characteristics, and
so forth.
 C&E diagrams are the means of
picturing all these major and minor
causes
Steps in constructing cause and effect
diagram

1. Draw horizontal arrow to the right, write the effect, and draw a box around it.
2. Identify the main causes contributing to the effect.
3. Draw boxes around the main categories and connect the boxes to the horizontal arrow with diagonal arrows
to form the fishbone.
4. For each branch, identify specific factors which may be the causes of the effect.
5. Add increasingly detailed levels of causes.
6. Analyze the diagram and circle causes that you can take action on.
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Cause and effect Diagram- Example
 Figure shows a C&E diagram for house paint peeling using four major causes.
 The first step in the construction of a C&E diagram is for the project team to identify the effect or
quality problem.
 It is placed on the right side of a large piece of paper by the team leader.
 Next, the major causes are identified and placed on the diagram.
 Determining all the minor causes requires brainstorming by the project team.
 Brainstorming is an idea generating technique that is well suited to the C&E diagram.
 It uses the creative thinking capacity of the team.

 Once the C&E diagram is complete, it must be evaluated to determine the most likely causes.
 This activity is accomplished in a separate session. The procedure is to have each person vote on the
minor causes.
 Team members may vote on more than one cause.
 Those causes with the most votes are circled, as shown in Figure and the four or five most likely causes
of the effect are determined.
 Solutions are developed to correct the causes and improve the process.
 Criteria for judging the possible solutions include cost, feasibility, resistance to change, consequences,
training, and so forth.
 Once the team agrees on solutions, testing and implementation follow.
 Diagrams are posted in key locations to stimulate continued reference as similar or new problems arise.
 The diagrams are revised as solutions are found and improvements are made.
Benefits of Cause and effect analysis
1. Analyze actual conditions for the purpose of product or service quality improvement, more efficient
use of resources, and reduced costs.
2. Eliminate conditions causing nonconformities and customer complaints.
3. Standardize existing and proposed operations.
4. Educate and train personnel in decision-making and corrective-action activities.
5. Helps determine root causes.
6. Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format.
Applications
1. The C&E diagram has nearly unlimited application in
7. Identifies areas for collecting data.
research, manufacturing, marketing, office operations, service,
8. Indicates possible causes of variation and so forth.
2. One of its strongest assets is the participation and
contribution of everyone involved in the brainstorming process.
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4.2.2 Process Flow Chart

 Process flow diagrams are useful for understanding a ‘mess’.
 A flow chart is simply a picture of a process that shows the sequence of steps for a process.
 The flow chart shows the flow of the product (or) services when it moves through various operations.
 This Chart is useful for visualizing the entire system and identifying potential trouble spots and
locating control activities.
 It answers the question like “Who is the next customer?”. The operations can be changed, reduced,
combined or eliminated for quality improvement. The symbols used are standardised Industrial
Engineering symbols.

Objective of Process Flow Chart

1. Flow charts are used for depicting the processes in an easily understandable form.
2. This is used to understand how any job or process is carried out. Every organization has a number of
processes, each process with a number of sub-processes with clearly defined inputs and outputs.
3. The material methods and processes involve, men, machine, specifications, all used for providing a
service or manufacturing a product.
4. Process flow chart indicate the various steps in the process, which means, all the sub-processes and
their inputs and outputs are documented in one diagram.
5. Process flow chart can be used to describe various processes, such as a manufacturing process, an
administrative or service process, or a project plan
 Elements that may be included in a flowchart are a sequence of actions, materials or services entering or leaving the
process (inputs and outputs), decisions that must be made, people who become involved, time involved each step, and/or
process measurements.
 The diagram makes it easy to Visualize the entire system, identify potential trouble spot
Symbols used for drawing Process Flow Chart Example of Process flow chart
Manufacturing organization
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Steps involved for making Process Flow Chart Use of Process Flow Chart

1. Define the process.
2. List the steps involved.
3. Draw the diagram placing the process steps in
boxes in the order of their sequence and link
each other by arrows.
4. Analyze the flow chart.
1. Flowcharts can help to identify essential steps and
give an overall picture of all the process.
2. It organizes the tasks in sequential order and
identify them by type, e.g.. process, decision, data, etc.
3. Flowcharts can help to document a process.

4.2.3 Check sheet

 Check sheet is a format designed to collect data efficiently.

 Check sheet enables easy collection and analysis of data.
 Check sheet is a simple data collection form consisting of multiple categories with definitions.
 Data are entered on the form with a simple tally mark each time one of the categories occurs.
 Check sheets are sometimes called data collection sheets.. They also get called tally charts, as 'tally
means to count'.
 Purpose of a check sheet is to facilitate the collection and analysis of data.
 The most straightforward check sheet is simply to make a list of items tthat
hat you expect will appear in a
process and to mark a check beside each item when it does appear.

 This type of data collection can be used for almost anything, from checking off the occurrence of
particular types of defects to the counting of expected items
Example of Check sheet 2
Example of Check sheet 1
 (e.g.., the number of times the telephone  The Check sheet for defective items is shown in
rings before being answered). table 3.3. This Check sheet gives the type of
defects.
 The table shows a check sheet used to
 The Check sheets are also designed to show
collect data
ta on telephone interruptions.
location.
 The tick marks were added as data was
 The check sheets are user-friendly
user and include
collected over several weeks. information on time also.
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The following steps are used for constructing a check sheet Uses of check sheet
1. The objective is to be specified clearly and concisely. 1. Check sheet is used to record the
2. The required data is to be collected and relevant data is to be variables in a production process to
chosen. improve the quality.
3. Each data is to be analyzed before entering the record. 2. It can also be used to maintain stocks
4. A check sheet format is to be drawn to record the data. and machinery.
5. The data is to be recorded one-by-one by putting tally lines. 3. It is useful for getting immediate
6. The tally line is to be marked on the check list 1, 11, 111 and inference and taking corrective actions.
1111, and 1111 represented by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 4. Check sheets are used to ensure that the
respectively. necessary procedures are completed
7. The sub-total and the grand total number of facts are to be correctly before the operation begins.
marked on the list.

Types o check sheets

a) Process distribution check sheet is used to collect the data on process variability.
b) Defective item check sheet is used to collect the data to specify the defects occurring along with their
frequency of occurring.
c) Defect location check sheet is used to identify and locate where defects occur on the product.
d) Defect factor check sheet is used to monitor the input parameters. This is a process that may affect the
incidence of defects.
4.2.4 Scatter Diagram
 The simplest way to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables is to plot a
scatter diagram
 Scatter diagram helps in analyzing the relationship between two variables. In the x-axis, we plot the
independent variable and in the y-axis, the effect of the variable (dependent or response variable).
 If a study is conducted about the demand for a particular item at various prices, we may get the data as
given in figure.
 This, relationship can be summarized easily as a straight
line. The advantage of establishing such a relationship is that
once an exercise is carried out in this manner
 It is easy to extrapolate the results m mathematically for any
given situation.
For instance, if an equation has been found for the demand for
biscuits based on price, then the demand at any given price can
be extrapolated
 In another situation, the relationship between
the number of defects and number of men
employed in a service organization is depicted
in figure.
 Here again, this can be approximated to a
straight line with the relation, y = a + bx,
where, 'y' is the dependent variable, 'a' (the
height at which the line intercepts the 'y' axis) and 'b' is the slope.
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In practice, there may be some data, which may not lie in a
straight line or a curve of known shapes while fitting the curve
to get relationships can be established. At least, we can
conclude that is no relationship between the two entities
considered.

Merits of Scatter Diagram

1. Simplicity: It is a simple and non-mathematical method
of studying the correlation between the two variables.
De-merits of Scatter Diagram
2. Easily understandable: It can be easily understood and
1. Non-mathematical method
interpreted..
2. Rough Measure
3. Not affected by extreme items: It is not influenced by
3. Unsuitable for large observations:
the size of extreme values, whereas most of the
mathematical methods lack this quality.
4. First Step: It is a step in investigating the relationship
between two variables.
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4.2.5 Pareto Diagram
 It is a tool named after Vilfredo Pareto, Italian economist who studied the distributions of wealth in
different countries and concluded that about 20 percent of people have - about 80% of a society’s
wealth.
 This same distribution has been observed in other areas and has been termed as ‘Pareto effect’ (or)
‘Pareto Principle’.
 The ‘Pareto principle’ was observed by Joseph Juran in 1950; Juran found that most effects are
resulted from few causes.
 Pareto charts are used to display the pareto principle in action, arranging data so that vital few factors
(that cause most of the problems) can be concentrated and trivial many factors can be ignored.
 Pareto analysis is often used to analyze the data collected in Check sheets.
 A Pareto distribution is one in which the characteristics observed are ordered from largest frequency to
smallest.
Pareto diagram –Example 1 Pareto diagram –Example 2
Count of defects categorized under various causes
in casting process

The following steps are used for constructing a pareto diagram

1. The method for classifying the data is to be determined by means of problem, causes, failures, complaints and
non-conformities.
2. The required data is to be collected by using a check sheet or by using historical data.
3. The data (frequency) is to be arranged in descending order starting from largest to smallest category.
4. The percentage of total is to be calculated for each category.
5. The cumulative percentages are to be computed.
6. A bar chart with two vertical axes is to be drawn. The measured values of each cause are to be marked along the
left vertical axis, starting from zero to till the total number of causes. The right vertical axis should have the same
height starting from zero to 100%. The right vertical axis displays the cumulative percentages. The different
causes are to be marked along the horizontal axis, starting from left to right in the descending order of frequency.
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7. The column graphs are to be drawn in solid line pertaining to each of the causes in descending order.
8. A cumulative percentage line is to be drawn.

4.3.1 Histogram and fundamentals of statics

 A histogram is a graphical representation of distribution of data. It was first introduced by Karl
Pearson.
 Histogram is a TQM tool which provides a simple, graphical view of accumulated data, including its
dispersion and central tendency.
 Variation in a process always exists and generally displays some pattern.
Objective /use of Histogram
1. A Histogram is a graphical representation of the variation in a set of data.
2. Histograms provide Clues about the characteristics of the parent population from which a sample is
taken.
3. Using a histogram, the shape of the distribution can be seen clearly and inferences can be made about
the population.
4. Histogram is a graph showing the number of data points falling in various ranges.
Histogram –Example
 Histogram is prepared by segmenting the data into equal sized groups.
 The groups of the data are called classes' and in the context of histogram, they are known as Bins'
because they act as containers that accumulate data.
 Consider the exam scores of a group of students.
 Number of students falling in between different of range of marks scored in a subject is given in the
table below. A histogram is prepared based on this data :
 To construct histogram groups or bins are plotted in the x-axis and the frequencies in the y-axis.
 High bars indicate more points in a class and low bars indicate fewer points.

Steps in constructing a histogram

1. Decide the characteristic and description.
2. Collect the data on the characteristic with respect to the
description.
3. Draw bars corresponding to the description.
4 Shade the bars for easy and quick interpretation
 If too few or too many bars are used, the histogram can be
misleading.
 Shape of the histogram is sensitive to the number of bins.
 If the bins are too wide, important information might get
omitted
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Types of Histogram
 There are five types of histogram based on five times of distribution.
 Each distribution indicate different types of behavior
1. Bell shaped or symmetrical distribution:
• The normal pattern in which histogram is symmetrical
• The process is centered on some value and observations are less frequent w when
hen they are farther away
from this central value.
2. Skewed distribution: Right or left side tail is longer
3. Plateau Distribution: Suggest that there are no clear pattern or process(not shown)
4. Double peaked distribution/Bimodal pattern: Suggest that there two distribution
5. Peaked Pattern: More values occurred at centre

4.4.1 Control charts for improving process capability

 Control
ontrol chart is the most widely used tool
in statistical process control
 This was introduced by Walter A. Shewart
in 1926.
 It is a graphic representation of measured
actual process data relative to the
computed control limits.
 Control chart is aimed to monitor the
quality of process continuously. The
general form of control chart is shown in
Fig

Explanation of Control charts

 In the above Fig.
 X-axis - sample number or lot number plotted at regular intervals.
 Y-axis - measured or computed quality characteristics.
 Three horizontal lines are drawn on the control charts.
 The top line represents the Upper Control Limit (UCL) and the bottom line represents the
Lower Control Limit (LCL).
 These two lines are generally set at ±3σ from the sample mean.
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 The centre line is the average mean value of the characteristic usually set at the normal design value.
 The sample points are plotted one by one on the control charts and are connected with straight line
segments.
 If the sample value lies inside the ±3σ limits, the process is said to be in control.
 If the sample value lies outside the control limits, then the process is said to be out of control.
 Hence, appropriate corrective action is to be carried out in order to eliminate the causes responsible for
this behavior
Step to Develop control chart
Advantages/ Uses of control charts
Step l -Preparation
1. Control charts are the line graphs that are used to a) Choose the variable or attribute
track a process trend or process performance in b) Determine the basis, size and frequency
order to control the process characteristics. c) Set up the control chart.
2. Control charts are used to improve the quality of the Step 2 - Data collection
product a) Record the data.
3. It also to reduce certain unwanted cost. b) Calculate relevant statistics, averages, and
4. Control charts are used to improve the process proportions and so on
capability by reducing the variability in the process c) Plot the statistics on the chart.
adopted. Step 3- Determination of trial control
5. Detect unusual variations taking place in the process limits
6. Set tolerance limits a) Draw the central line (process average)
7. Reduce rejection as it warns in time so that the b) Compute the upper and lower control
process can be rectified limits
8. Variations with in control limit shows that random Step 4- Analysis and interpretation
causes are present and hence safe. a) Investigate the client for lack of control.
9. It determines whether a given process can meet the b) Eliminate out-of-control points.
specification without fundamental changes in c) Re-compute control limits, if necessary.
product design. Step 5- Use as a problem-solving tool
a) ldentify out of control situations and take
corrective actions.
Types of control charts
 Control charts are broadly classified into two types. They are:
1. Control charts for variables: The quality characteristic is actually measured by the help of instruments and
recorded. For example,
(i) The length and diameter of the shaft are measured.
(ii) Operating temperature is kept at 0 degree Celsius .
(iii) Tensile strength is kept at 100 N/m2
Commonly used variable charts are a)R Chart b) σ chart c) X chart
2. Control charts for attributes: Only the number of articles conforming the charts is recorded and the
number of articles failing to conform to any specific requirement of the quality characteristics are not
considered. For example,
(i) Number of defective products produced by a manufacturing process.
(ii) Measuring the diameter of a hole with the help of “Go or No Go” gauges to determine whether the product
conform or does not conform the specifications.
(iii) Items are visually inspected such as colour, scratches and damage parts etc.
Commonly used attribute charts are a)P Chart b) C chart
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Comparison between variable chart and attribute chart

Variable chart Attribute chart

Cost of collecting data variable chart is more. Cost of collecting data attribute chart is less.

Variable charts are suited for critical Suited for cases where inspection is carried out
dimensions. with a view of classifying an article as accepted
or rejected.

Sample size is generally less. Sample size is generally more.

Provides maximum utilization of information Information required is already available from

gathered. inspection records.

Not easily understood. Easy to understand

e.g. X charts, R charts, etc. e.g. p, c charts

4.5.1 Taguchi’s robust design

 Robust design is the designing of products, devices and production equipment so that their
performance and function is insensitive to the numerous sources of variation such as production and
assembly tolerances, ambient use conditions, or degradation over time.
 Robust design is to minimize the impact of variation in a product.
 For example, suppose the product gets exposed to variation in production (eg., tolerances or material
abnormalities) or use case (eg., where the user is applying more force). In that case, the end-user should
not experience any change in the product's behavior.
 Dr.Genichi Taguchi, a Mechanical Engineer, Japan developed the concept of robust design.
 Taguchi robust design is used to find the appropriate control factor levels in a design or a process to
make the system less sensitive to variations due to uncontrollable noise factors.
Phases in design process to achieve robustness

 To achieve desirable product quality by design, Taguchi suggests a three-stage process, viz.,
system design, parameter design, and tolerance design
1. System design
 System design is composed of traditional research and development.
 The system design stage is where new ideas, concepts and knowledge in the areas of science
 technology are utilized by the design team to determine the right combination of materials, parts,
processes and design factors that will satisfy functional and economical specifications.
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2. Parameter design - Parameter design is the selection of optimal conditions (parameters), so that the
product is least sensitive to noise variables.
 In parameter design, there are two types of factors that affect a product functional characteristic, viz.,
control factors and noise factors.
 Control factors are those factors which can easily be controlled such as material choice, cycle time, or
mold temperature in an injection molding process.
 Noise factors are uncontrollable variables that can cause significant variability in the process or the
product. Noise factors are classified into there. They are discussed below.
1. External noise - An external noise factor is a source of variation that is external product or process
(outside temperature, humidity, input voltage)
2. Internal noise -Internal noise factors are sources of variation that are internal to the product or process.
(wear of mechanical component, spoilage of raw material)
Unit-to-unit noise- Its factors consist of inherent random variations in the process or product caused
 Parameter design identifies the combination of control factors that allow the system to achieve its
function and remain insensitive to effects of noise factors. In this way the product performs better,
reducing the loss to the customer. The Taguchi concept attempts to reduce the impact of noise rather
than eliminate it.
3. Tolerance design
 The final step in Taguclhi's robust design approach is tolerance design.
 A tolerance is the allowable variation in dimension and geometry of each feature in the product.
 Larger tolerance may affect the functionality of the part. Reducing the tolerances generally, increases the
cost of the product or process because it requires better materials, components, or machinery.
 Admissible range of factors identified.
For example, in designing the cooling system for a room, the thermostat setting is the signal and the
resulting room temperature is the response. The parameters/factors that are beyond the control of the
designer (noise factors) are outside temperature, opening/closing of windows, and number of occupants.
Parameters that can be specified by the designer are number of registers (grille with moving parts),
their locations, size of the air conditioning unit, insulation are the control factors. Ideally, the resulting
room temperature should be equal to the set point temperature. The job of the designer is to select
appropriate control factors and their settings so that the deviation from the ideal is minimum at a low
cost.
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4.5.2 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)

 It is innovative Japanese concept.
 Total productive maintenance (TPM) is a strategy that operates according to the idea that
everyone in a facility should participate in maintenance, rather than just the maintenance team.
 This approach uses the skills of all employees and seeks to incorporate maintenance into the everyday
performance of a facility.
 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) refers to a management System for optimizing
the productivity of manufacturing equipment through systematic equipment
maintenance involving employees at all levels.
 The aims of TPM are high:
1. No breakdowns,
2. No small stops or slow running,
3. No defects,
4. No accidents.
 The goal of TPM is to improve overall productivity and quality by optimizing equipment availability
and performance.
Eight Pillars of TPM
 It consists 5-S foundation and eight
supporting activities

1. Foundation - 5-S- TPM starts with 5-S.

 The goal of 5-S is to create a work
environment that is clean and well-
organized Problems cannot be clearly
seen when the work place is
unorganized.
 Cleaning and organizing the workplace
helps to uncover problems. It consists of
five elements which are listed below.
a) Sort (eliminate anything that is not truly
needed in the work area)
b) Set in order (organize the remaining items)
c) Shine (cleans and inspects the work area)
d) Standardize (create standards for performing the above three activities)
c) Sustain – Ensure standards re regularly applied

2. Pillar 2 - Autonomous maintenance - This pillar is aimed towards developing operators to be able
to take care of small maintenance tasks, thus freeing up the skilled maintenance people to spend time on
more value added activity and technical repairs. The operators are responsible for upkeep of their equipment to
prevent it from deteriorating. The policy followed is the uninterrupted operation of equipments, flexible
operators to operate and maintain other equipments, eliminating the defects at source through active employee
participation and stepwise implementation of autonomous maintenance.
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3. Pillar 3- Planned maintenance - It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments
producing defect free products for total customer satisfaction. Planned maintenance achieves and sustains
availability of machines at an optimum Maintenance cost, reduces spares inventory, and improves reliability
and maintainability of machines

4. Pillar 4 - Early management and initial flow control – This pillar is aimed at establishing a
system to develop the production of new products and new equipments in a minimum start up time.

5. Pillar 5 - Quality maintenance - It is aimed towards customer delight through highest quality through
defect free manufacturing. The focus is on eliminating non conformances in a systematic manner.

6. Pillar 6 - Education and training- 1t is aimed to have multi skilled revived employees whose morale
is high and who has eager to come to work and perform all required functions effectively and independently.
Education is given to operators to upgrade their skill.

7. Pillar 7 - Office TPM/administrative and office Maintenance - This includes analyzing

processes and procedures towards increased office automation. Office TPM must be followed to improve
efficiency in the administrative functions, and identify and eliminate losses.

9. Pillar 8 - Safety, health and environment - In this area, focus is on to create a safe workplace and
surrounding area that is not damaged by our process or procedures. This pillar will play an active role in each of
the other pillars on a regular basis.

Advantages of Total Productive Maintenance

1. Reduction in unexpected equipment/system failures.
2. Reduction in direct maintenance costs.
3. Reduction in quality costs, both internal and external.

4.5.3 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)

Failure Mode, Effect and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) is also called FMEA.
In FMEA
(i) Potential failures are first identified in terms of failure modes.
(ii) For each failure mode, the effect on total system is then identified.
(iii) Finally, a plan is developed and action is taken to minimize the probability of failure (or) to
minimize` the effect of failure.
 The FMEA provides a structural means of determining the impact of different modes in which a
product may fail while in operation.
 The information obtained while completing FMEA, serves as a useful input to modify the design of
product (or) process under consideration
 It conducted in the product design or process development stage.
Module 4 MET414 Quality Management
Block diagram shows the importance of FMEA
 FMEA gives information such as ease, difficulty in
detection of failure and indicates to the designers the
changes needed in product to simplify maintenance,
its basic assembly (or) factors related to SAFETY
Stages of FMEA
 There are four stages in FMEA which are given below.
Stage - 1 Specifying Possibilities
 (a) Functions (b) Possible Failure Modes (c) Root
causes (d) Effects (e) Detection/Prevention
Stage - 2 Quantifying Risk
 (a) Probability of cause (b) Severity of Effect (c) Effectiveness of control to prevent cause (d) Risk
Priority Number
Stage - 3 Correcting High risk causes
 (a) Prioritizing work (b) Detailing Action (c) Assigning action responsibility
 (d) Check points on completion
Stage - 4 Re-evaluation of risk
 (a) Recalculation of Risk Priority Number.
Steps involved in FMEA/ Design of FMEA Document
 A block diagram is created to describe the system and information about the system and its function.
 Then a worksheet is created, which Contains the important information about the system, such as
revision date or name of the components.
 On this worksheet all the items or functions of the subject should be listed in a logical manner, based on
the block diagram.
Other steps followed are discussed below
Step 1-Severity
 Determine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their effects.
 Then effect of each failure mode identified. Each effect is then given a severity number (S) from 1 (no
danger) to 10 (critical).
Step 2- Occurrence
 In this step it is necessary to look at the cause of a failure mode and how many times it occurs.
 A failure mode is given an occurrence ranking (O), again 1-10.
Step 3 - Detection
 In this step, the current controls of the system that prevent failure modes from occurring or which detect
the failure are checked.
 Then a detection number (D) which indicates the ability of planned tests and inspections to remove
defects or detect failure modes in time.
 A high detection number indicates that the chances are high that the failure will escape detection,
or in other words, that the chances of detection are low.
After these 3 basic steps, Risk Priority Number (RPN) is calculated multiplying S x O x D.
 Then actions such as inspection, testing, redesign are carried out.
 Once the actions have been implemented in the design/process, the new RPN should be checked, to
confirm the improvements.
An example of FMEA Worksheet
Function Failure Effects S O D RPN Action
Mode Severity Occurrence Detection
Module 4 MET414 Quality Management
Purpose of FMEA/FMEA is a methodology designed to:-
1. Identify potential failure modes for a product or process.
2 Assess the risk associated with those failure modes and prioritize issues for corrective action.
3. Identify and carry out corrective actions to address the most serious concerns
4. FMEA anticipates the causes of failure and prevents them from happening.
5. FMEA debugs and prevents problems that may occur in the manufacturing process.
6. Corrective actions are taken after a failure mode is identified.
7. FMEA provides justification for setting up a process in a certain manner.
8. FMEA is used by engineers to analyze all possible non-conformities and problems that may arise in a given
process (or) with a certain product.
Advantages of FMEA
1. FMEA combines the technology and experience of people in identifying various failure modes of a
product or process.
2. FMEA identifies the causes of failures and minimizes them.
3. Since FMEA identifies the potential failure modes right at the design stage, it minimizes the design
changes and their associated costs.
4. increases customer satisfaction.
5. Improves product/ process reliability and quality.
6. Debugs and prevents problems that may occur in the manufacturing process.
7. Establishes test program requirements to determine the rate of failure which are already not available.
8. Determining the effectiveness of changes in a proposed product or process and also to determine
9. Prioritize the product or process deficiencies for improvement.
10. Provides training for new employees.
11. Improves team work.
12. Documenting the process in a systematic manner.
13. Exchanging the information's with other professionals having the similar problems.
Different types of FMEA
 There are several types of FMEA as follows.
1. Design FMEA
2. Process FMEA
3. Equipment FMEA
4. Maintenance FMEA
5. Concept FMEA
6. Service FMEA
7. System FMEA
8. Environmental
 FMEA The above all types can be broadly categorized under either Design FMEA (or) Process FMEA.
 Because, equipment, service and environmental FMEA are just slightly modified versions of process
FMEA; and system FMEA is a combination of design and process FMEA.
Module 4 MET414 Quality Management
IMPORTNANT QUESTIONS (MOEL QP)
1. “X and R charts always go hand in hand”. Elaborate

An: X and R chart go hand in hand when monitoring variables, because they measure two critical
parameters-central tendency and dispersion. The X chart is developed from the average of each sub-
group data. The R-chart is developed from the ranges of each sub-group data, which is calculated by
subtracting the maximum and the minimum values in each sub-group.

2. What are the measures of Central tendency and dispersion?

An: X Chart and R Chart.
Control of the process average (or) mean quality level usually done with X Chart
Control chart or range is done with R-Chart. X and R chart go hand in hand when monitoring
variables, because they measure two critical parameters-central tendency and dispersion. The X chart
is developed from the average of each sub-group data. The R-chart is developed from the ranges of each
sub-group data, which is calculated by subtracting the maximum and the minimum values in each sub-
group.
3. With the aid of an example, Describe the principles of cause and effect diagram. (Refer Note)
4. Describe the procedure to be followed in a brain storming meeting. (Refer Note - Various steps
involved in creating an Affinity Diagram)
5. Following are the data on the quality costs incurred in a manufacturing company in a month: Classify
the above quality costs into preventive, appraisal and failure costs. Conduct Pareto analysis and
comment on the results. Suggest a proposal with anticipation on the quality costs observable in future.

AN:
Module 4 MET414 Quality Management

Description Quality Cost Cumulative % Cumulative

Scrap Disposal 50,000 50000 25.58

Concessions 40,000 90,000 46.04
and
Downgrading
System failure 40,000 1,30,000 66.50
Manufacturing 30,000 1,60,000 81.84
losses
Customer 25,000 1,85,000 94.63
returns
Test materials 5000 1,90,000 97.19
Calibration 2000 1,92,000 98.21
Training 2000 1,94,000 99.23
Product audits 1000 1,95,000 99.74
Quality 500 1,95,500 100.00
planning

Comment on the results. Suggest a proposal with anticipation on the quality costs observable in future –
Self Explanatory based on diagram
 Analyze the diagram – Suggest anticipation on the quality costs observable in future

Tips for Reducing Cost of Quality (COQ)

 The COQ Model: Measure the Quality Effort. ...
 Focus on Prevention. ...
 Train Workers on Quality Standards. ...
 Invest in Software that Focuses on Quality.