Contents

1. Power train system.................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Conventional power train system...................................................................................................1
1.3 Hybrid powertrain system..............................................................................................................2
2. Power train components........................................................................................................................3
2.1 Engine.............................................................................................................................................3
2.2 Clutch.............................................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Classification...........................................................................................................................4
2.2.2 Principles of operation...........................................................................................................6
2.3 Transmission...................................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Types of transmission.............................................................................................................7
2.3.3 Principles of operation..........................................................................................................10
2.4 Drive shaft....................................................................................................................................10
2.5 Differential....................................................................................................................................11
2.5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................11
2.5.2 Classification.........................................................................................................................11
2.5.3 Principle of operation...........................................................................................................12
2.6 Axle...............................................................................................................................................13
2.6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................13
2.6.2 Classification.........................................................................................................................14
3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................14
4. Reference.............................................................................................................................................15
1. Power train system
1.1 Introduction
A powertrain is a system that converts the chemical energy stored in fuel into mechanical energy
that can be used to propel a vehicle. The main components of a powertrain are the engine,
transmission, driveshaft, axles, and differential.
 The engine is the heart of the powertrain. It converts the chemical energy in fuel into heat,
which is then used to turn the crankshaft. The crankshaft is a rotating shaft that is
connected to the transmission.
 The transmission is a device that changes the speed and direction of the power from the
engine. It does this by using a series of gears. The transmission allows the driver to select
the right gear for the current speed and terrain.
 The driveshaft is a long, rotating shaft that connects the transmission to the axles. It
transmits the power from the transmission to the axles.
 The axles are a pair of rotating shafts that are connected to the wheels. They transmit the
power from the driveshaft to the wheels.
 The differential is a device that allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds. This is
necessary when the vehicle is turning.
The powertrain is a complex system that is essential for the operation of a vehicle. It is responsible
for converting the chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy that can be used to propel the
vehicle. The powertrain is also responsible for providing the driver with control over the vehicle's
speed and direction.
There are many different types of powertrains, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
The most common type of powertrain is the internal combustion engine (ICE) powertrain. ICE
powertrains are relatively simple and efficient, but they produce emissions that can pollute the
environment.
Other types of powertrains include hybrid powertrains, electric powertrains, and fuel cell
powertrains. Hybrid powertrains combine an ICE with an electric motor. Electric powertrains use
only electric motors to power the vehicle. Fuel cell powertrains use hydrogen fuel cells to generate
electricity, which is then used to power the vehicle.
The type of powertrain that is used in a vehicle depends on a number of factors, including the
vehicle's size, weight, performance requirements, and emissions regulations.
The powertrain is a critical component of a vehicle. It is responsible for the vehicle's performance,
fuel efficiency, and emissions. As the automotive industry continues to evolve, the powertrain is
likely to become even more important as manufacturers seek to develop more efficient and
environmentally friendly vehicles.

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 1.2 Conventional power train system
A conventional transmission system is a type of transmission that uses a series of gears to transfer power
from the engine to the wheels. The gears are arranged in a way that allows the engine to operate at a
lower speed than the wheels, which is necessary for efficient operation. Conventional transmission
systems are the most common type of transmission used in cars, trucks, and other vehicles.
There are two main types of conventional transmission systems: manual and automatic. Manual
transmission systems require the driver to shift gears manually, while automatic transmission
systems do so automatically. Automatic transmission systems are more popular than manual
transmission systems because they are easier to operate and provide a smoother ride.
Conventional transmission systems have a number of advantages, including:
 They are relatively simple and easy to repair.
 They are very efficient, which can save fuel.
 They can be used in a variety of vehicles, from cars to trucks to buses.
However, conventional transmission systems also have a number of disadvantages, including:
 They can be noisy, especially when shifting gears.
 They can be less fuel-efficient than other types of transmission systems, such as CVTs.
 They can be more expensive to purchase and maintain than other types of transmission
systems.
Conventional transmission systems are a reliable and efficient way to transfer power from the
engine to the wheels. They are the most common type of transmission used in cars, trucks, and
other vehicles, and they offer a number of advantages over other types of transmission systems.
Here are some of the most common types of conventional transmission systems:
 Manual transmission: This is the most basic type of conventional transmission system.
The driver shifts gears manually using a clutch pedal and a gearshift lever.
 Automatic transmission: This type of transmission automatically shifts gears without any
input from the driver. Automatic transmissions are more popular than manual
transmissions because they are easier to operate and provide a smoother ride.
 Continuously variable transmission (CVT): This type of transmission uses a belt or
chain to continuously vary the gear ratio. CVTs are more fuel-efficient than traditional
automatic transmissions, but they can be more expensive to purchase and maintain.

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 Figure 1: conventional power train

1.3Hybrid powertrain system

A hybrid powertrain system is a type of powertrain that uses a combination of an internal
combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor to power the vehicle. Hybrid powertrain systems
are more efficient than conventional powertrain systems, and they produce lower emissions.
There are two main types of hybrid powertrain systems: parallel hybrid systems and series hybrid
systems.
 Parallel hybrid systems use both the ICE and the electric motor to power the wheels. The
ICE and the electric motor can work together or independently, depending on the driving
conditions.
 Series hybrid systems use the ICE to power a generator, which in turn powers the electric
motor. The electric motor is the only thing that powers the wheels.
Hybrid powertrain systems offer a number of advantages over conventional powertrain systems,
including:
 Improved fuel efficiency: Hybrid powertrain systems can achieve fuel economy that is up
to 50% better than conventional powertrain systems.
 Reduced emissions: Hybrid powertrain systems produce lower emissions than
conventional powertrain systems, which helps to improve air quality.
 Smoother ride: Hybrid powertrain systems can provide a smoother ride than conventional
powertrain systems, especially when starting from a stop or going up hills.
Hybrid powertrain systems also have some disadvantages, including:
 Higher purchase price: Hybrid powertrain systems typically cost more than conventional
powertrain systems.
 Limited range: The electric motor in a hybrid powertrain system can only power the
vehicle for a limited distance. Once the battery is depleted, the ICE will start to power the
vehicle.
 Complexity: Hybrid powertrain systems are more complex than conventional powertrain
systems, which can make them more difficult to repair.
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Hybrid powertrain systems offer a number of advantages over conventional powertrain systems.
They are more efficient, produce lower emissions, and can provide a smoother ride. However, they
also cost more and have a limited range.
Here are some of the most common types of hybrid powertrain systems:
 Mild hybrid: Mild hybrid systems use a small electric motor to assist the ICE. The electric
motor can provide a boost of power when needed, or it can help to recover energy during
braking.
 Full hybrid: Full hybrid systems use the ICE and the electric motor to power the wheels.
The ICE and the electric motor can work together or independently, depending on the
driving conditions.
 Plug-in hybrid: Plug-in hybrid systems use the ICE and the electric motor to power the
wheels. The electric motor can be plugged into an outlet to be recharged. Plug-in hybrid
systems have a longer electric-only range than full hybrid systems.

2. Power train components

2.1 Engine
The engine is the heart of the powertrain system. It converts the chemical energy in the fuel into
mechanical energy, which is then used to turn the wheels.
The engine is connected to the transmission, which is responsible for transferring the power from
the engine to the wheels. The transmission does this by using a series of gears to change the speed
and direction of the power.
The transmission is then connected to the driveshaft, which is a long, rotating shaft that transfers
the power from the transmission to the wheels. The driveshaft is located underneath the vehicle
and is connected to the wheels by the axles.
The axles are the parts of the vehicle that connect the driveshaft to the wheels. They transfer the
power from the driveshaft to the wheels and allow the wheels to rotate.

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The wheels are the parts of the vehicle that contact the ground. They convert the power from the
driveshaft into motion, which propels the vehicle forward.
The powertrain system is a complex system that is responsible for moving the vehicle. It is made
up of a number of different components, each of which plays an important role in the overall
operation of the system.
Here are some of the most common types of engines used in powertrain systems:
 Gasoline engines: Gasoline engines are the most common type of engine used in cars and
trucks. They use spark plugs to ignite the fuel-air mixture, which creates an explosion that
forces the pistons down. The pistons turn the crankshaft, which then turns the wheels.
 Diesel engines: Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline engines, but they are also
more expensive. They use compression ignition to ignite the fuel-air mixture, which means
that the fuel ignites when it is compressed, rather than when it is ignited by a spark plug.

2.1 Clutch
A clutch is a mechanical device that connects and disconnects the engine from the transmission in
a motor vehicle. It is used to start the engine, change gears, and stop the vehicle. The clutch is
typically located between the engine and the transmission. It consists of a flywheel, a clutch plate,
a pressure plate, and a throw-out bearing.

The flywheel is attached to the engine crankshaft. The clutch plate is attached to the flywheel. The
pressure plate is attached to the clutch cover. The throw-out bearing is attached to the clutch pedal.

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 Figure 2: clutch

2.1.1 Classification

Clutches can be classified in a number of ways:

According to type of actuation

 Mechanical clutches: are the most common type of clutch. They are operated by the
driver using a clutch pedal. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the throw-out bearing pushes
the pressure plate away from the clutch plate. This disengages the clutch and disconnects
the engine from the transmission. When the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate
moves back against the clutch plate and engages the clutch. This connects the engine to the
transmission and allows the vehicle to move.
 mechanical clutches are relatively simple and inexpensive to manufacture.
However, they can be difficult to operate smoothly, especially in stop-and-go
traffic.
 Hydraulic clutches: operated by hydraulic fluid. When the clutch pedal is pressed, a
piston in the master cylinder pushes hydraulic fluid through a line to the slave cylinder.
The slave cylinder then pushes the throw-out bearing, which disengages the clutch. When
the clutch pedal is released, the piston in the master cylinder retracts, which allows the
slave cylinder to return to its original position. This engages the clutch.
 hydraulic clutches are more expensive to manufacture than manual clutches, but
they are easier to operate smoothly. They are also less likely to wear out than
manual clutches.
 Electrohydraulic clutches: are operated by a combination of hydraulic fluid and an
electric motor. When the driver presses the clutch pedal, an electric motor activates a
solenoid valve. The solenoid valve opens, which allows hydraulic fluid to flow to the slave
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 cylinder. The slave cylinder then pushes the throw-out bearing, which disengages the
clutch. When the driver releases the clutch pedal, the electric motor deactivates the
solenoid valve. This stops the flow of hydraulic fluid to the slave cylinder, which allows
the clutch to engage.
 are the most expensive type of clutch, but they are also the most sophisticated.
They are easy to operate smoothly and they are very durable.

According to number of plates

 Single-plate clutches: have one clutch plate. Single-plate clutches are the most common
type of clutch. They are relatively simple and inexpensive to manufacture. However, they
can only transmit a limited amount of torque.
 Multi-plate clutches: have multiple clutch plates. Multi-plate clutches can transmit more
torque than single-plate clutches. They are also more durable and can withstand more wear
and tear. However, they are also more expensive to manufacture.

Weather it is wet or dry

 Wet clutches: are submerged in oil. Wet clutches are more durable than dry clutches. They
can also withstand more heat and wear and tear. However, they are also more expensive to
manufacture and maintain.
 Dry clutches: are not submerged in oil. Dry clutches are less expensive to manufacture
and maintain than wet clutches. However, they are not as durable and cannot withstand as
much heat and wear and tear.

The type of clutch that is best for a particular vehicle will depend on a number of factors,
including the type of vehicle, the amount of torque that the engine produces, and the driving
conditions.

2.1.2 Principles of operation

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the throw-out bearing pushes the pressure plate away from the
clutch plate. This disengages the clutch and disconnects the engine from the transmission. When
the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate moves back against the clutch plate and engages the
clutch. This connects the engine to the transmission and allows the vehicle to move.

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The clutch works on the principle of friction. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the friction
between the clutch plate and the flywheel is reduced. This allows the engine to rotate freely
without having to turn the wheels. When the clutch pedal is released, the friction between the
clutch plate and the flywheel is increased. This connects the engine to the transmission and allows
the vehicle to move.

2.2 Transmission
2.2.1 Introduction

A transmission is a mechanical device that changes the speed and torque of a rotating power
source. In the context of automobiles, the transmission is responsible for transferring power from
the engine to the wheels. The transmission does this by using a series of gears to multiply or
divide the engine's speed and torque.
The transmission plays a number of important roles in the powertrain system. First, it allows the
engine to operate at its most efficient speed, regardless of the speed of the vehicle. Second, it
provides the driver with a variety of gear ratios to choose from, which allows them to select the
appropriate gear for the driving conditions. Third, it helps to protect the engine from damage by
preventing it from over-revving.
The type of transmission that is best for a particular vehicle will depend on a number of factors,
including the vehicle's weight, its intended use, and the driver's preferences.
Here are some of the benefits of having a transmission in a powertrain system:
 Increased fuel efficiency.
 Improved performance.
 Increased safety
Here are some of the drawbacks of having a transmission in a powertrain system:
 Increased complexity
 Increased weight
 Increased noise
2.2.2 Types of transmission

There are a number of different types of transmissions available, including manual transmissions,
automatic transmissions, and continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Manual transmissions
are the most basic type of transmission and require the driver to shift gears manually. Automatic
transmissions shift gears automatically, and CVTs do not have gears at all.

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 2.2.2.1 Manual
A manual transmission is a type of transmission that requires the driver to shift gears manually.
Manual transmissions are the most basic type of transmission and have been used in automobiles
for over a century.

Manual transmissions work by using a series of gears to multiply or divide the engine's speed and
torque. The driver can select the appropriate gear for the driving conditions by using the gearshift.

Manual transmissions offer a number of advantages over automatic transmissions, including:

 Increased fuel efficiency.

 Increased control
 Lower cost

Here are the main components of a manual transmission with brief definitions:
 Input shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the engine to the transmission.
 Output shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the transmission to the driveshaft.
 Gears: The gears are used to multiply or divide the engine's speed and torque.
 Clutch: The clutch is used to disconnect the engine from the transmission during gearshifts.
 Shifter: The shifter is used to select the desired gear.
 Synchromesh: The synchromesh is used to match the engine's speed to the transmission's
speed during gearshifts.
 Transmission case: The main housing for the transmission components.
 Transmission pan: A reservoir that holds the transmission fluid.
 Bearings: The bearings support the shafts and gears and reduce friction.
 Seals: The seals prevent leaks in the transmission.
 Gaskets: The gaskets seal the transmission case and the transmission pan.
 Cooler: A radiator that helps to cool the transmission fluid.
 Filter: A device that removes contaminants from the transmission fluid.

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 2.2.2.2 Automatic
An automatic transmission is a type of transmission that does not require the driver to shift gears
manually. Automatic transmissions are the most common type of transmission in use today.
Automatic transmissions work by using a series of gears and hydraulics to automatically change
gears as the vehicle accelerates or decelerates. The driver can select different driving modes, such
as drive, park, reverse, and neutral, but the transmission will automatically change gears as
needed.
Automatic transmissions offer a number of advantages over manual transmissions, including:
 Increased convenience
 Increased comfort
 Increased fuel efficiency: Automatic transmissions can be more fuel-efficient than manual
transmissions, especially in stop-and-go traffic.
Here are the main components of an automatic transmission with brief definitions:
 Torque converter: A fluid coupling that transfers power from the engine to the
transmission.
 Planetary gearset: A set of gears that are used to multiply or divide the engine's speed and
torque.
 Hydraulic controls: A system of pumps, valves, and actuators that are used to shift gears
automatically.
 Transmission fluid: A lubricant and coolant that is used to protect the transmission
components.
 Transmission pan: A reservoir that holds the transmission fluid.
 Transmission case: The main housing for the transmission components.
 Input shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the engine to the transmission.
 Output shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the transmission to the driveshaft.
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  Bands: Frictional devices that are used to hold the planetary gears in place.
 Clutch: A frictional device that is used to engage and disengage the planetary gears.
 Governor: A sensor that monitors the speed of the transmission.
 Throttle valve: A valve that controls the flow of air to the engine.
 Shift valves: Valves that control the flow of transmission fluid to the bands and clutches.
 Seals: Devices that prevent leaks in the transmission.
 Gaskets: Devices that seal the transmission pan.
 Cooler: A radiator that helps to cool the transmission fluid.
 Filter: A device that removes contaminants from the transmission fluid.
 Sensors: Devices that monitor the performance of the transmission.
 Wires: Cables that connect the sensors to the computer.

2.2.2.3 Continuously variable transmission

A continuously variable transmission (CVT) is an automatic transmission that can change through
a continuous range of gear ratios. This contrasts with other transmissions that provide a limited
number of gear ratios in fixed steps. The flexibility of a CVT with suitable control may allow the
engine to operate at a constant RPM while the vehicle moves at varying speeds.
CVTs are used in cars, tractors, side-by-sides, motor scooters, snowmobiles, bicycles, and
earthmoving equipment. The most common type of CVT uses two pulleys connected by a belt or
chain; however, several other designs have also been used at times.

CVTs offer a number of advantages over traditional automatic transmissions, including:

 Increased fuel efficiency: CVTs can be more fuel-efficient than traditional automatic
transmissions, especially in stop-and-go traffic.
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  Smoother acceleration: CVTs can provide smoother acceleration than traditional automatic
transmissions, as there are no gearshifts.
 Increased versatility: CVTs can be used in a wider variety of vehicles than traditional
automatic transmissions.
However, CVTs also have some disadvantages, including:
 Higher cost: CVTs are typically more expensive than traditional automatic transmissions.
 More complex: CVTs are more complex than traditional automatic transmissions, which
can make them more difficult to repair or replace.
 Less responsive: CVTs can be less responsive than traditional automatic transmissions,
especially when the driver wants to accelerate quickly.
Here are the main components of a continuously variable transmission (CVT) with brief
definitions:

 Variable-diameter pulleys: The pulleys are used to change the gear ratio. Belt or chain: The
belt or chain transfers power from the engine to the wheels.
 CVT control system: The CVT control system regulates the speed of the pulleys to
maintain the desired gear ratio.
 Torque converter: A fluid coupling that transfers power from the engine to the
transmission.
 Planetary gearset: A set of gears that are used to multiply or divide the engine's speed and
torque.
 Hydraulic controls: A system of pumps, valves, and actuators that are used to shift gears
automatically.
 Transmission fluid: A lubricant and coolant that is used to protect the transmission
components.
 Transmission pan: A reservoir that holds the transmission fluid.
 Transmission case: The main housing for the transmission components.
 Input shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the engine to the transmission.
 Output shaft: The shaft that transfers power from the transmission to the driveshaft.
 Bands: Frictional devices that are used to hold the planetary gears in place.
 Clutch: A frictional device that is used to engage and disengage the planetary gears.
 Governor: A sensor that monitors the speed of the transmission.

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  Throttle valve: A valve that controls the flow of air to the engine.
 Shift valves: Valves that control the flow of transmission fluid to the bands and clutches.
 Seals: Devices that prevent leaks in the transmission.
 Gaskets: Devices that seal the transmission pan.
 Cooler: A radiator that helps to cool the transmission fluid.
 Filter: A device that removes contaminants from the transmission fluid.
 Sensors: Devices that monitor the performance of the transmission.
 Wires: Cables that connect the sensors to the computer.

2.2.3 Principles of operation

A transmission works on the principle of gear ratios. The gears in a transmission are arranged in a
way that allows the driver to select the appropriate gear for the current driving conditions. For
example, when the vehicle is starting from a stop, the driver will select a low gear, which will
allow the engine to produce more torque. When the vehicle is cruising at a constant speed, the
driver will select a high gear, which will allow the engine to run at a lower RPM and save fuel.

2.3 Drive shaft

A drive shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting mechanical power and torque and
rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drivetrain that cannot be connected
directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.
A drive shaft is mostly a hollow tube because it offers the following advantages.

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  Lighter weight - A hollow drive shaft is lighter than a solid drive shaft of the same
diameter. This can improve fuel efficiency and acceleration.
 Stronger - The hollow center of the shaft distributes the stress more evenly across the
shaft's cross-section. This helps to prevent the shaft from bending or breaking under high
torque loads.
 Corrosion resistance - The hollow center of the shaft allows for better air circulation,
which helps to prevent corrosion.
 Cost-effective - Hollow drive shafts are typically less expensive than solid drive shafts.
Universal joints are used in the powertrain of a motor vehicle to transmit power from the engine to
the wheels. The engine and the wheels are not always aligned perfectly, so the universal joint
allows for the slight misalignment. The universal joint also allows the drive shaft to flex and bend,
which is necessary to accommodate the movement of the suspension.

2.4 Differential
2.4.1 Introduction

A differential is a mechanical device that allows the wheels on an axle to rotate at different speeds.
This is necessary because the wheels on a car or truck are not always traveling at the same speed.
For example, when a car turns, the outside wheel has to travel a greater distance than the inside
wheel. The differential allows the outside wheel to rotate faster than the inside wheel without
causing the car to skid.

The differential is located between the driveshaft and the axles. It consists of a housing, a set of
gears, and a carrier. The housing is attached to the driveshaft. The gears are attached to the carrier
and the carrier is attached to the axles.

When the driveshaft rotates, it turns the gears in the differential. The gears turn the carrier, which
turns the axles. The axles turn the wheels. The differential allows the wheels to rotate at different

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speeds by using a set of gears called bevel gears. The bevel gears are arranged in a way that allows
the outside wheel to rotate faster than the inside wheel.

2.4.2 Classification

Differentials can be classified in a number of ways, including by:

 Type of differential
 Open differential: is the most common type of differential. It is simple and
inexpensive to manufacture. However, it has a few drawbacks. First, it can cause
the wheels to slip if one wheel is on a slippery surface and the other wheel is on a
dry surface. Second, it can cause the car to fishtail if one wheel is in a rut and the
other wheel is on a flat surface.
 A limited-slip differential: is designed to reduce wheel slip. It does this by using a
clutch pack or viscous coupling to transfer power from the wheel that is slipping to
the wheel that is not slipping. Limited-slip differentials are more expensive to
manufacture than open differentials, but they provide better traction and handling.
 A locking differential: is designed to lock the two axles together so that they rotate
at the same speed. This is useful for off-road driving, where it can help to prevent
the car from getting stuck. Locking differentials are more expensive to manufacture
than limited-slip differentials, but they provide the best traction and handling.
 Number of axles
 A two-wheel drive differential: is used in cars that only have two driven wheels.
The differential is located between the engine and the driveshaft. It allows the two
wheels to rotate at different speeds, which is necessary for turning.

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  A four-wheel drive differential: is used in cars that have all four wheels driven.
The differential is located between the transfer case and the axles. It allows the four
wheels to rotate at different speeds, which is necessary for turning and for driving
on uneven surfaces.
 Location
 A front differential: is used in cars that have the engine in the front and the drive
wheels in the front. The differential is located between the engine and the axles. It
allows the two wheels to rotate at different speeds, which is necessary for turning.
 A rear differential: is used in cars that have the engine in the front and the drive
wheels in the rear. The differential is located between the engine and the axles. It
allows the two wheels to rotate at different speeds, which is necessary for turning.
 Application
 A passenger car differential: is designed for use in cars that are driven on paved
roads. Passenger car differentials are typically open differentials.
 A truck differential: is designed for use in trucks that are driven on unpaved
roads. Truck differentials are typically limited-slip differentials or locking
differentials.
 A racing differential: is designed for use in race cars. Racing differentials are
typically locking differentials.

2.4.3 Principle of operation

The differential works on the principle of the conservation of momentum. The total momentum of
the two wheels must remain constant, even when they are rotating at different speeds. This means
that if one wheel is rotating faster than the other, the differential will transmit more power to the
faster wheel. The differential is able to transmit power from the engine to the wheels even when
the wheels are not rotating at the same speed. This is necessary for turning and for driving on
uneven surfaces. When a car turns, the outside wheel has to travel a greater distance than the
inside wheel. The differential allows the outside wheel to rotate faster than the inside wheel
without causing the car to skid.

The differential helps to equalize the load on the drivetrain. This can help to reduce wear and tear
on the components. When one wheel is on a slippery surface and the other wheel is on a dry
surface, the differential will transmit more power to the wheel that is rotating more slowly. This
can help to prevent the car from getting stuck.

The differential can cause the wheels to slip if one wheel is on a slippery surface and the other
wheel is on a dry surface. This is because the differential will always transmit more power to the
wheel that is rotating more slowly. The differential can also cause the car to fishtail if one wheel is
in a rut and the other wheel is on a flat surface. This is because the differential will always
transmit more power to the wheel that is rotating more slowly.
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 2.5 Axle
2.5.1 Introduction

Axles in power transmission systems are the central shafts that the wheels on the vehicle rotate
around. They are designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at different
speeds. Axles are typically made of steel or aluminum and are supported by bearings. They are
connected to the wheels by axle nuts or lug nuts.
There are two main types of axles: solid axles and hollow axles. Solid axles are made of a single
piece of metal and are more common in rear-wheel drive vehicles. Hollow axles are made of two
pieces of metal that are joined together and are more common in front-wheel drive vehicles.
Axles are an important part of the power transmission system and help to ensure that the wheels
are able to rotate smoothly and efficiently.
Here are some of the key functions of axles in power transmission systems:
 Transmit power from the engine to the wheels.
 Allow the wheels to rotate at different speeds when turning.
 Support the weight of the vehicle.
 Provide a mounting point for the wheels.

Axles are a critical component of any power transmission system and must be properly maintained
to ensure that they function properly. Some of the common maintenance tasks that should be
performed on axles include:
 Checking the axle nuts or lug nuts for tightness.
 Inspecting the axle for signs of wear or damage.
 Lubricating the axle bearings.

If an axle is not properly maintained, it can cause a number of problems, including:

 Reduced fuel efficiency.

 Increased wear on other components of the power transmission system.
 Vibrations.
 Loss of control of the vehicle.

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 2.5.2 Classification

Axles can be classified in a number of ways, including:

 By type: Axles can be classified as solid, hollow, or differential. Solid axles are made of a
single piece of metal and are the most common type of axle. Hollow axles are made of two
pieces of metal that are joined together and are lighter and more flexible than solid axles.
Differential axles allow the wheels to rotate at different speeds when turning.
 By location: Axles can be classified as front axles, rear axles, or stub axles. Front axles are
located at the front of the vehicle and are responsible for driving the front wheels. Rear
axles are located at the rear of the vehicle and are responsible for driving the rear wheels.
Stub axles are a type of front axle that is used in some front-wheel drive vehicles.
 By function: Axles can be classified as drive axles, non-drive axles, or stub axles. Drive
axles are responsible for driving the wheels. Non-drive axles do not drive the wheels, but
they do support the weight of the vehicle. Stub axles are a type of drive axle that is used in
some front-wheel drive vehicles.
Here are some of the different types of axles:
Solid axle: A solid axle is a single piece of metal that runs the length of the vehicle. It is the most
common type of axle and is used in rear-wheel drive vehicles.
Hollow axle: A hollow axle is made of two pieces of metal that are joined together. It is lighter
and more flexible than a solid axle and is used in front-wheel drive vehicles.
Differential axle: A differential axle allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds when turning.
It is used in all-wheel drive and four-wheel drive vehicles.
Constant velocity (CV) axle: A CV axle is a type of hollow axle that is used in front-wheel drive
vehicles. It allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds without causing vibration.

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3. Conclusion
In conclusion, powertrain systems play a critical role in the functioning and performance of
various vehicles, ranging from cars to trucks, trains, and even ships. These systems are responsible
for generating, transmitting, and controlling power to propel the vehicle and ensure its efficient
operation.
Over the years, powertrain systems have undergone significant advancements, driven by the need
for improved fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and enhanced performance. The development of
electric and hybrid powertrains has revolutionized the automotive industry, offering sustainable
alternatives to traditional internal combustion engines.
Powertrain systems consist of several key components, including the engine, transmission,
drivetrain, and various control modules. These components work in harmony to convert fuel or
electrical energy into mechanical power, transfer it to the wheels, and optimize the overall
efficiency of the vehicle.
Furthermore, powertrain systems have witnessed the integration of advanced technologies such as
computer-controlled engine management systems, regenerative braking, and sophisticated control
algorithms. These technologies have not only improved the overall performance of vehicles but
have also contributed to a cleaner and more sustainable transportation ecosystem.
Looking ahead, powertrain systems are likely to continue evolving as the automotive industry
embraces electrification, automation, and connectivity. Electric powertrains are expected to gain
further popularity, driven by advancements in battery technology, increased charging
infrastructure, and stringent emission regulations.
In summary, powertrain systems represent the heart of modern vehicles, enabling them to operate
efficiently and deliver optimal performance. With ongoing technological advancements, these
systems will play a vital role in shaping the future of transportation, making it more sustainable,
efficient, and connected.

4. Reference
https://www.kia.com/dm/discover-kia/ask/what-are-car-axles.html#:~:text=Axles%20are%20a%20crucial
%20car,and%20moves%20the%20vehicle%20forward.

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