Session # 1 - Globalization
Globalization
- Trades, ideas, political systems,
transportation
- Started with business - trading
- Interconnected
- the process of interaction and
integration among people,
companies, and governments
worldwide
Backbone of the course:
(1) Western Civilization / European
Civilization
- Played a pivotal role in creating a
unified or global community
(2) Christianity
- Major influence in the western
civilization and still has much to offer
to the construction of a world that is
more humane, peaceful,fair,
equitable, and spiritual
(3) Philippine History
- The course will also interface with
the history of the Philippine and pay
special attention to the current
situation of the country
- Middle ages - university life began
History
- Greek : Historein - to be curious to
inquire
- German:
- Historie - the passage of
time, the experience of
temporal change
- Geschichte - the discipline of
history as a branch of
knowledge
- Understand the present through the past
or the understanding of the present by
whatever has been passed down to us from
the past
- Everything comes from history
History as a discipline
a. Subject matter - all aspects of
human life in the past
b. Methodology - gathering information
in the present about the past
c. Presentation of findings - by means
of a narrative, a story, a history
Primary and Secondary Sources
a. Direct Witnesses or in touch with
themes
- Primary sources
- Selected readings ( to
get into the mind of
the protagonist)
b. Secondary sources - people who
use primary sources
- Videos, powerpoint
Why is it partly scientific?
- Coming from facts and evidences -
because we need to prove that we
have evidences
- Historians need to document their
sources to prove that their claims
and make it available to those who
want to verify things
- To realize where historians get their
information
History and Christianity
- Historical religion
- Based on the revelation and the
incarnation of the son of God
- History is divided into BC ( before
christ) and AD ( anno domini or after
christ)
St. Augustine's View of History - Visual Arts: Architecture, Sculpture,
- Deeper meaning of history Painting
- Sacred and secular - Architecture - building
geometrically designed
Influence in Western Culture: temples nd public buildings
- Gave a dynamic sense to history - The Parthenon and
( not cynical) history is geared Erechtheion
towards an end ( the Judgment) - Created
- The individual effect the change classic art
- Make christian aware of their - Replicated by
mission romans and
charlemagne,
Relevance of studying Christianity to and
understand the contemporary worlds renaissance
- Indispensable basis - Paintings were mostly on
- To learn Development of doctrine pots
- Good models to imitate
- Literature: Epic, Drama, history
- Iliad and Odyssey by Homer
Session # 2 - Greek Contri - Euripides
- Sophocles
Greek Contributions to Western - Aesop
Civilization
- Abstract thinking : Philosophy - Religion and religious Debate
- Main contribution is - Greek mythology
Philosophy - achieved the
greatest effect - Sports: Olympic Games
- Only the greeks reflected on
our rational nature and Philosophy
exploited all its - Greatest contribution by the greeks
consequences - Philo-sophia : Love of Wisdom
- Science: Mathematics, Physics, - Wisdom can be loosely
Biology understood as
- Greeks wrote treatises in “learning/knowing through
mathematics and in various reason”
natural sciences ( astronomy, - Asking questions about everything in
biology, or medicine) the universe
- Politics: City-State and Democracy - Starting by asking about
- Creating own public laws and ourselves -these questions
establishing their own kind of link with others about nature
representative political and the world in which we
system live
Branches of Philosophy:
(1) Metaphysics
- Study of being as a being
- Being - the most intimate/
interior to all things that exist
(2) Epistemology
- Study of knowledge - how do
we know
(3) Logic
- Study of correct reasoning
(4) Ethics
- Studying a man’s action in
relation to what is morally
good and bad
(5) Esthetics
- Deals with the nature of
beauty, art, and taste and
with the creation and
appreciation of beauty
(6) Philosophical Anthropology
- Study of human nature from
a philosophical viewpoint
Greek Philosophers
- Most renowned - Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle
- Socrates - father of western
philosophy - by means of
inquiry
- Plato - a wise society run by
Philosophers
- Wrote dialogues of
Socrates
- Aristotle - made pioneering
contributions to philosophy
and science
- Disciple of plato and
socrates
- He is not greek -
Macedonian
- Works: Logic, natural
science, philosophy,
metaphysics, ethics,
and politics
- Philosophers that came before
Socrates are called - Pre-Socratic
- Thales of Miletus -
considered to be the first
philosopher
- More concerned with the
nature of the universe
- Pythagoras, Heraclitus,
Parmenides, Anaximenes,
Heraclitus, Parmenides.
Legacy of Greek Philosophy
- Philosophy provided vocabulary and
a foundation to discuss everything
from a rational viewpoint
- The Hymn to Zeus
- A great example of how
philosophy transformed the
understanding of God and
man
Cleanthes Hymn to Zeus
- The author describes the attributes
of God as the God of philosophers
- God as law-giver ( of a
universal or natural law)
- The author also depicts the features
of a man
- Made in God’s image
How is it similar to our present
understanding of God and man?
- The hymn shows a deeper
understanding of the natures of God
and man
- He discusses the features of both
man and God in a way that is
 familiar in Christianity despite it
being written 200 years before JC
- Christianity adopted many concepts
and ideas from Greek philosophy to
better understand its own faith.
Greek Philosophy’s Contribution to
Christianity
- Explain how Jesus Christ could be
God and man ( one person with two
natures)
- To understand man
- Body and soul
- Faculties of the soul
(intelligence and will)
- The eucharistic contains the
physical presence of jesus
christ but it retains the
accidents of bread and wine
Hellenism
- Greek culture by Alexander the great
and his successors in all the area he
conquered
- Lingua franca - unified very different
people and made those familiar with
greek legacy
Important Legacies of Greek Civilization for
Christianity:
a. Lingua Franca - help spread
christianity
b. Philosophy helped explain Christian
theology
c. Stoicism - preparation for christian
principles and values
- Honor for natural law
- Control of passions
d. Fine Arts would later be inspiration
for Christian Art
Later Influence of Greek Philosophy
- Tradition of deep thinking continued
in Christianity and by the great
christian philosopher during middle
ages
- The 19th century wa productive in
philosophical ideas
- All ideas have philosophical
foundation
Session # 3 - Roman Civ.
Ancient Roman Civilization
The Romans
- Founded by Romulus in 753 BC in
Lazio
- Romulus and Remus - the
legend of she-wolf
- 509 BC birth of the Roman Republic
- 2 Consuls : senate and assemblies
- Senate - made decisions for
the public
- Assemblies - composed of
different people from different
social class
- Society divided into classes
- Patricians - governing class,
who enjoyed wealth of the
empire
- Plebeians - poor men who
comprised the workforce
- Chattel - class fo slaves
- Roman Expansion - based on
military expansion
Trend towards dictatorial power due to
large territory
Triumvirate
(1) Julius Caesar (100- 44 BC)
- First triumvirate
(2) Octavian Vs. Marc Antony
- Second triumvirate
- Octavian becomes emperor
in 27 BC
- An emperor without
title
a. Tribune (of commoners)
b. Princeps (first citizens)
c. Pontifex Maximus ( high
priest of the pagan religion,
semi divine in life and fully
divine after death
Greatest Legacy: Rowan Law
- Law and order were their biggest
export
Pax Romana
- 200 year Roman Peace
- Centralization of bureaucratic
civilization
- Development of roads, organization,
laws and administration
On the Laws of Cicero
- Cicero is doing philosophy of law
- His definition of wisdom
- Origin of wisdom
- Definition of law and its origin
- God places in man
upon creation and
that is universal and
based on reason
- Its connection to our
immortal souls
- Its connection to virtue
- Universal application of law
Kinds of Roman Law
- Lus civile - for citizens
- Lus gentium - for foreigners
- Lus naturale - for everyone
Application of the Law
- Rights of the individual - individuals
are subject of the law
- Political rights
- Criminal laws - associated to the
rights of the individual
- Property rights or laws
- Commercial laws - contracts
- Collection of laws - codes
Public Administration
- Following a vertical structure
Public Works
- Had an extensive road network
connecting the whole empire
- There are still many of them in the
countryside of Europe
- They were made of solid and large
stone blocks, appropriate for heavy
loads
- Military- be ready to send
armies wherever needed
- More effective government -
send instructions anywhere
in the empire
- Trading
- Aqueducts for carrying water
from sources to the city
- Bridges
- Fortresses city walls
- Forum
- Public Bath
Roman Cultural Traits
- Family - school of moral values, pro-
children legislation
- Virtue - from hellenistic tradition,
exalted patriotism and sacrifice for
the nation
- As features in its literature
- Golden age
- Virgil
- Horace and livy
- Silver age
- Tacitus criticizes the loss of
values of the emperors
Religion in the Roman World
- Adopted greek religion and was
tolerant with other religions
- Cult of ancestors at home
- Official religion considered a means
for national unity and submission to
the emperor
- Pietas: early cult to placate the gods
to obtain protection: festivals and
sacrifices
- Augustus and Tiberius declined the
title of divinity, but became the norm
after Caligula and Nero: Emperors
became semi-divine in life and
accessed the pantheon after death
- Cult to the emperor everywhere as a
sign of allegiance
- Popularity of Stoicism among the
educated
Social Structure
- Wealthy and landed governing class
- from the early patrician class
- Freemen : mainly became
impoverished in countryside and
migrated to the cities (creating a
class of indolent people, contented
with bread and circus during the
later empire)
- Women discriminated. Concubinage
was not uncommon during empire
Slavery
- Most slaves were prisoners of war (2
million at the start of the empire; ¼
people); others from debts
- Main workforce: field, infrastructure,
and as household
- Educated ones (greek) : worked as
tutors ( pedagogue), teachers or
advisers
- Treated as chattel ( power
over life and death),
depending on their master;
could obtain freedom
- Spartacus (thracian) revolt (73-71
BC), ended by Marcus Licinius
Crassus and punished cruelly as a
warning (6,000 crucified in Appian
Way)
- Christianity accepted slavery as a
social condtition, although it
encouraged charitable treatment of
slaves
- Slaves attracted by Christianity
Stoicism
- Founder of Stoicism: Zeno of Citium
(335-263 BC)
- Believed and tried to practice natural
law ( virtues)
- Primacy of reasons over passions
- Controlling passions as a
way of freedom
- Suppress external and
internal signs of passions like
when experiencing pain,
sadness or joy
- Its opposite: Epicureanism
- happiness through
reasonable pleasure and
absence of pain or sorrow
Legacy of the Roman Civilization
- Most importantly, nations and
citizens must follow the “rule of law” :
citizens have rights and duties. If
there is no law, there is no justice.
Justice is a consequence of our
humanity, of our rationality, our
spiritual nature.
- Governments must be well
organized and be fair
- Great nations have great public
works
How did the Roman Civilization help in
the development of Christianity?
- Its transportation network and the
pax romana
- Administrative organization
- Roman law was adopted and used
as a model for the church’s law
- Latin became the official language
- Stoicism and the valuing of virtue
would prepare many Romans to
accept Christianity.
Session # 4 - Historicity of NT
Historicity of the New Testament
Who chose the New Testament
- The church believes that the new
testament (and the old) is the word
of God, written by human authors
under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit
- It was the Church ( bishop) the one
who declared which books or
writings were inspired and therefore
fully believable
- The New Testament was written in
the church, for the church, and was
selected by the Church
How did the church choose the inspired
writings?
1. Understand the stages of the writing
of the New testament
2. Study the historical evidences of the
church of the first centuries
describing the beliefs and the
process of choosing them
3. A third interesting evidence about its
historical credibility is the many
physical copies of early copies and
translations of the new testament
- Easier to compare with one
another
Two testimonies of two authors:
St. Luke - not an apostle
- Compile narratives
- Delivered by eyewitnesses and
ministers of the world ( the apostles)
- Write an orderly account so that you
may know the truth
- His research took time and
effort - followed things
closely
- He set his goal to write a
narrative of what had
happened
St. John
 The official process of selection among
the early writings about Jesus Christ and
the Church
- Aside from the books of the NT,
there were other books written about
Jesus Christ and the early church
- Christians had to rely on their
pastors - bishops were successors
of the apostles and the ministries
and priest ordained by the bishops
- He was an eye witness - he was an
- Some of those books were found to
apostle
have errors and were rejected at one
- He made a selection of what he
time or another by early the bishops.
remembered from the life of jesus
These books are known as
and teachings
apocryphal gospels or letters
- He wrote those things for
people to believe in Jesus
Christ
Important early testimonies from
bishops regarding those books
Three Stages of writing of the NT
considered inspired…
1. Jesus preaching to the apostles and
- First Century - (4 books without
disciples
name - St. Clement of Rome ( 92-
2. Oral Tradition: apostles and
101 AD), St. Ignatius of Antioch
disciples recalling and sharing it with
( +107AD)
the possible new converts
- Early second century: Bishop Papias
3. Write memoirs to preserve them for
of Hierapolis ( Pamukkale, Turkey)
the future
(130AD) mentions Matthew and
Mark ( known from Eusebius in the
When were the books of the NT written?
4th C)
- Between 50 and 100 AD
- 178-188 AD: St. Irenaeus confirms
- First: Epistle to the Thessalonians or
canonicity of the 4 gospels in
either the Gospel of St. Matthew or
Against Heresies
of St. Mark
- Muratorian Canon include names
- Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, and
and information of some books of
Luke, which follow a similar outline):
the new testament
70 Ad
- Early 200s AD: Clement of
- St. Luke: Before St. Paul's
Alexandria and Tertullian ( give the
Imprisonment ( 61-63 Acts)
names of the 4 authors of the
- St. John: in Ephesus, around 100
Gospel)
AD
- Except for St. Matthew’s Gospel

- Written Aramaic
- All other books were written
in Greek
Point to notice from previous slide:
-> Testimonies come from early times and
therefore very valuable
- the earliest are less than 70 years
after Christ died, and after less than
50 years since most of the apostles
died, and a few years since most of
the apostles died, and a few years
since St. John died
-> Except for the Muratonian Canon all the
testimonies come from early prestigious
bishops and scholars
- Muratonian Canon - an early
document with a list of recognized
books by the early church
discovered in the 1700s
Final Stage of Selection: Fixing the
Canon of the Scripture in Official Church
meetings
- From Kanon : reed or measuring rod
- The Canon refers to the
books of the bible that the
church officially declares to
be divinely inspired
- The decision took
some time, requiring
the convening synods
and councils
- 382 AD, Synods of Rome ( 46 books
in OT, 27 in NT)
- After some controversy regarding
the deuterocanonical books, they
were approved again in three
councils (not ecumenical) of Hippo
( 393 AD) and Carthage ( 397 and
419 AD)
- Ratified in ecumenical councils :
Nacae II ( 787 AD), Florence ( 1335
AD) and Trent (1545 AD)
-> Synods and councils were gatherings of
bishops and priest of certain regions ( an
ecumenical council was a gathering of many
bishops representing the whole church)
-> Synods of Rome included the pope and
several bishops, and therefore it is
important. The ones in Carthage and Hippo
gathered bishops of North Africa ( also
important)
-> These councils and synods counted on
the known opinion of great saints and
scholars (especially St. Jerome, a translator
of the OT and NT to latin)
Are there trace of the authors in the book
of the NT
- Some of the letters of the NT
indicate the author
- Not necessarily the writer, as
they may have dictated them
to another writer, especially
someone who knew greek
better
- The authorship of the synoptic
gospels shows by the approach
taken by the author to reach certain
audience:
- Matthew wrote for jews,
- Mark wrote for the Christians
in Rome, and
- St. Luke wrote for non-Jews
convert who did not know
Judaism.
- St. John depicts
himself as “ the
disciple Jesus loved”
Understanding Tradition
- Sacred Tradition in the Roman
catholic Church is the sum of all the
actions of the Church to preserve
Jesus christ message ( coming to us
through the apostle and the early
Christian community) and to spread
it that are not contained in the NT,
like the rigorous process of selecting
the NT that has taken most of this
lesson
- Other areas of tradition: the
organizations of the church, the
sacrament and rituals, moral
prescription, etc.
Understanding inspiration from the Holy
Spirit
- The sacred authors of the NT were
inspired when they wrote the
gospels or the letters in two ways:
- They did not include any
mistakes
- They only recorded what was
necessary for us to use. That
is, the gospels don't contain
everything Jesus did, but
what they have is just right
for its purpose.
Other realizations of what inspirations
means:
- It did not spare writers from the
human effort of finding out what had
happened ( either about Jesus christ
or the early Christian Communities
- It did not spare the Christians of the
first centuries 9 especially the
bishops) from the effort of finding out
which ones have been inspired,
which they based it on two point:
- Those writings had no errors
- They have been regarded as
inspired for many Christians
for many years
Added good reasons to believe in the
historicity of the NT: many copies and
translations made of the originals and early
copies:
- The original manuscripts of the
evangelists and inspired writers
were not preserves as they were
written in papyrus, whose lifespan is
around 200 years ( unless subjected
to very dry conditions)
- Thus all copies we have
come from copies of the
originals and of other early
copies
- Nevertheless, the NT is the book
with more manuscript copies in
history ( before the discovery of the
printing press ), actually many more
than any other book.
Manuscripts: Handwritten copies
- Writing was difficult and expensive
- Always by hand, in scrolls, orcodex
form made from skins of calves or
little lambs and written using ink
- There is a lot of value in finding
many copies of manuscripts of the
NT. The older they are the more
valuable they are, and having many
of them shows value given to the
text by those who made them
Extant early copies of manuscripts of the
NT
A. Greek Manuscripts (5,000 texts)
i. 88 Papyri
- From Egypt due to
dry climate
- From the 2nd century
to the 6th century
- Copies kept in the
famous libraries in
Europe
ii. 274 manuscripts written in
capitals
iii. 2,797 manuscripts written in
lower case
iv. 2,209 lectionaries - readings
for the holy mass for public
liturgy
TOTAL : By 1976, 5,366 copies
Copies of early Translations to other
languages:
B. Early Translations: 4,000 copies
- Latin (2nd century onward)
- Syriac ( 2nd and 3rd centuries)
- Armenian ( 4th century)
- Ethiopian
- Gothic ( 4th century
- Slav ( 9th century)
- Arabic
Why are they useful?
- In early times, they were rather
literal
- To verify if some versions are
complete
- To contrast certain terms and
ideas
The Quotations in the Writings of the
Ecclesiastical Writers:
C. Quotations from the NT in works of
ecclesiastical writers
- Especially the fathers of the church
- Is it possible to reconstruct almost
the whole NT in greek and latin with
those quotations
- Older than most manuscripts
- Sermons quotations were not literal
Conclusion about the Manuscript
copies:
- The amount of texts of the NT in the
three mentioned forms ( copies in
greek, translation to other
languages, quotation in
ecclesiastical writers) provide more
than enough material to be sure that
what has come to us ( through the
stringent selecting process of early
bishops and scholars) is really texts
that the early Christian Community
(tradition) used and passed on to
one another
Which are two very important features of
Jewish history for the spread of
Christianity?
1. The Diaspora of the Jews in the
Mediterranean world
- The migration
- Started with the Assyrian
Exile (721 BC)
- Increased after the revolts
against the Romans ( 63 BC,
AD 70, and AD 115-117)
- Population abroad larger
than in Palestine, especially
in the big cities ( Alexandria)
live separately
 - Had their own synagogues
and schools
- Exempted from emperor
worship and allowed to follow
the sabbath and their feast
- Paid tax of the Jerusalem
Temple, collection-boxes ( till
70 AD)
- The apostles first preached
to the Jews before preaching
to the gentiles ( non-jew) too

2. The Septuagint
- A Greek translation of the Hebrew
Old Testament
- Commissioned by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, Egypt's king, around
250 BC.
- Seventy-two (actually more) Jewish
scholars working in Alexandria (and
outside), ending around 132 BC

Why was it very important for Christianity?

- For the conversion of the Gentiles:
the events in the NT could be
referred to those in the OT (Now
available in Greek too)
- Used in quotations from the OT in
the NT
 How did they manage to succeed?
Session # 5 - Beliefs and Practices
The Development of Beliefs and Practices
Apostolic Father (Direct or close
successors of the Apostles) - their
testimonies is especially valuable
The Development of beliefs and practice
How did the first Christians see
themselves?
- In physical appearance:
- Exactly the exam as their
neighbors
- In relation to time:
- As passerby in this life
- Regarding Civil laws:
- Obeyed them but regarded
God’s law higher
- In matters of morality
- Upright behavior regarding
marriage and children
- Towards their bodies ( sensual
pleasure)
- Subject them to the soul
( reason and faith)
- Facing Criticism and Hatred
- Love those who hate them
( like the soul loves the body
in spite of its tendencies
- What was their last objective for the
world?
- Convert the world (and in the
process make it more
human, better)
- Most important factor: God’s help
- Regarding immoral practices:
- Making difficult choices
( marriage and family, public
life, work, neighbors)
- Toward unfair law
- Example
- Where did they clinch in times of
duress?
- Christ’s words transmitted
by the Apostles (and his
example and presence)
- Did Christ leave everything set
regarding doctrine and the
organization of the church?
- Left it to the apostles
( church), aided by the Holy
Spirit ( and the church’s
hierarchy)
- Why did he do so?
- Because the church is a
living organism, with ever
changing new members
- Christ living through
its members
- How did he do it?
- Gradually, under the
authority of the church
- As the product of practice
- Developing the sacramental
rites and organizing the
church to serve its purpose.
In the process it also
developed its own theology,
philosophy, and created a
Christian culture that made
an impact on history
 - Why is the council of Jerusalem
important in this regard?
- Detached the church from
Judaism
- Opening the church to the
gentiles ( becoming the
majority)
- First public praxis of the
church hierarchy
The Practice of Baptism
- Where does the necessity of it come
from?
- The word of Jesus christ
- Why was it seen the need for the
catechumenate
- To ensure doctrine,
determination, and good
example ( being lax or even
apostatize, especially during
persecution)
- When were they baptized?
- Easter vigil or on Saturday
before Pentecost
Is there evidence of an early practice of
infant baptism?
- St. Justin Martyr
- St. Hippolytus in Apostolic Tradition
(AD 170-236)
- Tertullian (AD 160-225) - is against it
and prefers age of reason
- Origen (AD 185-254) recommended
it, to eliminate the sequel of original
sin
- St. Augustine (AD 396-430) decried
that it was not administered to him
as a child
What were the benefits of baptism?
- Forgiveness of original sin, join the
mystical body of Christ, receive the
common priesthood of the faithful,
and compels the family to raise him/
her as a christian.
Why was the catechumenate
discontinued during the middle ages?
- Need to rush the conversion of the
barbarian tribes
- Most people were already Christians
(less danger of apostatizing)
What was a spurious Baptism practice
among some proselytes?
- Wait until close to death, continue
life of sin
The Eucharist
- Why did Agape (love in Greek,
referring to a meal preceding the
Eucharist) not last long?
- Abuses in eating and
drinking
- What was the original format of the
mass?
- Read the apologies of St.
Justin Martyr
- How do we know that the early
Christians believed in
transubstantiation?
- Testimony of saints and
fathers of the church:
- Justin Martyr
- Cyril of Jerusalem
- John Chrysostom
- Gregory of Nyssa
- Cyril of Alexandria
- Ambrose
- Augustine
- John of Damacus
Where did the Christian meet?
A. Private Homes. Who owned them?
- Wealthier individuals, to accomodate
more
- What does it tell us about the social
profile of the Church?
- Across all social classes, not
just the poor
- Beginning of the first century,
Christians transformed Basilicas
( Roman buildings to administer
justice or hold gatherings) into
churches, instead of pagan temples
( where sacrifices were held
outdoors)
B. Catacomb ( 2nd to 5th centuries)
- Why are they essentially Christian?
- Roman practice of cremation
- Christian belief in the
resurrection of the body
- 60 in the outskirts of Rome
- St. Callixtus: 12 miles of
tunnel and galleries, 4
stories, 16 popes
Types of burials:
- Loculum ( loculi): niche
- Cubiculum: a small
mausoleum room
- Crypt: large mausoleum
room for popes and martyrs,
made into churches
- Why did the Christians go inside?
- Not for hiding
- Celebration of Baptism and
Eucharist
- Places of prayers, especially
before the tombs of martyrs
The Papacy
Customs
- When did they fast and offer
penances?
- Wednesdays and Fridays
- Why did Sunday replace the
Sabbath?
- Resurrection and Pentecost (
these days happened on a
Sunday); to avoid vigilance
during persecutions ( sunday
was also the holiday of
pagan); Sunday Mass since
AD300
- Why did the Christians celebrate
special days?
- Like every culture, feast
related to Jesus Christ
( Epiphany before AD 300 in
the West)
- Why did the Christians use
symbols?
- To represent beliefs or
practices
- External manifestations of
internal belief and feelings
- Cross ( widely spread
since AD 300)
- Fish
- Jesus Christ,
Son of God,
Savior
- Multiplication
of bread and
fish
- Anchor- safety in pre-
christian symbolism,
hope as safety for
salvation to keep
one’s faith, similarity
with the cross
- Is there evidence of such a belief in
the early times of christianity?
- Pope St. Clement of Rome
( AD 88-97) wrote a first
epistle to settle controversies
in corinth
- St. Ignatius of Antioch ( CA
35-107), Epistle to the
Romans
- Appointed by ST.
Peter
- Upholds
authority of
the bishop of
rome
- St. Irenaeus (130,202 AD)
underlines the importance of
traditional structures of the
Church - The Papacy
- Councils deferred the
decision until the pope would
approve them
- Which Popes contributed to organize
better the papacy
- St. Leo - centralized church
governance around the
pope’s preeminence
- VS. the growing power of
patriarchs of Constantinople
and Alexandria; because of
political decline of the West,
invaded by the barbarians
- St. Gelasius (AD 496) - first
to use title of Vicar of Christ
to signify his divine authority
( in time of heresies)
- From the 8th to the 14th
centuries: Vicar of Christ’ title
used by popes, kings,
bishops, judges and priest
- After Innocent III( 13th
century) exclusive of the
pope
- Is that in accordance with the
teachings of Christ?
- Peter, keeper of the keys
( video)
Historical reference about bishops:
- The word ‘bishop’ used by homer
and in greek classical writers meant:
officer who supervised the temple
property or colonial affairs
- First Christian reference: St.
Ignatius of Antioch ( first
century)
- Also first to use “
Catholic Church’
- Successors of the apostles
- Great responsibility
- Priest
- From the greek
Presbyteros
- First news of
ordinations ( enable
them to celebrate
mass) as early as the
second century
- Extant ordination
rites: St. Hippolytus
(CA AD 170-236),
Apostolic
Constitutions (4th
century)
Choosing of canon Scriptures
- Why was the bible as it is now from
the start?
 - It took time for the church to
decide which ones were
inspired
- Accepted most from Jewish
OT (adding others like tobit
and wisdom)
- Who decided on it and what was
their criteria
- The Church
- Inerrancy ( no error),
provenance ( author),
tradition upheld as such)
- Cautious of (common)
literary forgeries in antiquity
- Which books were universally
accepted by the early 3rd Century?
- All except Hebrews, Epistles
of St. James and Jude
- When was the declaration of the first
official Canon of Scriptures?
- In the Synod of Rome of AD
382, with the help of
Eusebius ( historian of the
church), Origen, St.
Athanasius and Jerome
( Linguist expert in Sacred
Texts, translated bible to
Latin, knew greek and
hebrew
- When did the whole church in the
west accept it?
- around 410 ( gaul and Africa
included)
- What about the church in the East?
- Followed the approvals of
the west ( with some doubts
about the revelation)
- What about the OT?
- St. Jerome’s Vulgate
generally accepted
- When was the issue about the NT
and OT settled by the church?
- Council of Trent (1546)
What was the attitude of the Church
toward the Holy Scripture from the start?
- Preaching and teaching came first
- It was never separated from the
interpretation of it made by the
hierarchy
- Deciding which books were inspired
took many centuries of study,
deliberation, prayer and
- The guidance of the Holy Spirit
- Quick to reject apocryphal books
pretending to be inspired
- Tradition has always been
indispensable
- Early christian literature,
liturgical practices, and
statements of the church
- Scriptures without the church’s
interpretation is not enough
- Interpretation still goes on ( with the
holy spirit’s help) sine the church is a
living organism
- The OT was used by the church as a
preparation for the NT, and
especially as a prayer book
( Psalms, Wisdoms, Ecclesiastes)
Conclusion
- Is our faith less believable due to the
way it was developed?
 - Not so because God want to
count on us and the holy
spirit is always acting in the
church
- In this manner of consolidation of the
church appropriate to man’s nature?
- Yes, since we are endowed
with intelligence and free will
and we are constrained by
time ( evolving)
- What gives us the assurance of the
Holy Spirit’s Guidance?
- Jesus Christ’s words and
experience
- What must we do to imitate the first
Christians in these areas?
- Study one’s faith under the
guidance of the hierarchy
Session # 6- Social Issues
Christianity and Social Issues in the
Roman Empire
Guide Questions for today’s lesson:
- Did the spread of Christianity
change positively the social
condition of the marginalized and did
it improve the morality standards of
the Roman empire?
Slavery
- Number of slaves in the italian
peninsula
- 2 million out of 7.5 million persons
- Causes of slavery:
- War conquest, debts,
punishment, foundings, born
into.
Christianity’s view on slavery
- What did Christ mention about
slavery?
- Nothing
- He practiced and preached
fundamental social behavior
that were supposed to
transform all human
relationships: human’s
equality regardless of nation
or status, works of mercy as
a criteria for salvation,
bearing offense gracefully,
and any more
How did the Christians view slavery?
- Slavery was an accepted social
practuce
- Relationship between the
master and the slave varied
a lot depending on many
personal and social factors
- Many slaves ( mostly war prisoners)
were owned by the state and were
indispensable to work on public
works
Who is the one who discusses slavery in
the NT and what does he say?
- St. Paul in several passages:
- It was up to Philemon to set
Onesimus free as a free man ( to
liberate or manumit), but St. Paul did
not suggest it
- Ephesians 6:5-9
- Slaves to obey, doing it for God
- Master to avoid threatening slaves,
for God
- God does not have favorites ( no
partiality)
 - Natural law, jewish law,
Christ’s message of respect
for life ( Value of each
person: God’s Child)
- The opposition of bishops against
those practices was consistent from
the start, as proven by the written
Did Slaves play an important role in the
testimony of some of the most
church?
famous and scholarly christian
- Former Slaves: first three popes
writers:
after St. Peter: Linus, Anacletus,
- Author of the Didache ( a very
Clement I
ancient writeup dated around 100
- They contributed to spread the faith
AD by an anonymous Christian
- We can imagine that Christian
writer, St. Clement of Alexandria
master set Christian slaves free,
(150-215), St. Epiphanius ( AD 315-
especially if they were active in
403), St. Jerome, Tertullian, St. John
spreading the faith or helping the
Chrysostom, St. Ambrose, St.
Church
Augustine
- Most come from pagan
Sexual Ethics
educational environment
- How did ancient Greeks and
Romans regard abortions and
Women
contraception?
- How did Greek and Roman
- Human life was considered
civilizations regard the status of
sacred and therefore
women?
abortion was considered
- Somehow their status was
immoral, although it was
the same as it has been until
somehow tolerated,
recent feminist movement
especially under certain
- How did Christianity regard women?
circumstances
- Women were highly
- During certain periods in the
appreciated in early
Roman empire abortion was
christianity
banned by the emperors
- Their role during jesus life:
- What abortions methods did they
Blessed Virgin Mary and
use?
Holy Women
- Herbs, poisons, massage,
- Women played a big role in
dilation and evacuation
spreading the faith
(hooks)
- Saint: Helena, Monica,
Perpetua and Felicity, Agnes
- Women cared so much about
their purity
What was the attitude of Christianity
towards abortion and contraception?
- St. Seraphia
- Rejected from the very start
- Early 2nd century
- Basis:
 - Wished to be a virgin for
religious reasons
- To avoid marriage, she sold
her goods and became a
slave to sabina
- St. Cecilia
- Later 2nd century
- Married to Valerian but
convinced him that she
would remain a virgin. The
two were martyred
~ there were many others early virgins that
underwent martyrdom to preserve their
virginity
~ women were also very involved in taking
care of the sick and poor
- one of the reasons many
pagan converted to
christianity
Conclusion: Was Christianity able to
make important social and moral
changes?
- Christianity did not challenge
established social norms
- Christianity confirmed and
strengthened previous moral
prescription
- Aside from benign a religion based
revelation, Christianity introduced
new standards of social relations
based on charity and mercy
Session # 7 - Persecutions against
Christians
Why did they have to kill?
- Religious persecutions never just for
religious reasons
The Roman Side
Roman Religion
- Mythological Gods, accepted other
Gods
- Semi-divine cult of emperor
- Since Octavian Augustus,
after his death but while alive
in subsequent emperors
- This roman cult, together with
previous cult to roman gods, was a
cultural norm or tradition that implied
allegiance with the state
- Pagan was attached to the
emperor
Caligula (A.D 37-41)
- Pathological case : clinical insanity
- Depravity and cruelty toward his
family and anyone, from his teen
onward
- Deranged imagination
- Why did it happen that such a crazy
guy became emperor?
- Nephew of Emperor Tiberius
- Emperor by birth and
not merit
Nero (A.D 54-68)
- The first persecution ( just in Rome)
- Mad emperor
 - Inheritance: stepson of
Claudius
- Nephew of Caligula
- First to organized the persecution of
christians
- The Fire in Rome
- In order to put up a house of
Gold - a new palance
- He provided emergency relief
to the victims and blamed the
Christians
- Contrast of the lives of the Christians
and his madness
- He killed his parents and led
his tutor, Seneca to kill
himself
His attitude towards Christians:
- Cruel
- Declares christianity as unlawful
- 'Christiani Non Sint'
- First Roman Martyr : St. Peter
- Because of revolt in Judea, Gaul,
Africa and Spain
- The army confronted him and he
committed suicide vefore being killed
Emperor Domitian
- “Dominus Et Deus” → Lord of God
- Secures army’s support but fought
the opp
- Why was he afraid of conspirators?
- Tried to stop the spread of
Christianity among the
patrician class
- special taxes for Christians
and Jews
- Why was Christianity becoming
popular among the elite
- He ended up as he deserved
Vox Populi ( mob not persecution)
- Why did the mobs attack the
christians?
- Accusing the cchristians of
superstition
- Religious ignorance
- Irrational reactions ( seeking
someone to blame for their
misfortunes)
- Unbridled passion
- Example of their leaders
- Seeking excuse for their
weaknesses
Trajan (A.D 98-117)
- The five good Emperors (A.D 96-
180)
- Nerva
- Trajan
- Hadrian
- Antonius Pius
- Marcus Aurelius
- They had the support of the army,
the senate, and people, and
expanded the borders
- Trajan's achievement:
- Care for the foundlings and
the poor
- Victories over the dacians
and parthians - border intact
for 150 years
Trajan Rescript ( A.D 112)
- Answer to Pliny the younger
( governor of Bithynia)
- documents that contained his
policies about the persecution and
punishment for Christians
- Forgiveness for apostate
- Should denounce Christianity
- Professed Christian = Death
Hadrian’s Rescripts
 - Second cousin of Trajan, who had
adopted him. Married the grand
niece of Trajan
- Follower of Hellenism
- By promoting the cult of the Gods,
causing a revolt of the Jews but he
suppressed it
- Rescript about Christian to Serenus
Granius, proconsul of Asia Minor:
- How to contain murdering
Christians? - should only be
persecuted if they act against
the law
- Christians were tolerated
Marcus Aurelius
- Favorite adopted son of Hadrian
- Wrote meditations
- Strict stoicisms
- Followed Trajan’s Rescript outlawing
Christianity and persecuting
Christians
- Most of the persecution from
the mobs and governor
- Successful vs. Völkerwanderung
( nomadic german Tribe
Conclusion: Why did they have to kill?
- The way of choosing the emperors
- The personal psychological
conditions of emperors and other
rulers
- Controlling the Senate
- Deficiencies of the lower classes
- Political Reason: unity of the empire
- Compromising: Avoiding the troubles
The Way ( Acts 9:2, 19:9)
- Required integrity to live according
to the commandments and the
advice from the Gospel
- A strong commitment to become a
disciple of Christ
- Across ages,races, cultures, social
standing, priest and laity
- Why did many die willingly for their
religion?
- Christ’s example
- Love for christ
- Love for others
- Being consistent
- They received a special
grace to choose martyrdom
Early 3rd Century Persecutions
Septimius Severus (193-211)
- Military playing a bigger role in
choosing emperor
- Banned circumcision and baptism in
202, causing persecution in Syria
and Africa
The Crisis of the 3rd Century
1. Barbarian Pressure:
a. Sassanid Empire of Sassian
Dynasty
b. Goth started putting pressure
in the Danube frontier since
220s and reached the
Balkans in 250s
c. Franks and Alemanni
become restless in the
western Frontiers
~ consequent growth of the army, which
started to accept people from the colonized
areas, even Germanic people, draining
resources.
 2. Increasing Importance of the Army in
Politics, esp. After Septimus
Severus (193-211), forming a new
social class
3. Internal Anarchy after the Severan
Dynasty ended in 235. 238-284: 18
legitimate emperors and other
illegitimate ones.
4. Economic Difficulties
- Increase of army salaries
- Increase of taxes
- Increase of inflation
- Debasing the coinage
- Asking personal contribution
from provincial officers
- Flight to the countryside
Decius (AD 249-251)
- Christians enjoyed relative peace
between 211-250
- Decius launched the first empire-
wide persecution vs. christians,
trying to revive the strength of the
empire by means of religion unity
- Decius Edict enforced sacrificing the
pagan Gods.
Kinds of Apostates ( Christians who
renounced their faith out of fear):
- Sacrificanti: those who sacrificed
- Thurificanti : those who burned
incense
- Libellatici: Those who bought
certificates of having worshiped
- Lapsi: any of the above
- Novatianist Schism of rigorists
- Who did not want to accept
back the lapsi who repented
- Popes allowed readmission
of lapsi after long penances
Valerian ( AD 253-260)
- AD 257: forbidding Christians from
meeting in public places and
celebrating the Eucharist in the
catacombs
- AD 258: lead to the execution of
many bishops, priests and deacons,
removing high officials
- Martyrdom of Pope Sixtus II and
seven seasons ( St Lawrence in a
gridiron)
- Persecution slackened because of
military pressure by the Goths and
Persians
- Persian Sapor I captured, tortured
and executed valerian (AD 255-260)
The Tetrarchy
- Divided provinces into dioceses
- Larger army, defensive works along
the borders, more financial burden
- No tetrarch lived in Rome, which
weakened the status of the City
- Removed power from the Senate
- Institutionalized the imperial
succession among his generals
- But after his death, the tetrarchs
started to compete for power
Division in Dioceses
Four Edicts (Last 3 only to the East)
- In 303, after defeating the
barbarians
- Maximian and Galerius convinced
Diocletian to persecute Christians
- 1st edict: destruction of churches
and burning of scriptures, banning
gatherings
Next Edict only in the East:
- 2nd Edict: imprisonment of clergy
- 3rd Edict: demanded pagan
sacrifices from clergy
- 4th: ditto for every Christians
The Church continued Growing
 - By 250 AD, a rough estimate ⅓ of
the empire was christian ( in Rome:
50,000 out of 1 million)
The Transition
- 305: Diocletian abdicates the
convinces Maximian to step down
- Galerius in the East and Constantius
in the West ( constantine in 307)
- 311: Galerius declares freedom to
exercise the Christian religion ( after
he believes his leprosy to be God’s
punishment). The west follows
- Power struggle after Galerius death:
Maxentius ( maximian’s son)
controlled Italy and sought to defeat
Costantine for the west’s control.
Constantine attacked Rome
Constantine (Eusebous of Caesarea’s-
ca. AD 263-339 - account of his victory)
- Reflecting on which God to address
for help against Maxentius: appeal to
several gods to proved ineffective in
the past
- Thinking of the God of his father,
who gave him victories ( the
unconquered Sun God)
- Vision of the cross of light above the
sun with inscription : conquer by this
- Dream of Jesus asking him to use
the sign
- Conclusion: looking for a protector
God, very unrefined fath, mixed with
superstition
- Wins battle of Saxa Rubra near
Milvian bridge against Maxentius
- Declares Christian God’s favor
- 313: Edict of Milan - religious
freedom, restoring properties to the
church, later on he helped construct
churches
- 324: defeat Licinius ( persecution
vs Bishops and clergy, 321)
- Increasing support to Christianity:
tax exemptions, donations
allowed, no Sunday work,
abolishing crucifixion, he stops
attending pagan rites and
ceremonies
- 330: Founded Constantinople
over Greek city of Byzantium
(dedicated to Mary Theotokos),
and transferred the capital (East
richer & more populated than
West of the Empire)
- 337: Baptized by an Arian bishop
Eusebius of Nicomedia on his
deathbed
- Proclaimed a saint by the East
Church (objectionable behavior:
son’s and wife‘s execution)
St. Helen
- Mother of Constantine, humble
origins, married general Constantius
in 270
- Converted in her 60s (310s)
- Pilgrimage to Holy Land after 324
- With the help of Bishop Macarius of
Jerusalem, Found the Holy Cross
and Titulus Crucis
- Had built the Churches of the
Nativity and the Ascension
- Died in 328
Julian the Apostate
- Male relatives executed
- Educated by pagan Mardonius and
Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia
- Attached to paganism in Athens
school (with St Gregory of
Nazianzus)
- 355: Caesar. 361: Emperor (after
Constantius II died, about to going
into war against him)
 - Brought back the pagan religion and
education (ethical life; copied
Church’s organization & rites)
- Removed privileges to Christian
Church, permitted heretical bishops
to return
- Died fighting the Persians
Union of Throne and Altar
- Jovian (363-364) returned privileges
- Valentinian (364-375, West), Valens
(364-368, E)
- Gratian (West, 375-383) gave up
insignia of Pontifex Maximus and
confiscated pagan religion property
- Theodosius I the Great (East, 379-
395).
- In 391: declared Christianity the
official religion of the Empire;
- 392: outlawed paganism, punishable
by death, decreeing the destruction
of pagan temples. Heresy became a
legal offense.
- Union of throne and altar: subjects of
a state share the same religion
(continuity with Roman tradition)
- Caesaropapism: Dual role of the
emperor as head of the state and
the church (strong influence, esp. in
the East where the emperor
meddled in choosing the Patriarch of
Constantinople)
- The papacy wanted a good working
relationship with the emperor since
Constantine moved to Byzantium
Conclusion on Christianity becoming the
official religion of the Roman Empire
- PROS:
- Freedom of the Christian
religion
- Christianity counts on favor
of the State
- Political influence for
conversion
- CONS:
- Intolerance toward other
religions
- Confusion of jurisdictions
(meddling)
- Doubtful understanding of
the new faith
- UNAVOIDABLE due to
historical setting
Conclusion on the Persecution:
1. Beware of attributing just religious
reasons for religious persecutions
2. It is usually mixed up with other
reasons:
a. .Political: keep unity, also to
avoid competition
b. .Personal political ambition
c. Even economic factors (if
traders or business from
outside and have a different
culture/religion)
3. Personal ego or interest
Session #8 - Heresies and the Faith
Heresies in the first centuries of Christianity
and the Fathers of the Church
Early Heresies
2nd and 3rd Centuries: influenced by
Neo-Platonism and Gnosticism (eastern
influence persia)
- current philosophies in the roman
empire
A time of transition in the contact with the
pagan world
**Heresies came not from within the church
but from the influence of the church
Why were there (and are) heresies?
We want to understand
We want to feel we are doing the right thing
We have passions (pride)
We are insecure, tending to extremes
**Heresies - intellects, related to diff pov,
people fighting each other, people
defending their points and exaggerated
Christians influenced by the Eastern quasi-
philosophical religion of Gnosticism (Divine
Being and the Demiurge: spirit/knowledge
vs. matter; the redeemer a representative of
the former vs. later). Popular among some
educated Christians since the 2nd century
onwards, especially in the East of the
Empire.
**Divine Being - spirit/ knowledge vs
Demiurge - material world
Heresy caused by Gnosticism: It kept the
duality between the spiritual and the
material, thus, Jesus Christ has no human
nature. His body is an apparition, his spirit
left before Calvary, thus he did not die on
the cross.
Marcionism: Jesus Christ is the God of love,
while God the Creator was the evil
(material) Demiurge, 144-400s. Against the
Old Testament and the Jewish religion.
Manicheism: Dualism between light and
darkness, prophets will liberate men (the
elect), 250s-1000s.
Montanism: Apocalyptic, new heavenly
kingdom in Pepuza, 156-200s.
Docetism: (dokesis: appearance,
semblance) Jesus Christ was impassible,
not truly human, switched before passion,
30s-100s.
4th and 5th Centuries Heresies
Philosophizing and Theological Work about
Christ
Ecumenical Councils
From oikoumene: “the whole inhabited
world;”
Refers to gatherings of bishops from all over
the world under the leadership of the Pope
to discuss key issues of the Church
First in 325 (Nicaea), last Vatican II (1962-
1965): 21 in all
Presently only the Pope can convene it and
he has to accept or reject the decrees
passed
Definitions (faith and morals) are infallible if
the Pope and bishops declare so
First 6 councils addressed Christological
heresies
First 7 recognized by the West and East;
and after the Reformation by the mainline
Protestants. Eastern Orthodox do not
recognize after the 7th (A.D. 787) because
they did not join
Heresies
Arianism (310): Christ is not God, but an
exceptional creature)
Solution: The Council of Nicaea (325)
settled it: He is God and man because he is
homoousios: Christ is of the same
substance as God (Reflected in the Nicene
Creed)
Apollinarianism (360): Christ is not fully man
because he has no human mind and will
(only divine mind and will)
Solution: the Council of Constantinople
clarified that he was fully God and fully man
(381) (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed=
Long creed prayed at Mass on Sunday by
Catholics)
Nestorianism (428): Christ is two persons:
one divine and another human
Solution: Council of Ephesus (431): He is
one person with two natures (divine and
human) (Mary is Theotokos or Mother of
God because we cannot separate Jesus
Christ from his humanity. Of course, she
cannot be the mother of the deity, but the
mother of Jesus Christ, who is both God
and man)
Monophysitism (400s): Christ has only one
divine nature (the human nature is
incorporated to the divine), which is also
wrong (as he has two)
Solution: Council of Chalcedon (451):
Hypostatic union (or union of two natures in
one person)
Monothelitism (Heraclius, 600s): Christ has
one will and two natures
Solution: Popes and 3rd Council of
Constantinople (680-681): he has two wills
(divine and human)
Donatism (311): Opposed to the
effectiveness of sacraments administered
by traditors (or those who apostatized)
Pelagianism (late 300s): no need of grace
because there was no original sin
The Fathers of the Church (320-750 AD)
 Great Minds and Hearts in Difficult
Times for Christianity
 A set of bishops with an outstanding
intellectual capacity between 320
and 750 AD that were recognized by
the Church as deserving the title of
“doctor” or “teacher” of the Church
Features of the Fathers of the Church
(different from the Apostolic Fathers):
Conditions:
1. Orthodoxy of doctrine
2. Holiness
3. Fame for the two above (notoriety)
4. Belong to a specific period: 320-750
(antiquity)
5. Not conferred by the Church, but by
common understanding within the Church.
Not specific number but there are many. Not
all as famous.
• Patristics studies the history and
writings of the Fathers of the Church
• After the Apostolic Fathers, they
contribute the next substantial
source of the Tradition of the Church
• Because of the proximity to the early
Church and their scholarship, and
holiness, they are a standard
reference for the clarification and
interpretation of Scripture and of the
teachings of the Church
• Some of them (among the most
famous and prolific) were declared
doctors of the Church by the popes
(because their contribution to
 theology and their holiness of life).
This title started to be granted from
the Middle Ages onwards
St. Ambrose of Milan (ca. 339-397)
• Born in Trier, Germany
• Son of the praetorian prefect for
Gaul, who came from a noble
ancient Roman family that had
embrace Christianity early on
• Studied law and became a governor
based in Milan
• Chosen by popular acclamation as
Bishop of Milan in 373, even if he
was only a catechumen and tried to
turn down his election. Substituted
an Arian bishop.
• Fought against Arianism
• Renowned preacher
• Encouraged monasticism
• Knew Greek well and engaged in
theological exchanges with the East
• Incorporated hymns in the liturgy
(some of which he composed in
Latin)
St. John Chrysostom (ca. 347-407)
St. Augustine of Hippo (354-450 AD)
• Please read the excerpt and notice
his short autobiography
• He tried everything he found exciting
• Great mind and great communicator
(elegant and witty writing style)
• First to write an extensive treatise on
the Holy Trinity and so many other
topics of Christian theology
• He also wrote against the heresies
of his time: Arianism, Donatism,
Manicheism, and Pelagianism
St. Jerome (345-420)
• Born in Strido, Dalmatia
• Converted in Rome, traveled to
West and East, ordained priest in
Antioch
• 374-379, ascetical life in Syrian
desert with others, when he learned
Hebrew
• 382-385, secretary of Pope St.
Damasus I, asked him to translate
into Latin the Old Testament and the
NT
• 386 onward, head of a monastery in
Bethlehem, where he devoted
himself to Biblical scholarship
• Wrote about theological issues in the
contemporary controversies and
especially against heresies
• Most importantly: translated the
Bible to Latin (Vulgate: from vulgus,
common; because he used the
common Latin of the people of his
time)
• His sources: OT from Hebrew,
Psalms from Septuagint, NT from
Greek or revised Latin versions
• Especially important because he
made use of original sources that no
longer exist
• Born in Antioch to a high officer of
the Roman army; studied law in
Antioch, excelling in Greek and
classical culture
• Converted because of the influence
of Bishop Meletius, ca. 367, became
a deacon, and studied theology
under Diodorus, future bishop of
Tarsus
• Became a monk, under Pachomian
Rule (of St. Pachomius), ca. 373-
381. The last two years as an
anchorite (anachôrein: to withdraw;
or hermit). Severe fasting and
penances broke his health and had
to return to Antioch
• 386, ordained a priest
 • Acquired fame of Chrysostom
(golden mouth) because of his
sermons: depth of spiritual (and
literal) meaning of Biblical texts, and
practicality (applications)
• Wrote On the Priesthood
• 398, emperor Arcadius named him
Patriarch of Constantinople,
against his wishes
• Because of his criticism of the
imperial family and court, gained the
enmity of Empress Eudoxia and
went into exile twice. Died when
forced into a death march when he
had already a failing health

Conclusion
• God prepared great minds to lead
the Church through a period of
confusion
• Most of them came from pagan
environments where they received
the best classical education, which
after conversion they used to
understand, explain, and preach the
faith
• They left an extraordinary amount of
materials explaining the faith in
many varied points, expanding the
Tradition of the Church
• They became an obligatory
reference for Christian theology
• They shared an attraction to
contemplative life