Theories in Counseling
WHAT IS A THEORY? A professional counselor is trained to
• Is a framework on which interventions are
based.
• It provides a structure from which to
understand what we are doing and the
process of doing it.
# Theory as an explanation for events that
can be tested by events and that is useful
only to the extent that it influences behavior
(Hansen, Stevic & Warner, 1986)
WHY HAVE A THEORY
Hansen, Stevic & Warner (1986)
“to function without theory is to Operate without
placing events in Some order and thus to function
Meaninglessly”
Bergantino (1978)
“All that is required of counselors is being real.
The only value is authenticity. To achieve this,
counsellor must willing to forsake all Theories about
how a good Counselor should respond”.
Brammer & shostrom (1982)
“They believe that counselors are still interested in
theory as a means of Enhancing their understanding
of human behaviour, even if this understanding does
Not lead to any practical results in counseling”.
“NO SINGLE THEORY CAN FIT
EVERY KIND OF CLIENT’S
PROBLEM”
There are many theories that counselors
can choose to specialized in, depending
on their particular interest and
tendencies of looking at human
behaviors.
In training, counselors will be exposed to
all relevant theories common in a
counseling program.
It is a must for counselors to
understand the basic principles and
assumptions made by various theories,
but in the end, they can decide to
master in two or three theories.
you will only learn about three theories in general which are commonly known by all counselors.
Cognitive Behavioral
Therapy
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
understand clients using various theories
of human behaviors. In other words,
theories provide some explanations as to
how and why a maladaptive behavior,
thought or emotion occur.
The counsel or can choose any of the
theory that he or she deems appropriate
to explain a client’s problem. There is no
one right or wrong theory.
A good counseling theory:
Need to be based in part on personality
theory to provide counselor with knowledge
of the development or normal and
maladaptive behavior and human nature
Therefore: the counselors need:
An Eclectic Theory or
Integrative Approach.
An eclectic counselor critically
selects concepts and techniques
from a number of counseling
approaches, taking research finding
into account and blends them
together with personal ideas and
adaptations into a consistent
whole.
Popular Theories in the field of
Counseling and Psychotherapy:
Person- centered
Therapy
IN COUNSELING
• As a set of guidelines to explain how
human beings learn, change and
develop.
• Propose a model for normal human
functioning.
• Suggest what should transpire in the
counseling process and what the
outcomes of counseling could be.
THE IMPORTANCE OF A
PERSONAL THEORY
• A personal theory also
relate to values, cultures,
experiences with diverse
client populations, a view
of human growth and
development through out
the life span.
• Adopting an existing
theory or developing one’s
personal theory involves a
great amount of study and
effort an inquiring creative
mind and ongoing practical
experience.
PASSONS (1975) – 3 key
ingredients to develop a
personal theory of counseling:
1. The counselor as a person
2. The existing theory
3. The synthesizing processes
counselors use in formulating a
personal theory
Psychoanalytic
Theory
 🗽
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Ethics and Legal Issue
The %&'(se*&+’s -%. wa1 23t-56is829 (1997) to:
Safeguard the public against irresponsible
“counselors”.
Streamline counseling activities and provide “an
umbrella” for counselors who are dedicated to promote
counseling.
TAE CDENGEHDR JKHL 1997/ COPQRSLOT UCT (VWX 580)
1. As a mechanism for at least assuring some minimum quality
standards that should be of value in protecting the public
interest.
2. Toensureandmonitorthatthepersonis qualified as a
professional counselor.
3. Maintaining and keeping-up it’s high professional standard
to the society.
# ensures that the field of counseling is fully committed and
protected in taking care of the well- being of the society.
Co\n1^6or A%. 1998
1. Establishment of a counseling council
2. A board of counselors
3. A registrar
4. Disciplinary and investigation committee
5. A provision for penalty for offences
6. Certificate of practice
7. Registration as counselors
SOME UNETHICAL CONDUCT
Violation of confidentiality
Exceeding one’s level of professional competence
Negligent practice
Claiming expertise one does not possess
Imposing one’s values on a client
Creating dependency in a client
Sexual activity with a client
Certain conflicts of interest, such as dual relationships
Questionable financial arrangements, such as charging excessive fees
Improper advertising
Issue of Professional Limit
Counselor should only accept positions for which she/he is
qualified (eg: counselor cannot be a psychiatrist).
Even though, he/she has MA degrees in counseling does not
certify as proficient in all areas of counseling. (eg: a client seeking
help in sex therapy, and you had no training in this field so, making
appropriate referral would be required here).
Issue of Sexual Conduct
1. The counseling relationship can be intimate relationship.
2. The codes are clear: the relationship should not include sexual
intimacies (to be harmful to the parties involved so to the counseling
profession).
3. The use of sexist language or types of sexual harassment also is
not condoned
Professional Association
A strong professional association (counseling) has an
important role to promote and represent counseling to the
community.
The Malaysian Counselor Association was registered in 1982.
1989- has changed to the Malaysian Association of Counselors
(PERKAMA).
The main objective:
To provide a common professional base for Malaysian
counselors and professionals in related areas and
professionals in related areas, from the points of view of both
professional orientation of fellowship.
has proposed a code of ethics for it members but adherence to the code
is not guaranteed and a system of accountability is not developed.
Reasons for ethical codes
1. Ethical standards protect the profession from government. They allow the
profession to regulate itself and function autonomously instead of being controlled
by legislation.
2. Ethical standards help control internal disagreements and bickering, thus
promoting stability within the profession.
3. Ethical standards protect practitioners from the public, especially in regard to
malpractice suits. If professionals behave according to ethical guidelines, the
behavior is judge to be in compliance with accepted standards.
Limitations of ethical codes
1. Some issues cannot be resolved by a code of ethics
2. There are difficulties in enforcing ethical codes
3. There may be conflicts within the standards delineated by the code
4. There are legal and ethical issues that codes do not cover
5. Ethical codes are historical documents. Thus, what may be acceptable
practice one time may be considered unethical later
5. There are sometimes conflicts between ethical and legal codes
6. Ethical codes do not address cross-cultural issues
7. Ethical codes do not address every possible situation
8. There is often difficulty in bringing the interest of all parties involved
in an ethical dispute together systematically
9. Ethical codes are not proactive documents for helping counselors
decide what to do in new situations.
Issues of Confidentiality
1) The importance confidentiality derives from the ethical principles.
2) Trust need too be established within the clients, to be successful in counseling
relationship.
3) Violations of confidentiality are automatically disrespectful to the dignity of
the person and constitute invasions of privacy.
4) Confidentiality also based on the principle of fidelity
5) Counselors must promise not to disclose what clients reveal to them (when we
disclose information without a client’s consent, we are unfaithful to our promise).
(some exceptional to this rule):
1. Cases in which there is clear and imminent danger to the client or to other people
(eg: bomb, drug, violent action, etc)
2. Actual or suspected child abuse
3. Records of a counselor who is not covered by concept of privileged communication
(the records are subject to subpoena)
 💝 💗

Career Counselling
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Career counseling is a process of helping individuals develop their well-being, self- awareness,
decision making skills and preparation for job world.

Career education approximate the counseling process in that it involves self- awareness,
exploration, understanding and skills of decision making along with career awareness and
preparation.

1. CAREER:
the activities and positions involved in vocations, occupations and jobs as well as related activities
associated with an individuals’ lifetime of work.

2. CAREER COUNSELING:
includes all counseling activities associated with career choices over a life span. All aspects of individual
needs (family, work and leisure) are recognized as integral parts of career decision making and planning.

3. CAREER GUIDANCE:
encompasses all components of services and activities in educational institutions, agencies and other
organizations that offer counseling and career related educational programs.

Th*e, 67)ge 9:;<= (1969, CAEFHHIJ)

1. EXPLORATION
aware of the spectrum of work
2. UNDERSTANDING
differentiate among occupations according to occupational characteristics
3. ACTION
active preparation for entry into the occupational world begins.

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Significant amount of information giving.

Extensive use of computerized programs and testing.
The use of placement services.
A direct emphasis on education.
 Client- Centered
Theory
This theory focuses mainly on the person and his/her subjective experiences as
the source of maladaptive behaviors

1940’s C.R Rogers developed what was known as

non-directive counseling
He challenged the basic assumption that:
•the counselors know best
•the validity of commonly accepted therapeutic process
such as; advice, suggestion, counselor direction,
persuasion, teaching, diagnosing and interpretation.
He emphasized:
the attitudes and personal characteristics of the therapist
and the quality of the client/therapist relationship as the
prime determinants of the therapeutic process

Rogers has been leading figure in applying its principles and basic concepts to counseling (compared to
the other humanistic Psychologists)

Basic Concepts
Views of Human nature
• Focuses on client’s responsibility and capacity to more fully encounter reality
• Clients who themselves best are the ones to discover more appropriate behavior for
themselves •People are essentially good
• Emphasizes the phenomenal world of the client. Therapists concern themselves mainly with •Humans are characteristically “positive, forward moving,
the client’s perception of self and of the world constructive, realistic and trustworthy”
• The same principles of psychotherapy apply to all clients (either normal, neurotics or •Each person is aware, inner-directed and moving toward self-
psychotics) actualization from infancy on
• Therapists and clients reveal their humanness and participate in a growth experience. •Believes that each person is capable of finding a personal meaning
and purpose in life.
•Views the individual from a phenomenological perspective: what is
Role of Counselor important is the person’s perception of reality rather than an event
itself
•vi. Humans are capable to grow and develop positively if they
• The counselor sets up and promotes a climate in which the client is respect and love each other
free and encouraged to explore all aspects of self •Rogers disagreed: humans are not believable and passive
• Focuses on the counselor-client relationship (warmth/therapeutic) •humans are need to be directed, encouraged, to be punished,
• The counselor is as a facilitator not as director rewarded, to be controlled and to be manageable
• The counselors make limited use of psychological tests •viii. Believes humans are capable and naturally developed stage by
• The counselor did not diagnose the client’s problem stage. The persons need:
• Helping a client become a fully functioning person who has no need to •genuineness, sincerity and truth
apply defense mechanisms •positive regard, warmth and caring
•empathy (accurate understanding)
Goals of Counselling
•Concern the client as a person not his or her problem
•Emphasizes that people need to be assisted in learning how to cope with Techniques of Counselling
situations.
•Helping a fully functioning person develops a greater acceptance of self
and others and becomes a better decision maker in the here and now • 3 personal characteristics/ attitudes of the
•A client is helped to identify, use and integrate his or her resources and therapist/counselor form a central part of the
potential. So, clients should become “more realistic in their self perceptions,
more confident and self –directing, more mature socialized and adaptive in therapeutic relationship:
their behavior ”
• Unconditional positive regard
Strengths Limitations – accept clients with nonjudgmental
attitude
• The approach revolutionized the counseling profession • Initially provided few instructions for
by linking counseling with psychotherapy counselors on how to establish • Accurate understanding / empathy
• Has generated a great deal of research and initially set relationships with clients and bring about – understanding clients’ situation from their
the standard for doing research on counseling variables change perspective
especially to bring about change.
• The approach is effective. Helps improve psychological • Depends on bright ,insightful, hard
adjustment, learning, and frustration tolerance and working clients for best results.
decrease defensiveness. • The approach ignores diagnosis, the • Congruence / genuineness –
• Focuses on the open relationship established by unconscious, and innately generated counselor verbal and nonverbal
counselors and clients and the short term nature of the sexual and aggressive drives actions are consistent and do not
process. • Deals only with surface issues and does indicate counselor is putting on a
• The basics of the approach take a relatively short time not challenge the client to explore
to learn. deeper areas. facade
• The approach has a positive view of human nature
 Techniques
free association Dream analysis

• The client abandons the normal way of • Freud said, dreams were an attempt to fulfill
censoring thoughts by consciously a childhood wish or express unacknowledged
repressing them and instead says sexual desires
whatever comes to mind, even if the • In dream analysis, clients are encouraged to
thoughts seem silly, irrational, suggestive dream and remember dreams
or painful • The counselor needs to be sensitive to two
• The id is requested to speak and the aspects of dreams: the manifest content
ego remains silent (obvious meaning) and the latent content
• Unconscious material enters the (hidden but true meaning)
conscious mind, and there the counselor • The analyst helps interpret both aspects to
interprets it the client

analysis of transference analysis of resistance

- Transference is the client’s response to - Their resistance to the therapeutic

a counselor as if the counselor were some process may take many forms such
significant figure in the client’s past, as missing appointments, being late
usually a parent figure for appointments, not paying fees,
• - The analyst encourages this blocking thoughts during free
transference and interprets the positive or association or refusing to recall
negative feelings expressed dreams or early memories
• - The release of feelings is therapeutic • - A counselor’s analysis of
• - But the real value of these experiences resistance can help clients gain
lies in the client’s increased self- insight into it as well as other
knowledge, which comes through the behaviors
counselor’s analysis of the transference

interpretation

• - When interpreting, the counselor helps the

client understand the meaning of past and present
personal events
• - Interpretation encompasses explanations and
analysis of a client’s thoughts, feelings and actions

Goals of Counseling
Strengths
• Primary goal : • Deal with chronics/
to help the client become more aware of the unconscious deep disorders and
aspects of his or her personality illnesses.
• Emphasizes the
importance of sexuality.
• Second major goal : • Reflect the complexity
to help a client work through a developmental stage not of human nature.
previously resolved • Stresses the
importance of
developmental growth
• Final goal : stages.
to help clients cope with the demands of the society in
which they live
Limitations
• Time consuming.
• Expensive.
• Theory is not easily
learn and
communicated.
• Doesn’t work with
older people.
• Doesn’t fulfill the
needs of people who
seek professional
counseling.
 Psychoanalytic Theory
This theory focuses mainly on childhood experiences and unconscious wishes or desires
as the source of maladaptive behaviors

Sigmund Freud (Sigismund Schlomo Freud) Basic concepts

I
May 6, 1856–September 23, 1939 - Are based upon the assumption that unconscious drives or
• He was originally from Austria. instincts influence behavior.
• He is known as the father of psychoanalytic • Freud theorized that a person’s unconscious processes are
• He popularized such notion as unconscious, defense determined by biological ( libidinal) or psychosexual drives (drives
mechanism, Freudian Slips and dream symbolism. that are potentially destructive unless controlled and channeled)
• Therapists help the client learn to control these unconscious
According to Hansen, Stevie and Warner 1986, forces.
- maladaptive behavior is described as unresolved
conflict that results from ineffective or destructive
relationships with parents or guardians at some period in Views of Human nature
psychosocial development
• Behavior is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations, and
biological as well as instinctual drives.
• People are basically “bad”.
Is also built on psychosexual developmental stages. • Human beings develop, change and grow with the transformation and
- oral stage: the mouth is the chief pleasure zone exchange of energy within the personality which consists of id, ego and
• e.g: sucking and biting superego
- anal stage: delight is in either withholding or
eliminating feces • (1) conscious mind:
- phallic stage: chief zone of pleasure is the sex attuned to an awareness of the outside world
organs • (2) preconscious mind:
- latency: peer activities, personal mastery of contains hidden memories/ forgotten experience that can be
remembered
cognitive learning and physical skills • (3) unconscious mind:
- genital stage: attraction of the opposite sex, contains the instinctual and powerful forces
interaction appears
Anxiety
• ID
• Operates through the “pleasure principle” • is defined as a state of tension that
• Demanding and insistent, lacks organization motivates us to do something
• Illogical, amoral and driven to satisfy instinctual needs • There are three kinds of anxiety which are
• Inherited givens of the personality and is present from birth reality, neurotic and moral
• Largely unconscious
• e.g: children will cry when they don’t get what they want. 1) Reality anxiety can be described as fearing
danger from the outside world
• EGO 2) Neurotic anxiety is the fear of one being
• Operates through the “reality principle” impulsive and does something that may result
• Also known as the executive of the mind to severe punishments
• Moderates wishes of id and superego 3) Moral anxiety is the fear of own conscience
• Essential for healthy functioning
• Balancing and managing human personality
DEFENSE MECAHNISM
• E.g: id – wants something
• ego–buyit
• A defensive strategy that is unconsciously
• SUPEREGO employed by the mind in order to confront
normal logic and protect oneself from
• Operates according to the moral principle and what is ideal consciousness of unwanted feelings
• Contrasted with the “id”
• Arises from the moral teachings of a child’s parents and strives for perfection Two common features of ego defense mechanism:
deny or distort reality, function at unconscious
• E.g: buy things according to needs and price. level
• Repression
• Regression
Role of the Counselor • Reaction Formation
• Displacement
Psychoanalysis counselors play the role of experts • Projection
– Tend to be more directive, active and more accessible to client • Introjection
• Encourage their clients to talk about whatever comes to mind especially their childhood experiences • Sublimation
• To create an atmosphere in which the client feels free to express difficult thought • Denial
• Rationalization
• The analyst listens, learns, and decides when to make appropriate interpretations • Undoing
• To let clients gain insight by relieving and working through the unresolved past experiences that come into focus • Identification
during sessions • Compensation
• Encourages the counselor to interpret for the client