NERVOUS TISSUE
neuron.
Organization of the Nervous System
3. Axon
Histology of Nervous Tissue
Neurons
• possess electrical excitability, the ability to
respond to a stimulus and convert it into an action
potential.
• A stimulus is any change in the environment that
is strong enough to initiate an action potential.
• An action potential (nerve impulse) is an
electrical signal that propagates (travels) along
the surface of the membrane of a neuron.
Parts of a Neuron
1. Cell Body
- Neuronal cell bodies also contain free
ribosomes and prominent clusters of rough
endoplasmic reticulum, termed Nissl bodies.
- The cytoskeleton includes both neurofibrils,
composed of bundles of intermediate
filaments that provide the cell shape and
support, and microtubules which assist in
moving materials between the cell body and
axon.
- Aging neurons also contain lipofuscin a
pigment that occurs as clumps of yellowish-
brown granules in the cytoplasm.
- A collection of neuron cell bodies outside the
CNS is called a ganglion.
2. Dendrites
- are the receiving or input portions of a
- A nerve fiber is a general term for any
neuronal process (extension) that emerges
from the cell body of a neuron.
- of a neuron propagates nerve impulses
toward another neuron, a muscle fiber, or a
gland cell.
- An axon is a long, thin, cylindrical projection
that often joins to the cell body at a cone-
shaped elevation called the axon hillock.
- The part of the axon closest to the axon
hillock is the initial segment. In most
neurons, nerve impulses arise at the junction
of the axon hillock and the initial segment, an
area called the trigger zone, from which they
travel along the axon to their destination.
- The cytoplasm of an axon, called axoplasm,
is surrounded by a plasma membrane known
as the axolemma. Along the length of an
axon, side branches called axon collaterals.
- The axon and its collaterals end by dividing
into many fine processes called axon
terminals or axon telodendria.
- The site of communication between two
neurons or between a neuron and an effector
cell is called a synapse.
- The tips of some axon terminals swell into
bulb-shaped structures called synaptic end
bulbs; others exhibit a string of swollen
bumps called varicosities.
- Both synaptic end bulbs and varicosities
contain many tiny membrane-enclosed sacs
called synaptic vesicles that store a chemical
called a neurotransmitter.
 - The slower system, which moves materials
about 1–5 mm per day, is called slow axonal
transport. It conveys axoplasm in one
direction only—from the cell body toward
the axon terminals.
- Fast axonal transport, which is capable of
moving materials 200–400 mm per day, uses
proteins that function as “motors” to move
materials along the surfaces of microtubules
of the neuron’s cytoskeleton.
- Fast axonal transport that occurs in an
anterograde (forward) direction moves
organelles and synaptic vesicles from the cell
body to the axon terminals.
- Fast axonal transport that occurs in a
retrograde (backward) direction moves
membrane vesicles and other cellular
materials from the axon terminals to the cell
body to be degraded or recycled.
Classification of Neurons
Structural Classification
1. Multipolar Neurons
- usually have several dendrites and one axon.
- Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are
of this type, as well as all motor neurons.
2. Bipolar Neurons
- have one main dendrite and one axon.
- They are found in the retina of the eye, the
inner ear, and the olfactory area (olfact = to
smell) of the brain.
3. Unipolar Neurons
- have dendrites and one axon that are fused
together to form a continuous process that
emerges from the cell.
- Pseudo unipolar neurons
- Sensory receptors
• Purkinje cells in the cerebellum and pyramidal cells,
found in the cerebral cortex of the brain, which have
pyramid-shaped cell bodies.
Functional Classification
1. Sensory Neurons
- Afferent
- sensory neuron forms an action potential in
its axon and the action potential is conveyed
into the CNS through cranial or spinal nerves.
Most sensory neurons are unipolar in
structure.
2. Motor Neurons
- Efferent
- convey action potentials away from the CNS
to effectors (muscles and glands) in the
periphery (PNS) through cranial or spinal
nerves.
- Motor neurons are multipolar in structure.
3. Interneurons
- Association
- integrate (process) incoming sensory
information from sensory neurons and then
elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons. Most
interneurons are multipolar in structure.
Neuroglia
- make up about half the volume of the CNS.
- Brain tumors derived from glia, called
gliomas, tend to be highly malignant and to
grow rapidly.
- six types of neuroglia, four—astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal
cells— are found only in the CNS. The
remaining two types—Schwann cells and
satellite cells—are present in the PNS.
Neuroglia of the CNS Neuroglia of the PNS
 • Astrocytes - hold • Satellite cells - Electrical Signals in Neurons
neurons together, these cells are
provide thought to have • Membrane potential- it is the electrical difference
nutritional many of the same between inside and outside of the cell.
support to functions in the - Resting membrane potential- it is the
neurons, and PNS as astrocytes electrical potential difference when the cell is
involved in do in the CNS. unstimulated or resting.
neurotransmissio • Schwann cells- - Depolarization- membrane potential
n and the also called becomes more positive and moves closer to
establishment of neurolemmocytes zero.
the blood-brain . Their function is - Hyperpolarization- membrane potential
barrier. equivalent to that becomes more negative and moves further
• Ependymal cells- of away from zero.
some of these oligodendrocytes
• Neurons communicate using two types of
cells are involved which forms
in the production myelin sheaths electrical signals:
of cerebrospinal around the thicker - Graded potentials- these are used for short-
fluid (CSF) while nerve fibers. distance communication only.
others have cilia o Potential change can vary from small
that facilitate the to large. ○ Can result from the
circulation of following:
CSF. ➢ Chemical signals binding to
• Microglial cells- their receptors
these are the ➢ Changes in the voltage
immunity cells of across plasma membrane
the CNS. ➢ Mechanical stimulation
• Oligodendrocytes ➢ Temperature changes
- they produce the
➢ Spontaneous opening of ion
myelin sheath
channels
around axons
which speeds up o Conducted in decremental fashion
the rate of nerve which means that they rapidly
impulse decrease in magnitude as they spread
conduction. over the surface of the plasma
Myelinated and Unmyelinated axons membrane.
o Summation of graded potentials- the
effects produced by one graded
potential combine with the effects
produced by a different graded
potential leading to an action
potential.
- Action potentials- used for long distance
communication within the body.
o Nerve action potential (nerve
impulse)- action potential that occurs
in neuron
o Threshold- when the graded potential
summates to this level, the result is
an action potential.
o Depolarization phase- membrane
potential moves away from the
resting state and becomes more
positive.
 o Repolarization phase- membrane
potential returns toward the resting
state and becomes more negative.
o Afterpotential- hyperpolarization of
the plasma membrane for a short
period of time.
o All-or-none principle- the principle
wherein the neurons will transmit an
impulse over the synapse to the next
neuron completely or not at all.
o Refractory period- the period of time
wherein an excitable cell cannot
generate another action potential in
response to a normal threshold
stimulus.
➢ Absolute refractory period-
in this period, even a very
strong stimulus cannot
initiate a second action
potential.
➢ Relative refractory period-
in this period, a second
action potential can be
initiated, but only by a larger
than normal stimulus.
o Propagation- mode of conduction
wherein an action potential keeps its
strength as it spreads along the
membrane.
➢ Continuous conduction-
propagation of action potential
along unmyelinated axons.
➢ Saltatory conduction- rapid
propagation of action potential
along myelinated axons.
• Ion channels- these are protein molecules
spanning across the cell membrane which allows
the passage of ions from one side of the
membrane to the other.
- Types of ion channels in neurons:
o Leak channels- gated channels that
randomly open and close.
➢ Found in nearly all cells,
including dendrites, cell bodies,
and axons of all types of neurons.
o Ligand-gated channels- gated channels
that open in response to binding of ligand
(chemical) stimulus.
➢ Can be found in dendrites of
some sensory neurons (e.g. pain
receptors) and dendrites and
cells bodies of interneurons and
motor neurons.
o Mechanically gated channels- these are
gated channels that open in response to
mechanical stimulus (e.g. touch,
pressure, vibration)
➢ Found in dendrites of some
sensory neurons such as touch,
pressure, and some pain
receptors.
o Voltage-gated channels- gated channels
that open in response to voltage stimulus
or a change in membrane potential.
➢ Found in axons of all types of
neurons.
 • Chemical synapse
• Nerve fibers classification based on myelination,
diameter, and propagation speed:
- Group A fibers- have the largest diameter,
thick myelin sheaths, and conduct impulses at
up to 150m/s speed. Mostly somatic sensory
and motor fibers.
- Group B fibers- lightly myelinated fibers of
intermediate diameter. Transmit impulses at
an average rate of 15 m/s.
- Group C fibers- have the smallest diameter.
Non-myelinated and conduct impulses at a
leisure pace– 1 m/s or less.
Synapse
o The essential components of chemical
synapse are as follows:
➢ Presynaptic terminal- the
enlarged ends of the axon
containing synaptic vesicles.
➢ Synaptic cleft- it is a space
separating the presynaptic and
post-synaptic membranes.
➢ Postsynaptic membrane- they
contain receptors for the
neurotransmitter.
o The effect of the neurotransmitter is on
the postsynaptic membrane is stopped in
various ways:
➢ The neurotransmitter is broken
down by an enzyme.
➢ Taken up by the presynaptic
terminal.
➢ Neurotransmitter diffuses out of
the synaptic cleft.
o Neuromodulators- these are substances
that are release from neurons which
influences the likelihood of an action
potential being produced in the
postsynaptic cell.
o Excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)- it is a depolarizing graded
potential of the postsynaptic membrane
caused by an increase in membrane
permeability to Na+.
o Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)-
the hyperpolarizing graded potential of
the postsynaptic membrane caused by an
increase in membrane permeability to K+
or Cl-.

• it is a junction which functions to mediate

information transfer from one neuron to another
neuron or to an effector cell.
- Presynaptic cell- it is the cell that transmits a
signal toward the synapse.
- Postsynaptic cell- it is the target cell that
receives the signal.
Types of synapse:

• Electrical synapse- these are gap junctions in

which connexons allow local currents to move
between cells.
o Connexons- groups of six tubular
proteins that allow intercellular
communication and the transfer of ions.
 o Peptides- can modulate a postsynaptic
response to a neurotransmitter.
➢ A neuropeptide called substance
P is an important mediator of
pain signals.
o Purines- one of the classes of nitrogen-
containing bases that make up DNA and
RNA.
➢ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is
a major neurotransmitter that
mediates calcium ion influx.
➢ Adenosine, a part of ATP, also
acts outside of cells on adenosine
receptors. It is a potent inhibitor
in the brain.
• Gases and Lipids
o Gasotransmitters- neurotransmitters in
the form of gas wherein rather than being
stored in vesicles and release by
exocytosis, they are synthesized on
demand and diffuse out of the cells that
make them.
o Endocannabinoids- these are lipid
soluble and are synthesized on demand,
Neurotransmitters rather than stored and released from
vesicles. They are thought to be involved
• Classification of neurotransmitters based on in learning, memory, neuronal
chemical structure: development, controlling appetite, and
o Acetylcholine- it is the first suppressing nausea.
neurotransmitter identified. • Classification of neurotransmitters according to
➢ Synthesized from acetic acid (as function:
acetyl CoA) and choline by the • Effects
enzyme choline o Excitatory- causes depolarization and
acetyltransferase. enhances the effects of the action
➢ Regulates various physiological potential.
functions such as regulating o Inhibitory- causes hyperpolarization and
cardiac contractions and blood prevents or inhibits an action potential.
pressure. • Actions
o Biogenic Amines- plays a role in o Direct- neurotransmitters that act directly
emotional behavior and help regulate the are those that bind to and open ion
biological clock. channels.
➢ Catecholamines- important in o Indirect- neurotransmitters that act
stress responses. indirectly promote broader, longer-
▪ Dopamine, lasting effects by acting through
norepinephrine (NE), intracellular second-messenger
epinephrine molecules.
➢ Indolamines- involved in mood
and sleep
▪ Serotonin, histamine
o Amino Acids- these are the main
inhibitory and excitatory messengers in
the nervous system.
 • Neurotransmitter Receptors- these are membrane
receptor proteins that are activated by
neurotransmitters. It has two types:
o Channel-Linked Receptors- also called
ionotropic receptors. These are ligand-
gated ion channels that mediate direct
neurotransmitter action.
o G Protein-Coupled Receptors- also
called metabotropic receptors as their
effects tend to bring about widespread
metabolic changes. Activities mediated
by these receptors are indirect, complex,
slow, and often prolonged.
• Reflexes- rapid, automatic responses to stimuli
Neural Processing and Circuits o A particular stimulus always causes the
same response.
• Neural processing- simply refers to the way the o Reflexes occur over neural pathways
brain works. called reflex arcs.
o Two types of neural processing:
➢ Serial processing- the input Regeneration and Repair of Nervous Tissue
travels along one pathway to a
• Plasticity- the capability of the nervous system to
specific destination.
change based on experience. For instance,
➢ Parallel processing- the input
sprouting of new dendrites, synthesis of new
travels along several different
proteins, and changes in synaptic contacts with
pathways to be integrated in
other neurons.
different CNS regions.
• Regeneration- the capability to replicate or repair
• Neural circuits- these are functional group of
themselves.
neurons that processes specific types of
• Neurogenesis- it is the birth of new neurons from
information.
undifferentiated stem cells.
o Types of neural circuits:
Two factors that results in the nearly complete lack of
neurogenesis in other regions of the brain and spinal
cord:

• Inhibitory influences from neuroglia, particularly

oligodendrocytes.
• Absence of growth-stimulating cues that were
present during fetal development.
Damage and Repair in the PNS

• Neurolemma- outermost nucleated cytoplasmic

layer of Schwann cells surrounding the axon of
the neuron. It serves a protective function for
peripheral nerve fibers.
• Myelinated axons in the PNS may be repaired if
the cell body remains intact and if Schwann cells
remain active.
• Chromatolysis- also known as axon reaction. It is
a reactive change that occurs in the cell body of
damaged neurons which involves the breaking up
of NIssl bodies into fine granular masses.
• Wallerian degeneration- it is the degeneration of
the distal portion of the axon and myelin sheath.

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Epilepsy
• Depression
• Excitotoxicity
THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
Spinal Cord Anatomy
I. Protective Structures
• The first layer of protection for the central
nervous system is the hard bony skull and
vertebral column.
a. Skull
b. Vertebral column – provides sturdy shelter
• The second protective layer is the meninges, three
membranes that lie between the bony encasement
and the nervous tissue in both the brain and spinal
cord.
a. Meninges (meninx – singular) – are three
distinct protective, connective tissue
coverings that encircle the spinal cord (spinal
meninges) and brain (cranial meninges).
1. Dura mater (tough mother) - The most
superficial and thick strong layer
composed of dense irregular connective
tissue. It forms a sac from the level of the
foramen magnum in the occipital bone,
where it is continuous with the meningeal
dura mater of the brain, to the second
sacral vertebra. It is also continuous with
the epineurium, the outer covering of
spinal and cranial nerves.
2. Arachnoid mater (arachn- spider; oid=
similar to) – The middle layer is a thin,
avascular covering composed of cells and
thin, loosely arranged collagen and
elastic fibers. It is called the arachnoid
mater because of its spider’s-web
arrangement of delicate collagen fibers
and some elastic fibers that extend
between the arachnoid mater and pia
mater. It is deep to the dura mater and is
continuous through the foramen magnum
with the arachnoid mater of the brain.
Between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is a thin
subdural space, which contains interstitial fluid.
3. Pia mater (pia = delicate) - This
innermost meninx is a thin transparent
connective tissue layer that adheres to the
surface of the spinal cord and brain. It
consists of thin squamous to cuboidal
cells within interlacing bundles of
collagen fibers and some fine elastic
fibers. Within the pia mater are many
blood vessels that supply oxygen and
nutrients to the spinal cord. Triangular-
shaped membranous extensions of the pia
mater suspend the spinal cord in the
middle of its dural sheath.
o Denticulate ligaments
(denticulate = small tooth) –
thickenings of the pia matter.
Between the arachnoid mater and pia mater is a space, the
subarachnoid space, which also contains shock-absorbing
cerebrospinal fluid.
• Finally, a space between two of the meningeal
membranes contains cerebrospinal fluid, a
buoyant liquid that suspends the central nervous
tissue in a weightless environment while
surrounding it with a shock-absorbing, hydraulic
cushion.
a. Epidural space - a space between the dura mater
and the wall of the vertebral canal that contains a
cushion of fat and connective tissue.
 2. The inferior enlargement, called the lumbosacral
enlargement, extends from the ninth to the twelfth
thoracic vertebra. Nerves to and from the lower
limbs arise from the lumbar enlargement.
3. Conus medullaris (KŌ-nus med-ū-LAR-is; conus
= cone) – inferior to the lumbar enlargement, the
spinal cord terminates as a tapering, conical
structure which ends at the level of the
intervertebral disc between the first and second
lumbar vertebrae (L1–L2) in adults.
4. Filum terminale (FĪ-lum ter-mi-NAL-ē =
terminal filament) – an extension of the pia mater
that extends inferiorly, fuses with the arachnoid
mater and dura mater, and anchors the spinal cord
to the coccyx.
5. Spinal nerves – are the paths of communication
between the spinal cord and specific regions of
the body. The spinal cord appears to be
segmented because the 31 pairs of spinal nerves
emerge at regular intervals from intervertebral
foramina.
6. Roots – two bundles of axons that connect each
spinal nerve to a segment of the cord by even
II. External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord smaller bundles of axons called rootlets.
7. The posterior root and rootlets – contain only
sensory axons which conduct nerve impulses
from sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and
internal organs into the central nervous system.
8. The spinal (dorsal root) ganglion, swelling of
posterior root which contains the cell bodies of
sensory neurons.
9. The anterior root and rootlets – contain axons of
motor neurons which conduct nerve impulses
from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands).
10. The roots of these lower spinal nerves angle
inferiorly alongside the filum terminal in the
vertebral canal like wisps of hair. Accordingly,
the roots of these nerves are collectively named
the cauda equina (KAW- da ē- KWĪna),
meaning “horse’s tail.”
III. Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
• A transverse section of the spinal cord reveals
regions of white matter that surround an inner
core of gray matter. The white matter of the spinal
cord consists primarily of bundles of myelinated
axons of neurons. Two grooves penetrate the
white matter of the spinal cord and divide it into
1. The superior enlargement, the cervical
right and left sides.
enlargement, extends from the fourth cervical
A. anterior median fissure is a wide groove on
vertebra (C4) to the first thoracic vertebra (T1).
the anterior (ventral) side.
Nerves to and from the upper limbs arise from the
B. posterior median sulcus is a narrow furrow on
cervical enlargement.
the posterior (dorsal) side. The gray matter of
 the spinal cord is shaped like the letter H or a
butterfly; it consists of dendrites and cell
bodies of neurons, unmyelinated axons, and
neuroglia.
C. gray commissure (KOM- mi- shur) forms the
crossbar of the H.
D. central canal is the small space in the center
of the gray commissure.
E. anterior white commissure connects the
white matter to the right and left sides of the
spinal cord.
F. nuclei are functional groups from clusters of
neuronal cell bodies.

G. horns are the subdivided regions of the gray

matter on each side of the spinal cord.
H. posterior gray horns contain axons of
incoming sensory neurons as well as cell
bodies and axons of interneurons. Recall that
cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in
the spinal ganglion of a spinal nerve.
I. anterior gray horns contain somatic motor
nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of
somatic motor neurons that provide nerve
impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles.
J. lateral gray horns, which are present only in
thoracic and upper lumbar and mid-sacral
segments of the spinal cord. The lateral gray
horns contain autonomic motor nuclei, which
are clusters of cell bodies of autonomic motor
neurons that regulate the activity of cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
K. funiculi (singular is funiculus) are the
subdivisions made by anterior and posterior
gray horns to the white matter on each side
into three broad areas:
o anterior white funiculi
o posterior white funiculi
o lateral white funiculi
L. tracts or fasciculi (singular is fasciculus) are
bundles of axons in the CNS.
o sensory (ascending) tracts consist of
axons that conduct nerve impulses
toward the brain.
o motor (descending) tracts consist of
axons that carry nerve impulses from
the brain.
 according to the region and level of the vertebral
column from which they emerged.
• The first cervical pair of spinal nerves emerges
from the spinal cord between the occipital bone
and the atlas (first cervical vertebra, or C1).
o 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8)
o 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1-T12)
o 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5)
o 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5)
o coccygeal nerves (Co1)
• As noted earlier, a typical spinal nerve has two
connections to the cord: a posterior root and an
anterior root. The posterior and anterior roots
unite to form a spinal nerve at the intervertebral
foramen. Because the posterior root contains
sensory axons and the anterior root contains
motor axons, a spinal nerve is classified as a
• Segment – Distinguishing Characteristics mixed nerve. The posterior root contains a spinal
1. Cervical - relatively large diameter, relatively ganglion in which cell bodies of sensory neurons
large amounts of white matter, oval; in upper are located.
cervical segments (C1–C4), posterior gray
horn is large but anterior gray horn is
relatively small; in lower cervical segments
(C5 and below), posterior gray horns are
enlarged and anterior gray horns are well
developed.
2. Thoracic - Small diameter due to relatively
small amounts of gray matter; except for the
first thoracic segment, anterior and posterior
gray horns are relatively small; a small lateral
gray horn is present.
3. Lumbar - Nearly circular; very large anterior
and posterior gray horns; small lateral gray
horn is present in upper segments; relatively
less white matter than cervical segments. I. Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal
4. Sacral - Relatively small, but relatively large Nerves
amounts of gray matter; relatively small • Three connective tissue coverings associated with
amounts of white matter; anterior and spinal nerves are the endoneurium, perineurium,
posterior gray horns are large and thick. and epineurium.
5. Coccygeal - Resembles lower sacral spinal
segments, but much smaller.
Spinal Nerves

• Spinal nerves are associated with the spinal cord

and, like all nerves of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS), are parallel bundles of axons and
their associated neuroglial cells wrapped in
several layers of connective tissue. Spinal nerves
connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, 1. Endoneurium consists of a mesh of collagen
and glands in all parts of the body. The 31 pairs fibers, fibroblasts, and macrophages.
of spinal nerves are named and numbered 2. Perineurium is the middle thicker layer of
connective tissue that wraps each of which. It
 consists of up to 15 layers of fibroblasts within a
network of collagen fibers.
3. Epineurium is the innermost layer that consists of
fibroblasts and thick collagen fibers. Extensions
of the epineurium also fill the spaces between
nerve fascicles. The dura mater of the spinal
meninges fuses with the epineurium as the nerve
passes through the intervertebral foramen.
II. Distribution of Spinal Nerves
A. Branches (rami = branches) branches of a spinal
nerve include the posterior ramus, anterior ramus,
meningeal branch, and communicating rami.
o posterior (dorsal) ramus (RĀ-mus;
singular form) serves the deep muscles
and skin of the posterior surface of the
trunk.
o anterior (ventral) ramus serves the
muscles and structures of the upper and
lower limbs and the skin of the lateral and
anterior surfaces of the trunk.
➢ anterior rami of spinal nerves,
except for T2–T12, form
networks of nerves called
plexuses.
o posterior (dorsal) ramus (RĀ-mus;
singular form) serves the deep muscles
and skin of the posterior surface of the
trunk.
o anterior (ventral) ramus serves the
muscles and structures of the upper and
lower limbs and the skin of the lateral and
anterior surfaces of the trunk.
B. Plexuses (PLEK-sus = braid or network)
Emerging from the plexuses are nerves bearing
names that typically describe the general regions Cervical Plexus
they supply or the route they follow.
o cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar • Cervical plexus (C1–C5) is formed by the roots
plexus, sacral plexus, and coccygeal (anterior rami) of the first four cervical nerves
plexus. (C1–C4), with contributions from C5.
o Anterior rami of nerves T2–T12 do not • Nerves of the cervical plexus supply the skin and
form plexuses and are called intercostal muscles of the head, neck, and upper part of the
nerves. They are distributed directly to shoulders; they connect with some cranial nerves
the structures they supply in intercostal and innervate the diaphragm.
spaces. o Lesser occipital nerve
o Sensory neurons within spinal nerves o Great auricular
serve specific, constant segments of the o Ansa cervicalis
skin called dermatomes. Knowledge of o Transverse cervical nerve
dermatomes helps a physician determine o Supraclavicular nerve
which segment of the spinal cord or o Phrenic nerve
which spinal nerve is damaged.
Brachial Plexus

• Brachial plexus (C5–T1) nerves of the brachial

plexus supply the upper limbs and several neck
and shoulder muscles.
• Five large terminal branches arise from the Lumbar Plexus
brachial plexus:
• Nerves of the lumbar plexus supply the
o The axillary nerve supplies the deltoid
anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals,
and teres minor muscles.
and part of the lower limbs.
o The musculocutaneous nerve supplies
• Lumbar plexus (L1–L4) passes obliquely
the anterior muscles of the arm.
outward, between the superficial and deep heads
o The radial nerve supplies the muscles on
of the psoas major muscle and anterior to the
the posterior aspect of the arm and
quadratus lumborum muscle.
forearm.
o Iliohypogastric nerve (L1) muscles of
o The median nerve supplies most of the
anterolateral abdominal wall; skin of
muscles of the anterior forearm and some
inferior abdomen and buttocks.
of the muscles of the hand.
o Ilioinguinal nerve (L1) muscles of
o The ulnar nerve supplies the
anterolateral abdominal wall; skin of
anteromedial muscles of the forearm and
superior and medial aspect of thigh, root
most of the muscles of the hand.
of penis and scrotum in male, and labia
• Intercostal (thoracic) nerves
majora and mons pubis in female.
o Subcostal nerve (intercostal nerve 12)
o Genitofemoral nerve (L1–L2) cremaster
o Second lumbar vertebra
muscle; skin over middle anterior surface
of thigh, scrotum in male, and labia
majora in female.
o Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (L2–L3)
skin over lateral, anterior, and posterior
aspects of thigh.

Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses
• Sacral plexuses are situated largely anterior to the
sacrum. The sacral plexus supplies the buttocks,
perineum, and lower limbs. The largest nerve in
the body—the sciatic nerve—arises from the
sacral plexus.
• The roots (anterior rami) of spinal nerves S4–S5
and the coccygeal nerves form a small coccygeal
plexus (kok-SIG-ē-al). From this plexus arises the
anococcygeal nerves, which supply a small area
of skin in the coccygeal region.
o Superior gluteal nerve (L4–L5 and S1)
gluteus minimus, gluteus medius, and
tensor fasciae latae muscles.
o Inferior gluteal nerve (L5–S2) Gluteus
maximus muscle.
o Nerve to piriformis (S1–S2) Piriformis
muscle.
o Nerve to quadratus femoris and inferior
gemellus (L4–L5 and S1)Quadratus
femoris and inferior gemellus muscles.
o Nerve to obturator internus and superior
gemellus (L5–S2) Obturator internus and
superior gemellus muscles.
o Perforating cutaneous (S2–S3) Skin over
inferior medial aspect of buttocks.
o Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve (S1–
S3) Skin over anal region, inferior lateral
aspect of buttocks, superior posterior
aspect of thigh, superior part of calf,
scrotum in male, and labia majora in
female.
o Pudendal nerve (S2–S4) Muscles of
perineum; skin of penis and scrotum in
male and clitoris, labia majora, labia
minora, and vagina in female.
o Sciatic nerve (L4–S3) Actually two
nerves—tibial and common fibular—
bound together by common sheath of
connective tissue; splits into its two
divisions, usually at the knee. (See below
for distributions.) As sciatic nerve
descends through thigh, it sends branches
to hamstring muscles and adductor
magnus.
• Common fibular (L4–S2) Divides into superficial
fibular and deep fibular branch.
o Superficial fibular Fibularis longus and
fibularis brevis muscles; skin over distal
third of anterior aspect of leg and dorsum
of foot.
o Deep fibular Tibialis anterior, extensor
hallucis longus, fibularis tertius, and
extensor digitorum longus and extensor
digitorum brevis muscles; skin on
adjacent sides of great and second toes. -
Tibial nerve
• Tibial (TIB-ē-al) L4–S3 Gastrocnemius,
plantaris, soleus, popliteus, tibialis posterior,
flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis
longus muscles. Branches of tibial nerve in foot
are medial plantar nerve and lateral plantar nerve.
o Medial plantar (PLAN-tar) Abductor
hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, and
flexor hallucis brevis muscles; skin over
medial two-thirds of plantar surface of
foot.
o Lateral plantar Remaining muscles of
foot not supplied by medial plantar
nerve; skin over lateral third of plantar
surface of foot.
Spinal Cord Physiology
 • The components of a reflex arc are sensory
receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center,
• Nerve impulses from sensory receptors propagate motor neuron, and effector.
up the spinal cord to the brain along two main • Somatic spinal reflexes include the stretch reflex,
routes on each side: the spinothalamic tract and the tendon reflex, the flexor reflex, and the
the posterior funiculi: crossed extensor reflex; all exhibit reciprocal
o The spinothalamic tract conveys nerve innervation.
impulses for sensing pain, temperature,
itch, and tickle.
o The posterior funiculi convey nerve
impulses for touch, pressure, vibration,
and conscious proprioception (the
awareness of the positions and
movements of muscles, tendons, and
joints).
• The direct motor pathways, also called pyramidal
pathways, include the lateral corticospinal,
anterior corticospinal, and corticobulbar tracts.
They convey nerve impulses that originate in the
cerebral cortex and are destined to cause
voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
• Indirect motor pathways, also called
extrapyramidal pathways, include the
rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, lateral
reticulospinal, and medial reticulospinal tracts.
These tracts convey nerve impulses from the
brainstem to cause automatic movements and
help coordinate body movements with visual
stimuli. Indirect pathways also maintain skeletal • A two-neuron or monosynaptic reflex arc consists
muscle tone, sustain contraction of postural of one sensory neuron and one motor neuron. A
muscles, and play a major role in equilibrium by stretch reflex, such as the patellar reflex, is an
regulating muscle tone in response to movements example.
of the head. • The stretch reflex is ipsilateral and is important in
maintaining muscle tone.
Reflexes and Arcs

• A reflex is a fast, predictable sequence of

involuntary actions, such as muscle contractions
or glandular secretions, which occurs in response
to certain changes in the environment. Reflexes
may be spinal or cranial and somatic or
autonomic.
• A polysynaptic reflex arc contains sensory
• Several important somatic reflexes are used to
neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The
diagnose various disorders such as traumatic
tendon reflex, flexor (withdrawal) reflex, and
injuries, spinal cord compression, degenerative
crossed extensor reflexes are examples.
diseases, shingles, and poliomyelitis. These
include the patellar reflex, Achilles reflex,
Babinski sign, and abdominal reflex.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

• Traumatic Injuries
• Spinal Cord Compression
• Degenerative Diseases
• Shingles
• Poliomyelitis

THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES

Brain Organization, Protection, and Blood Supply

• The tendon reflex is ipsilateral and prevents

damage to muscles and tendons when muscle
force becomes too extreme. The flexor reflex is
ipsilateral and moves a limb away from the source
of a painful stimulus. The crossed extensor reflex
extends the limb contralateral to a painfully
stimulated limb, allowing the weight of the body
to shift when a supporting limb is withdrawn.
• The brain and spinal cord develop from the
ectodermal neural tube.
• Creates three regions called primary brain
vesicles: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and
rhombencephalon.
• Both the prosencephalon and rhombencephalon
subdivide further, forming secondary brain
vesicles.
 • The prosencephalon, or forebrain, gives rise to
the telencephalon and diencephalon, and the
rhombencephalon, or hindbrain, develops into the
metencephalon and myelencephalon.
• The various brain vesicles give rise to the
following adult structures:
1. The telencephalon develops into the
cerebrum and lateral ventricles.
2. The diencephalon forms the thalamus,
hypothalamus, epithalamus, and third
ventricle.
3. The mesencephalon or midbrain gives rise to
the midbrain and aqueduct of the midbrain
(cerebral aqueduct).
4. The metencephalon becomes the pons,
cerebellum, and upper part of the fourth
ventricle.
5. The myelencephalon forms the medulla
oblongata and lower part of the fourth
ventricle.
Major Parts of the Brain
• The brain stem is continuous with the spinal cord
and consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain. Posterior to the brain stem is the
cerebellum (little brain).
• Superior to the brain stem is the diencephalon,
which consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus. Supported on the diencephalon
and brain stem is the cerebrum or the largest part
of the brain.
Brain Blood Flow and the Blood-Brain Barrier
Protective Coverings of the Brain
• The cranium and the cranial meninges surround
and protect the brain.
• The cranial meninges are continuous with the
spinal meninges, have the same basic structure,
and bear the same names: the outer dura mater,
the middle arachnoid mater, and the inner pia
mater.
• The cranial dura mater has two layers; the spinal
dura mater has only one.
• The two dural layers are called the periosteal
layer (external) and the meningeal layer
(internal).
o The dural layers around the brain are
fused together except where they
separate to enclose the dural venous
sinuses (endothelial-lined venous
channels) that drain venous blood from
the brain and deliver it into the internal
jugular veins.
• No epidural space around the brain.
• Blood vessels that enter brain tissue pass along
the surface of the brain, and as they penetrate
inward, they are sheathed by a loose-fitting sleeve
of pia mater.
• Three extensions of the dura mater separate parts
of the brain:
1. The falx cerebri (falx sickle-shaped)
separates the two hemispheres (sides) of the
cerebrum.
2. The falx cerebelli separates the two
hemispheres of the cerebellum.
3. The tentorium cerebelli (tent) separates the
cerebrum from the cerebellum.
• Blood flows to the brain mainly via the internal
carotid and vertebral arteries; the dural venous
sinuses drain into the internal jugular veins to
return blood from the head to the heart.
• The blood–brain barrier (BBB) causes different
substances to move between the blood and the
brain tissue at different rates and prevents the
movement of some substances from blood into
the brain.
 • Typically, an interruption in blood flow for 1 or 2 Formation of CSF in the Ventricles
minutes impairs neuronal function, and total
• The majority of CSF production is from the
deprivation of oxygen for about 4 minutes causes
choroid plexuses (membranelike), networks of
permanent injury.
blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles.
• Consists mainly of tight junctions that seal
• Ependymal cells joined by tight junctions cover
together the endothelial cells of brain blood
the capillaries of the choroid plexuses. Selected
capillaries and a thick basement membrane that
substances (mostly water) from the blood plasma,
surrounds the capillaries.
which are filtered from the capillaries, are
• Substances allowed. Of water-soluble substances,
secreted by the ependymal cells to produce the
only water, glucose, and essential amino acids
cerebrospinal fluid.
pass easily through the walls of these capillaries.
• This secretory capacity is bidirectional and
• Prohibited substances. Metabolic wastes, such as
accounts for continuous production of CSF and
toxins, urea, proteins, and most drugs are
transport of metabolites from the nervous tissue
prevented from entering the brain tissue.
back to the blood.
• Fat-soluble substances. The blood-brain barrier is
• Because of the tight junctions between
virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases,
ependymal cells, materials entering CSF from
and other fat-soluble molecules that diffuse easily
choroid capillaries cannot leak between these
through all plasma membranes.
cells; instead, they must pass through the
• Trauma, certain toxins, and inflammation can
ependymal cells.
cause a breakdown of the blood–brain barrier.
• This blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier permits
Cerebrospinal Fluid certain substances to enter the CSF but excludes
others, protecting the brain and spinal cord from
• A clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of potentially harmful blood-borne substances.
water that protects the brain and spinal cord from
chemical and physical injuries.
• It also carries small amounts of oxygen, glucose,
and other needed chemicals from the blood to
neurons and neuroglia.
• CSF continuously circulates through cavities in
the brain and spinal cord and around the brain and
spinal cord in the subarachnoid space (the space
between the arachnoid mater and pia mater).
• The four CSF-filled cavities within the brain,
which are called ventricles (little cavities):
o There is one lateral ventricle in each Circulation of CSF
hemisphere of the cerebrum. (Think of
them as ventricles 1 and 2.) which are 1. The CSF formed in the choroid plexuses of each
separated by a thin membrane, the lateral ventricle flows into the third ventricle
septum pellucidum (pellucid through two narrow, oval openings, the
transparent). interventricular foramina.
o The third ventricle is a narrow slit like 2. More CSF is added by the choroid plexus in the
cavity along the midline superior to the roof of the third ventricle.
hypothalamus and between the right and 3. The fluid then flows through the aqueduct of the
left halves of the thalamus. midbrain (cerebral aqueduct), which passes
o The fourth ventricle lies between the through the midbrain, into the fourth ventricle.
brain stem and the cerebellum. 4. The choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
contributes more fluid.
• Normally, CSF is reabsorbed as rapidly as it is
5. CSF enters the subarachnoid space through three
formed by the choroid plexuses, at a rate of about
openings in the roof of the fourth ventricle: a
20 mL/hr. Because the rates of formation and
single median aperture and paired lateral
reabsorption are the same, the pressure and
apertures, one on each side.
volume of CSF normally is constant.
 6. CSF then circulates in the central canal of the Principal Parts of the Brain
spinal cord and in the subarachnoid space around
the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
7. CSF is gradually reabsorbed into the blood
through arachnoid villi, fingerlike extensions of
the arachnoid mater that project into the dural
venous sinuses, especially the superior sagittal
sinus. (A cluster of arachnoid villi is called an
arachnoid granulation.)

Hydrocephalus

• When excess CSF accumulates in the ventricles,

the CSF pressure rises. Elevated CSF pressure
causes this condition. The abnormal
accumulation of CSF may be due to an
obstruction to CSF flow or an abnormal rate of
CSF production and/or reabsorption.
White Matter

Basal Nuclei

The Limbic System

Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex Motor Areas

• Motor output from the cerebral cortex flows

mainly from the anterior part of each
hemisphere.

Sensory Areas
Association Areas
• In the cerebral cortex, primary sensory areas
receive sensory information that has been • Involved in higher mental functions such as
relayed from peripheral sensory receptors learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
through lower regions of the brain. which is found in all 4 lobes. It is connected with
• Sensory association areas integrate sensory one another by association tracts.
experiences to generate meaningful patterns of
recognition and awareness.
 Brain Waves

• Electrical signals are called brain waves.

• Brain waves generated by neurons close to the
brain surface, mainly neurons in the cerebral
cortex, can be detected by sensors called
electrodes placed on the forehead and scalp. A
record of such waves is called an
electroencephalogram EEG.
• Patterns of activation of brain neurons produce
four types of brain waves:
1. Alpha waves. These rhythmic waves occur at
Hemispheric Lateralization a frequency of about 8–13 cycles per second.
• Functional asymmetry or differences between One hertz is one cycle per second. Alpha
left and right hemispheres waves are present in the EEGs of nearly all
normal individuals when they are awake and
resting with their eyes closed. These waves
disappear entirely during sleep.
2. Beta waves. The frequency of these waves is
between 14 and 30 Hz. Beta waves generally
appear when the nervous system is active—
 that is, during periods of sensory input and sensory neurons entering the brain stem and
mental activity. motor neurons leaving the brain stem.
3. Theta waves have frequencies of 4–7 Hz.
These waves normally occur in children and
adults experiencing emotional stress. They
also occur in many disorders of the brain.
4. Delta waves. The frequency of these waves is
1–5 Hz. Delta waves occur during deep sleep-
in adults, but they are normal in awake
infants. When produced by an awake adult,
they indicate brain dam.

Cranial Nerves

• Each cranial nerve has both a number,

designated by a roman numeral, and a name. The
numbers indicate the order, from anterior to
posterior, in which the nerves arise from the
brain. The names designate a nerve’s distribution
or function. A part of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
• Three cranial nerves (I, II, and VIII) carry axons of
sensory neurons and thus are called special
sensory nerves. These nerves are unique to the
head and are associated with the special senses
of smelling, seeing, and hearing. The cell bodies
of most sensory neurons are located in ganglia
outside the brain.
• Five cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII) are
classified as motor nerves because they contain
only axons of motor neurons as they leave the
brainstem. The cell bodies of motor neurons lie
in nuclei within the brain. Motor axons that
innervate skeletal muscles are of two types:
1. Branchial motor axons innervate skeletal
muscles that develop from the pharyngeal
(branchial) arches. These neurons leave the
brain through the mixed cranial nerves and
the accessory nerve.
2. Somatic motor axons innervate skeletal
muscles that develop from head somites
(eye muscles and tongue muscles). These
neurons exit the brain through five motor
cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII). Motor
axons that innervate smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands are called autonomic
motor axons and are part of the
parasympathetic division.
• The four cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) are
mixed nerves—they contain axons of both
 • Development begins in the third week of
gestation with a thickening of the ectoderm
called the neural plate.
• The plate folds inward and forms a longitudinal
groove, the neural groove.
• The raised edges of the neural plate are called
neural folds.
• As development continues, the neural folds
increase in height and meet to form a tube called
the neural tube.
o Three layers of cells differentiate from
the wall that encloses the neural tube.
1. The outer or marginal layer cells
develop into the white matter of the
nervous system.
2. The middle or mantle layer cells
develop into the gray matter.
3. The cells of the inner or ependymal
layer eventually form the lining of
the central canal of the spinal cord
and ventricles of the brain.
• The neural crest is a mass of tissue between the
neural tube and the skin ectoderm. It
differentiates and eventually forms the posterior
Development of the Nervous System (dorsal) root ganglia of spinal nerves, spinal
nerves, ganglia of cranial nerves, cranial nerves,
ganglia of the autonomic nervous system,
adrenal medulla, and meninges.

Development of the Brain and Spinal Cord

 • In the somatic division, the cell bodies of a
myelinated somatic motor neuron are inside the
central nervous system, and its axon extends
from the CNS all the way to the skeletal muscle.
o The somatic motor neuron releases a
neurotransmitter called acetylcholine
(ACh) to its effector tissue.

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

• Cerebrovascular Accident
• Transient Ischemic Attacks
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Brain Tumors
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Comparisons of Somatic Nervous System and
Autonomic Nervous System

• Conversely, the autonomic division has a chain of

two motor neurons. The first neuron called
preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the CNS;
its myelinated axon extends to an autonomic
ganglion.
• Moreover, the second neuron called
postganglionic neuron, has its cell body in the
same autonomic ganglion; its unmyelinated axon
extends from the ganglion to the effector tissues.
o The autonomic motor neurons release
either ACh or norepinephrine (NE).
• In some autonomic pathways, the preganglionic
neuron extends to specialized cells called
chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla.
o Chromaffin cells secrete the
neurotransmitters epinephrine and NE.

Subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic Nervous System

o This division stimulates the organ to
increase its activity (excitation).
o Ex. Neurons of the sympathetic nervous
system increase heart rate.
 o It promotes fight-or-flight response that Pathway from Spinal Cord to Sympathetic Trunk
prepares the body for emergency Ganglia
situations.
• The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
neurons are in the lateral gray horns of the 12
o Conversely, this division decreases the
thoracic segments and the first two (and
organ’s activity (inhibition).
sometimes three) lumbar segments of the spinal
o Ex. It slows down the heart rate.
cord.
o This enhances rest-and-digest activities.
o It is also called thoracolumbar division.
This helps preserve and restore body
• The sympathetic preganglionic axons or
energy during times of relaxation.
sometimes called thoracolumbar outflow, would
o Dual innervation - An arrangement in
leave the spinal cord along with the somatic
which effector organs receive impulses
motor neurons at the same segmental level.
from the sympathetic and
• The myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons
parasympathetic divisions.
would move into the anterior root of a spinal
• Enteric Plexuses
nerve and enter a short pathway called white
o This division is made up of millions of
ramus before passing to the nearest sympathetic
neurons that extend its length to the
trunk ganglion on the same side.
digestive canal.
o White communicating rami - Structures
o Among the kind of neurons that it
containing myelinated sympathetic
contains include sensory neurons,
preganglionic axons that connect the
interneurons, and motor neurons, which
anterior ramus of the spinal nerve with
are all devoted in regulating the motility
the sympathetic trunk ganglia.
and secretions of the digestive canal.

Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways

Structure of the Sympathetic Division of the
Autonomic Nervous System

Organization of Sympathetic Trunk Ganglia

• Also known as vertebral chain ganglia, it is one of

the two types of Sympathetic Ganglia.
o Sympathetic Ganglia
 ➢ These are the sites of synapses
between sympathetic
preganglionic and
postganglionic neurons.
➢ Two types are sympathetic trunk
ganglia and prevertebral ganglia.
➢ Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia
lie anterior to the vertebral
column and close to the large
abdominal arteries. In general,
post ganglionic axons from this
ganglia innervate organs below
the diaphragm.
➢ The five major prevertebral
ganglia include celiac ganglion,
superior mesenteric ganglion,
inferior mesenteric ganglion,
aorticorenal ganglion, and renal
ganglion.
• This type of ganglia are arranged in a vertical row
on either side of the vertebral column. It extends
inferiorly from the neck down to the coccyx.
o The sympathetic trunk in the neck are
called superior, middle, and inferior
ganglia.
➢ Postganglionic neurons leaving
the superior cervical ganglion
serve the head and heart.
➢ Postganglionic neurons leaving
the superior middle cervical
ganglion and the inferior cervical
ganglion innervate the heart and
blood vessels of the neck,
shoulder, and upper limb.
• Sympathetic trunk ganglia receive preganglionic
axons only in the thoracic and lumbar segments
of the spinal cord.
• Postganglionic neurons from the thoracic
sympathetic trunk innervate the heart lungs,
bronchi, and other thoracic visceral organs. In
the skin, they also innervate sweat glands, blood
vessels, and arrector muscles of the hair.
Pathways from Sympathetic Trunk Ganglia to
Visceral Effectors
• Axons leave the sympathetic trunk ganglia in four
possible ways:
1. They can enter the spinal nerves.
o Spinal nerves
➢ Axons of the postganglionic neurons
leave the sympathetic trunk by
entering a short pathway called gray
ramus, and move to the anterior
ramus of a spinal nerve to go to
various visceral effector.
➢ This provides sympathetic
innervation to visceral effectors in
the skin of the neck, trunk trunk, and
limbs,including sweat glands, blood
vessels, and arrector muscles of the
hair.
➢ Gray communicating rami are
structures that contain
unmyelinated sympathetic
postganglionic axons.
2. They can form cephalic periarterial nerves.
o Cephalic Periarterial Nerves
➢ The axons of some of the
postganglionic neurons leave
the sympathetic trunk by
forming cephalic periarterial
nerves.through enfolding
around and following the course
of various arteries like carotid
arteries that pass from the neck
to the head.
➢ This provides sympathetic
innervation to the effector
tissues of the face such as sweat
glands, smooth muscle of blood
vessels, and arrector pili muscle,
as well as visceral effectors of
the head like smooth muscle of
the eye and others.
3. They can form sympathetic nerves.
o Sympathetic nerves.
➢ The axon of the postganglionic
neurons leave the trunk by
forming sympathetic nerves that
extend to visceral effectors in
the thoracic cavity.
➢ The visceral effectors being
innervated include the heart and
the lungs.
➢ Autonomic Plexus is a tangled
network of sympathetic and
parasympathetic axons. Ex.
Celiac plexus.
 4. They can form splanchnic (associated to
viscera, especially on the abdomen) nerves.
o Splanchnic nerves
➢ Some sympathetic preganglionic
axons remain even when they
pass through the sympathetic
trunk.
➢ Beyond the trunk, they form
splanchnic nerves that extend to
outlying prevertebral ganglia.
o Splanchnic nerves to abdominopelvic
organs
➢ Most preganglionic axons that
enter splanchnic nerves synapse
with sympathetic postganglionic
neurons in the prevertebral
ganglia.
➢ These supply the organs of the
abdominopelvic cavity.
o Splanchnic nerves to the suprarenal
• In the parasympathetic division, the cell bodies
medulla
of preganglionic neurons are in the nuclei of
➢ Other sympathetic preganglionic
cranial nerves III, VII IX, and X in the brainstem as
axons move through the
well as in the lateral gray matter of the second
sympathetic trunk, then to the
through fourth sacral segments of the spinal
greater splanchnic nerves, and
cord.
pass through the celiac ganglion
o This is the reason why parasympathetic
without synapsing.
division is also called craniosacral
➢ Then, they would extend to
division.
chromaffin cells of the
o Cranial parasympathetic outflow
suprarenal glands.
➢ It is composed of preganglionic
➢ The suprarenal medulla are
axons that extend from the
modified sympathetic ganglia
brainstem of four cranial nerves.
and chromaffin cells are like
o Sacral parasympathetic outflow
sympathetic postganglionic
➢ It consists of preganglionic axons
neurons but without dendrites
found in the anterior roots of the
and axons.
second through fourth sacral
➢ On stimulation by postganglionic
cord.
neurons, the chromaffin cells
o Parasympathetic ganglia
release catecholamine
➢ The sites in which preganglionic
hormones into the blood that
axons from the cranial as well as
circulate throughout the body.
sacral outflow synapse with
➢ Catecholamine hormones are a
postganglionic neurons.
mixture of 80% epinephrine,
20% norepinephrine, and a trace • The cranial outflow possesses four pairs of
amount of dopamine. ganglia, plus the ganglia associated with vagus
(X) nerve. The four pairs of cranial
Structure of Parasympathetic Division parasympathetic ganglia supply the structures in
the and they are close to them.
o Four pairs of parasympathetic ganglia
1. Ciliary ganglia
 ➢ Found in the lateral of each optic • This synapse with parasympathetic
(II) nerve close to the posterior postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic
aspect of the orbit. ganglia.
➢ Preganglionic axons enter the • As postganglionic axons exit the parasympathetic
ciliary ganglia by passing the ganglia, they go to visceral effectors that include
oculomotor (III) nerves. smooth muscle and glands in the walls of the
➢ They synapse with the colon, ureters, urinary bladder, and reproductive
postganglionic axons in the organs to innervate them.
ganglia, and supply smooth
muscle fibers in the eyeball.
2. Pterygopalatine ganglia
➢ Lie lateral to the sphenopalatine
foramen, between the sphenoid
and palatine bones.
➢ Preganglionic axons pass the
facial (VII) nerve and synapse in
this ganglion.
➢ Provide parasympathetic
innervation to the nasal mucosa,
plate, pharynx, and lacrimal
glands.
3. Submandibular ganglia
➢ Located near the
submandibular salivary
glands.
➢ Exiting from the facial
nerves, preganglionic axons
synapse with postganglionic
axons here.
➢ Afterwards, it sends the
postganglionic axons to the
submandibular and
sublingual salivary glands. ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors
4. Otic ganglia
Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
➢ Located inferior to each
foramen ovale. Cholinergic Neurons
➢ Leaving from the
• A neuron that releases a neurotransmitter called
glossopharyngeal (IX)
acetylcholine.
nerves, preganglionic and
o An excitatory neurotransmitter stored in
postganglionic neurons
synaptic vesicles and released by
synapse here.
exocytosis.
➢ The postganglionic axons
• This neuron include the following:
are sent to the parotid
salivary glands.

Pathway from sacral spinal nerves to abdominopelvic

viscera effectors

• Preganglionic axons branch off to form pelvic

splanchnic nerves.

1. All sympathetic and parasympathetic
preganglionic neurons.
2. Postganglionic neurons that supply most
sweat glands.
3. All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Cholinergic Receptors
• Integral membrane proteins located in
postsynaptic plasma membrane.
• There are two types of Cholinergic receptors that
bind to acetylcholine.
o Nicotinic receptors
➢ Found in the plasma membrane
of dendrites and cell bodies of
both sympathetic and
parasympathetic postganglionic
neurons.
➢ Also present in chromaffin cells
and in the motor end plate at the
neuromuscular junction
➢ Activation of these receptors
results in excitation of a
postganglionic neuron, an
autonomic effector, or a skeletal
muscle fiber.
➢ Named after nicotine as they
imitate the action of ACh by
binding to these receptors.
o Muscarinic Receptors
➢ Situated in the plasma
membranes of all effectors
tissues that are supplied by
parasympathetic postganglionic
axons.
➢ Majority of sweat glands possess
muscarinic receptors and they
receive innervation from
cholinergic sympathetic
postganglionic neurons
➢ Activation of these receptors
leads to excitation and
sometimes inhibition of effector
tissues, depending on the cell
that possesses these. - Named
after muscarine, a mushroom
poison that imitates the actions
of ACh by binding to them.
Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
Adrenergic Neurons
• Neurons that liberate norepinephrine (NE), also
called noradrenalin.
o Norepinephrine (NE)
➢ In sympathetic postganglionic
neurons, these are released as
neurotransmitters. On the other
hand, chromaffin cells of the
suprarenal medullae release this
as hormones.
➢ It is stored in synaptic vesicles
and released by exocytosis to
bind with specific adrenergic
receptors to trigger either
excitation or inhibition of the
effector tissue.
➢ The effect of this can only be
terminated when it is taken up
by the axon that released it or
inactivated by either catechol-
Omethyltransferase (COMT).
o Epinephrine
 ➢ Hormones released by Antagonist
chromaffin cells of the
• A chemical that binds to and blocks a receptor.
suprarenal medullae.
• It stops a neurotransmitter or hormone in
Adrenergic Receptors applying its effects.
o Propranolol
• This receptor binds to both norepinephrine and
➢ A nonselective beta blocker that
epinephrine.
binds to all types of beta
• There are two types of adrenergic receptors
receptors. It prevents their
present with visceral effector supplied by most
activation and hinders the
sympathetic postganglionic axons.
effects of epinephrine and
o Alpha (α) receptors
norepinephrine.
➢ Further classified into 𝛼1 and
➢ This is typically prescribed for
𝛼2.
patients with hypertension (high
➢ Activation 𝛼1 generates
blood pressure as this helps
excitation, while 𝛼2 activation
decrease heart rate and force of
triggers inhibition to effector
contraction that results in low
tissues.
blood pressure.
o Beta (β) receptors
➢ This may also exert side effects
➢ Further subdivided into, β1, β2,
such as hypoglycemia and mild
and β3 depending on the
bronchoconstriction.
specific responses they initiate
and by their selective binding of Physiology of the ANS
drugs that either activate or
Autonomic Tone
block them.
➢ Similar to subtypes of alpha • The activity of the sympathetic and
receptors, activation of β1 parasympathetic divisions are regulated by the
produces excitation, whereas β2 hypothalamus so that there is a balance between
activation causes inhibition to these two divisions.
effector tissues. • Commonly, the hypothalamus amplifies the
➢ β3 are present only on brown sympathetic tone at the same time, it turns down
adipose tissue, and activation of parasympathetic and vice versa.
this results in thermogenesis • The two divisions can have different effects to
(heat production). visceral effectors due to the different
neurotransmitters liberated by postganglionic
Receptor Agonists and Antagonists
neurons.
Agonist • It can also be due to the different adrenergic and
cholinergic receptors of effector organs.
• A chemical that binds to and activates a receptor.
• It imitates the effect of natural neurotransmitters
or hormones.
o Phenylephrine
➢ An adrenergic agonist at 𝛼1
receptors.
➢ It constricts blood vessels in the
nasal mucosa that results in the
reduction of mucus, relieving
the nasal congestion.
➢ Common ingredient in cold and
sinus medications.

• The effects of sympathetic division last longer
and more widespread compared to the effects of
parasympathetic divisions.
1. Many tissues are activated simultaneously
because sympathetic postganglionic
separate more extensively.
2. Acetylcholinesterase inactivates
acetylcholine rapidly. However,
norepinephrine remains in the synaptic cleft
for a longer period.
3. Responses triggered by norepinephrine
released from sympathetic neurons are
amplified and prolonged by the epinephrine
and NE secreted by the suprarenal medullae.
Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions
Autonomic (Visceral) Reflexes
• These are responses that arise when nerve
impulses pass through an autonomic reflex arc.
• These play an important role in maintaining
controlled conditions in the body.
o Ex. Blood pressure, adjusting heart rate,
force of ventricular contraction, and
blood vessel diameter; digestion, and
others,
• Components of autonomic reflex arc include:
o Sensory receptor
o Sensory Neuron
o Integrating Centers
o Motor Neuron
o Effector
Autonomic Control by Higher Centers
Hypothalamus
• The major control and integration center of the
ANS.
• Output generated by this organ influences
autonomic centers in both the brainstem and the
spinal cord.
• Anatomically, hypothalamus is connected to
both divisions of the ANS by axons of neurons in
various hypothalamic nuclei.
o The posterior and lateral parts of the
hypothalamus control the sympathetic
division.
➢ Stimulation of these generates
responses such as an increase in
heart rate and force of
contraction, a rise in blood
pressure, and an increase in
body temperature to name a
few.
o The anterior and medial parts of the
hypothalamus control the
parasympathetic division.
➢ Stimulation of these areas lean
in a decreased heart rate,
lowering of blood pressures, and
others.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
• Autonomic Dysreflexia
• Horner’s Syndrome
• Raynaud Phenomenon
• Dysautonomia
SENSORY, MOTOR, AND INTEGRATIVE
SYSTEMS
Sensation
• Sensation – conscious or subconscious
awareness of changes in the external or internal
environment.
• Perception – conscious awareness and
interpretation of sensations, and is primarily a
function of the cerebral cortex.
 • Sensory modality – refers to the different unique
types of sensation felttouch, pain, vision, or
hearing. Usually, a sensory neuron corresponds
only to a single modality. Broken down into two
categories:
o General senses – includes the somatic
and visceral senses.
➢ Somatic senses – include tactile
sensations (touch, pressure,
vibration, itch, and tickle),
thermal sensations (hot and
cold), pain sensations, and
proprioceptive sensations
(perception of the static position
Receptor location and Activating Stimuli
of limbs, and movement of the
limbs and head).
➢ Visceral senses – provide
information about the internal
organs (pressure, stretch,
chemicals, nausea, hunger, and
temperature).
o Special senses – include sensory
modalities of smell, taste, vision,
hearing, and equilibrium or balance.
Process of Sensation
1. Stimulation of the sensory receptors
2. Transduction of the stimulus
3. Generation of nerve impulses
4. Integration of sensory input
Types of Stimuli Detected
Types of Sensory Receptors
1. Free nerve endings – bare dendrites associated
with pain, thermal response, tickle, itch and
other touch sensations.
2. Encapsulated nerve endings – dendrites
enclosed in connective tissue capsule, for
pressure, vibration and other touch sensations.
3. Separate cells – specialized sensory cells that
synapse with sensory neurons like those in the
retina (photoreceptors), inner ear (hair cells),
and taste buds of the tongue (gustatory receptor
cells).
1. Exteroceptors – near the body surface, sensitive
to stimuli originating outside the body. Visual,
smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, thermal,
and pain sensations.
2. Interceptors – located in blood vessels, visceral
organs, and the nervous system, provide
information about the internal environment.
Impulses not consciously perceived but may be
felt as pain or pressure.
3. Proprioceptors – located in muscles, tendons,
joints, and the inner ear. Responsible for giving
information about bodily positions, muscle
tension and length, mobility and position of
joints, and balance.
1. Mechanoreceptors – detect mechanical stimuli,
provide sensations of touch, pressure, vibration,
proprioception, hearing, and balance, also detect
stretching of blood vessels and internal organs.
2. Thermoreceptors – detect changes in
temperature.
3. Nociceptors – respond to painful stimuli resulting
from physical or chemical damage to tissue.
4. Photoreceptors – detects light that strikes the
retina of the eye.
5. Chemoreceptors – detects chemicals in mouth
(taste), nose (smell), and body fluids (blood).
6. Osmoreceptors – sense osmotic pressure of body
fluids.
• Adaptation – the receptor potential decreases in
amplitude during a maintained, constant
stimulus.
 o Rapidly adapting receptors – specialized
for signaling change in a stimulus, e.g.,
vibration, touch, and smell receptors.
o Slowly adapting receptors – adapt slowly
and continue to trigger nerve impulses
as long as the stimulus persists, e.g.,
pain, body position, and chemical
composition of the blood.
Somatic Sensations
• Includes tactile sensations (touch, pressure,
vibration, itch, and tickle), thermal sensations,
pain and proprioception.
• Responses for tactile, thermal, and pain
sensations are located in the skin, subcutaneous
tissue, and mucous membrane of the mouth,
vagina, and anus.
Tactile Sensation
1. Touch – two types of rapidly adapting touch
receptors: (1) Tactile corpuscles, aka the
Meissner corpuscles located in the dermal
papillae of hairless skin. (2) Hair root plexuses in
hairy skin. Two types of slowly adapting touch
receptors: (1) Nonencapsulated sensory
corpuscles, aka Merkel discs that are in contact
with tactile epithelial cells of the stratum basale,
that react to continuous touch. (2) Bulbous
corpuscles or Ruffini corpuscles, are elongated
and encapsulated receptors found in the dermis,
subcutaneous tissue, and other tissues of the
body, which are highly sensitive to stretching of
the skin.
2. Pressure – lamellar and bulbous corpuscles
facilitate the detection of pressure, its slow
adapting nature allows it to respond to a steady
pressure stimulus.
3. Vibration – tactile and lamellar corpuscles
4. Itch receptors, Tickle receptors, and
Thermoreceptors are free nerve endings. Cold
receptors are located in the stratum basale of the
epidermis, while warm receptors are located in
the dermis.
5. Pain – free nerve endings that are located in
nearly every body tissue.
a. Fast pain – rapid onset of stimulus generates
an equally fast response. Acute, sharp or
pricking pain, it is felt in shallow body
surfaces like the skin.
b. Slow pain – increasing in intensity, this pain
is referred to as chronic, throbbing, or aching
pain.
o Superficial somatic pain – pain in skin or
cutaneous surfaces.
o Deep somatic pain – pain in the fascia, skeletal
muscles, joints, and tendons.
o Visceral pain – in organs. Diffuse (wide) pain may
suggest distention or ischemia of an internal
organ.
• Localization of Pain
a. Fast pain – Always localized
b. Slow pain – Often localized to
diffused
c. Visceral pain – diffused to referred
• Referred pain - radiating pain felt within the
proximity of an aching organ or body part.
Proprioceptive Sensations
• Proprioperception refers to sensations that allow
us to recognize our body parts, their location and
their movement without us looking at them.
• Kinesthesia - perception of body movements.
• Proprioceptors - embedded in muscles and
tendons, allow us to know the degree in which
muscles are contracted, tension on tendons, and
position of the joints. These receptors are slowly
and slightly adapting, thus the brain receives
nerve impulses continuously and can make
ample adjustments to maintain coordination.
• Weight discrimination - ability of proprioceptors
to exhibit sufficient force needed when
performing a task.
Three types of Proprioceptors
1. Muscle spindles - found in skeletal muscles, they
measure muscle length and contraction allowing
discrimination of limb position and movement.
2. Tendon organs - slowly adapting receptors found
at the junction of a tendon and a muscle
preventing overexertion of tension at these
junctions.
3. Joint kinesthetic receptors - rapid acting lamellar
corpuscles, bulbous corpuscles, and free nerve
endings are present and act like tendon organs
that adjust reflex to ensure excessive strain is
attenuated in the joint.
Somatic Sensory Pathways
1. First-order (primary) neurons - connected to the
somatic sensory receptors and conducts it into
the brainstem or spinal cord.
2. Second-order (secondary) neurons - neurons
conduct nerve impulses from the brainstem or
spinal cord to the thalamus. Axons of second-
order neurons decussate (cross over to the
opposite side) as they move through the
brainstem or spinal cord.
3. Third-order (tertiary) neurons - from the
thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex
on the same side. As the impulses reach the
primary somatosensory cortex, perception of the
sensation occurs. Since second-order neurons
decussate as they pass through the brainstem or
spinal cord, the information is perceived on the
opposite side of the brain.
• Relay stations - regions within the CNS where
neurons synapse with other neurons.
• Somatic sensory impulses ascend to the cerebral
cortex via three general pathways: (1) Posterior
Column-Medial Lemniscus pathway, (2) 2. Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway - Conveys
Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway, (3) nerve impulses for pain, temperature, touch, and
Trigeminothalamic pathway. pressure. First-order neurons extend from the
1. Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus pathway - spinal cord, synapsing with the second-order
Conveys nerve impulses for touch, pressure, neurons. Decussation happens and then ascends
vibration, and proprioception. First-order to the thalamus as the spinothalamic tract. In the
neurons synapse with the dorsal column and thalamus, axons of the second-order neurons
ends in the medulla. Continuation of the dorsal synapse with the third order neurons projecting
column, this pathway starts within the their axons to the primary somatosensory cortex.
brainstem, after the decussation of second-order
neurons. Sends sensory input to the thalamus to
the primary somatosensory cortex, where the
information is then decoded.
 3. Trigeminothalamic pathway - Conveys nerve thalamus and the brainstem. Circuits initiate
impulses for pain, temperature, touch, and and terminate movements, suppress
proprioception. Axons of first-order neurons of unwanted movements, and establish a
the head synapse with the dendrites and cell normal level of muscle tone.
bodies of the second-order neurons in the pons 4. Cerebellar neurons - connected to the motor
and medulla on the same side of the head. Axons areas of the cerebral cortex via the thalamus
of the second-order neurons decussate, enter and the brainstem. Coordinates body
the trigeminothalamic tract on the opposite side movement and help maintain normal
and extend to the thalamus to the primary posture and balance.
somatosensory cortex on the opposite side of
Control of Movement by the Cerebral Cortex
the site of stimulation.
• Premotor cortex and primary motor cortex as
motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
• Premotor cortex - is responsible for preplanning
movement, and stores learned motor activities
from previous experiences.
• Primary motor cortex - executes voluntary
movements, with specific areas corresponding to
movement of different body parts in a “map”.
• Direct motor pathways - aka pyramidal
pathways, originate from pyramidal cells of the
cerebral cortex. Corticospinal pathways and
Corticobulbar pathway belong to the direct
motor pathway.
o Corticospinal pathways - conducts
impulses for the control of muscles of
the limbs and trunk, it is comprised of
the Lateral and Anterior corticospinal
tracts.
o Corticobulbar pathway - control of
Control of Body Movement muscles in the head.

• Lower motor neurons (LMNs) - cell bodies in the

lower parts of the CNS (brainstem and spinal
cord) responsible for motor movement.
• 4 neural circuits that participate in body moment
control:
1. Local circuit neurons - located close to the
LMN cell bodies in the brainstem and the
spinal cord, these receive input from
somatosensory receptors and higher centers
in the brain.
2. Upper motor neurons - neurons that have
cell bodies in the upper parts of the CNS,
these regulate posture, balance, muscle
tone, and reflexive movements of the head
and trunk.
3. Corpus striatum neurons - connected to the
motor areas of the cerebral cortex via the
Control of Movement by the Brainstem • Circadian rhythm – 24-hour cycle of wake and
sleep in humans, established by the
• 4 major motor centers: (1) vestibular nuclei, (2)
suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus.
the reticular formation, (3) superior colliculus, (4)
• Reticular activating system (RAS) – affects the
the red nucleus. a.k.a. the indirect motor
sleep and arousal functions.
pathways.
• Arousal - or awakening from sleep requires
• Vestibular nuclei - vestibulospinal tract; postural
activation of the RAS. The resulting state of
reflexes maintain the body in an upright and
wakefulness is called Consciousness.
balanced position. Receives inputs from the
• Sleep - state of altered consciousness or partial
eyes, vestibular apparatus in the inner ear, and
unconsciousness from which arousal can take
proprioceptors in muscles and joints.
place. It has two main phases: NREM (Non rapid
• Reticular formation - medial and lateral
eye movement) and REM (Rapid eye movement)
reticulospinal tracts; control posture and alter
sleep.
muscle tone, and gains inputs from the eyes, ear,
cerebellum, and corpus striatum. NREM Sleep has 4 stages:
• Superior colliculus - tectospinal tract; responsible
1. Stage 1 - transition stage between wakefulness
for jerking motions and reflexes to potentially
and sleep lasting 1-7 mins. Relaxation is noted
dangerous stimuli, it gains inputs from the eyes
rather than actual sleep.
and auditory input from the ear through
2. Stage 2 - light sleep; the individual is easy to
connections in the inferior colliculus.
awaken and is experiencing fragments of dreams
• Red nucleus - rubrospinal tract; receives input
or the rolling of eyes from side to side.
form the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum to
3. Stage 3 - moderately deep sleep; body
the contralateral skeletal muscles that produce
temperature and blood pressure decreases, and
precise voluntary movements of distal parts of
the person is more difficult to awaken. Usually
the upper limbs.
occurs 20 mins into sleep.
Functions of the Corpus Striatum 4. Stage 4 - deepest level of sleep; brain metabolism
slows significantly and body temperature drops
1. Initiation of movements
slightly, reflexes are still intact and muscle tone is
2. Suppression of unwanted movements
decreased slightly. It is very difficult to awaken
3. Regulation of muscle tone
the person.
4. Regulation of nonmotor processes
• REM sleep - the eyes move rapidly back and forth
Functions of the Cerebrum under closed eyelids.
• Coma - state of unconsciousness where an
1. Monitoring intent for movement
individual has little or no response to stimuli and
2. Monitoring actual movement
cannot be aroused to wakefulness at will. It is
3. Comparing command signals with sensory
caused by head injuries, damages to the RAS,
information
brain infections, alcohol intoxication and drug
4. Sending out corrective feedback
overdose.
Integrative Functions of the Cerebrum • Persistent vegetative state - normal sleep-wake
cycles but are unaware of their surroundings.
• Integration – processing of sensory information
Not brain dead due to existence of brain waves.
by analyzing and storing it and making decisions
for various responses. Learning Memory
• Integrative functions include cerebral activities
• Learning - ability to acquire new information
such as wakefulness and sleep, learning and
through instruction or experience.
memory, and language.
• Associative learning - connection is made
Wakefulness and Sleep between two stimuli.
• Memory - the storage and retrieval of learned
information.
 o Declarative memory - experiences that
can be verbalized like facts, events,
objects, names, and requires active
recall.
o Procedural memory - motor skills,
procedures, and rules, does not require
conscious recall.
• Short-term memory - limited capacity,
remembering information temporarily.
• Long-term memory - rehearsed information that
are stored for days to years.
• Memory consolidation - the process of turning
short-term memory into long-term memory.
• Plasticity - refers to changes that affect learning.
• Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Language

• Language - system of sounds and symbols to

convey information.
• Language area of the cerebral cortex: Wernicke’s
area and Broca’s area both present only in the
left cerebral hemisphere. Odor Thresholds and Adaptation
o Wernicke’s area - interpretation of
• Olfaction has a low threshold, which means that
spoken or written words.
only a small amount of some compounds in the
o Broca’s area - motor area used to
air is required in order for it to be detected as an
verbalize thoughts into spoken words.
odor. Olfactory sensory neurons quickly adjust to
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances smells; they do so by 50% within the first second.
Around one minute after exposure, a person
• Parkinson’s Disease becomes completely insensitive to some strong
• Phantom limb sensation odors.
• Syphilis
• Sleep disorders The Olfactory Pathway
• Aphasia

THE SPECIAL SENSES

• The Special Senses ➔ The Special Senses and

Homeostasis
o Sensory organs with distinct receptors
allow us to perceive smell, taste, sight,
sound, and maintain equilibrium.
Information is sent from these receptors
to the central nervous system in order to
maintain homeostasis.

Olfaction: Sense of Smell

Olfactory Transduction
Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors
 low threshold (or high sensitivity) may have a
defensive purpose. A constant stimulation period
of 1 to 5 minutes can result in complete
adaptation to a particular taste. Changes in
olfactory receptors, gustatory pathway neurons,
and taste receptors all contribute to alterations
in taste perception.

The Gustatory Pathway

Gustation: Sense of Taste

• Gustation is a chemical sense that distinguishes

between five main flavors: umami, sweet, sour,
salty, and sweet. Food odors may enter the nasal
cavity and activate olfactory sensory neurons.
Gustation is the sense that is blocked when
olfaction is.

Anatomy of Taste Buds and Lingual Papillae

Vision: An Overview

Taste Thresholds and Adaptation

• For each of the basic tastes, there is a different

threshold for flavor. The lowest threshold is for
bitter compounds like quinine. Due to the fact
that poisons frequently have a bitter taste, the
 Anatomy of the Eyeball

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Physiology of Vision

• Eyelids
• Eyelashes and Eyebrows
• The Lacrimal Apparatus
• Extrinsic Eye Muscles
• Image Formation
- We must look at three processes in order to
comprehend how the eye creates sharp
images of things on the retina: (1) refraction,
or the bending of light by the lens and
cornea; (2) accommodation, or the change in
shape of the lens; and (3) constriction, or the
narrowing of the pupil.
• Refraction of Light Rays When light rays traveling
- Rays of light are refracted. The bending of
light rays at the intersection of two
 transparent materials with varying densities
is known as refraction (a). (b) The cornea and
lens bend light rays coming from far-off
objects, focusing the image on the retina. (c)
As the lens accommodates, it becomes more
spherical, increasing light refraction
• Accommodation and the Near Point of Vision
- The eye's lens is convex on both its front and
posterior sides, and as its curvature grows,
so does it focus power. The shortest distance
from the eye at which an object can be
sharply focused while allowing for maximum
accommodation is known as the near point
of vision.
• Refraction Abnormalities
- Refraction irregularities in the eye and how
to treat them. (a) An emmetropic (normal)
eye. (b) The image is focused in front of the
retina in the nearsighted or myopic eye. The
disease could be brought on by a thicker lens
or an enlarged eyeball. (c) The use of a
concave lens, which diverges incoming light
rays so that they focus directly on the retina,
is used to correct myopia. (d) The picture is
concentrated behind the retina in farsighted
or hyperopic eyes. The condition is brought
on by a thin lens or a short eyeball. (e) A
convex lens that converges incoming light
rays such that they focus directly on the
retina can correct hyperopia.
• Constriction of the Pupil The circular muscle
fibers
- Clear retinal images are also formed in part
by the iris. As you well know, constriction of
the pupil refers to a reduction in the
diameter of the opening through which light
enters the eye as a result of the iris's circular
muscles contracting.
• Convergence
- Binocular vision is a feature of our visual
system that allows us to perceive depth and
appreciate three-dimensional objects.
Convergence is the medial movement of the
two eyeballs to direct them towards the
object being viewed.
• Photoreceptor Function
- Rods and cones are two different types of
photoreceptors, as are photopigments.
Rhodopsin is found in rods, while
photopigments in blue, green, and red are
found in cones. Different photopigments are
stimulated by different colors of light to
provide color vision. Both theopsin and the
retinal, which are made of carotene, are
present in every photopigment.
- Photopigments respond to light in a cyclical
process: isomerization, bleaching,
conversion, conversion, and regeneration.
Isomerization is the first step in visual
transduction, and chemical changes occur in
the outer segment of the photoreceptor.
Bleaching is the separation of trans-retinal
from opsin, which causes opsin to look
colorless. Conversion is the conversion of
trans-retinal back to cis-retinal, and
regeneration is the resynthesis of a
photopigment.
• Light and Dark Adaptation
- Photopigments respond to light in a cyclical
process: isomerization, bleaching,
conversion, conversion, and regeneration.
Isomerization is the first step in visual
transduction, and chemical changes occur in
the outer segment of the photoreceptor.
Bleaching is the separation of trans-retinal
from opsin, which causes opsin to look
colorless. Conversion is the conversion of
trans-retinal back to cis-retinal, and
regeneration is the resynthesis of a
photopigment.
• Phototransduction
- is the mechanism that turns light energy into
a receptor potential in a photoreceptor's
outer segment. A depolarizing receptor
potential is produced in the majority of
sensory systems when a sensory receptor is
activated by the appropriate stimuli. You
must first look at how a photoreceptor
functions without light in order to
comprehend how phototransduction works.
• Processing of Visual Input in the retina
- Because they synapses with photoreceptors,
horizontal cells only indirectly affect bipolar
cells, but they do regulate the synaptic
activity of bipolar and photoreceptor cells.
This shows that input from many cells may
either diverge to a large number of neurons
 or converge on a limited number of - Understanding the input of hearing, which
postsynaptic neurons. comes in the form of sound waves, is
• The Visual Pathway important in order to comprehend the
physiology of hearing. Across some medium,
sound waves are oscillating high- and low-
pressure areas that flow in the same
direction (such as air). The sound is louder
the greater the intensity (size or amplitude)
of the vibration. Decibels are used to
quantify sound intensity (dB). Sound
intensity increases tenfold for every decibel
increment.

Physiology of Hearing

Hearing

• Otorhinolaryngology is the science that deals

with the ears, nose, and throat, as well as the
larynx (voice box) and their disorders. It is an
engineering marvel because its sensory
receptors can transduce sound vibrations with
amplitudes as small as 0.3 nm into electrical
signals 1000 times faster than photoreceptors
can respond to light. Otorhinolaryngology is the
abbreviation for ENT.

Anatomy of the Ear

• The Nature of Sound Waves

Sound Transduction

• Mechanical vibrations are converted into

electrical signals by inner hair cells. The
Equilibrium
stereocilia at the tip of the hair cell bends and
move back and forth. The membrane of the
stereocilia contains mechanically controlled
cation channels that permit cations from the
endolymph to enter the cytosol of the hair cell.
Otoacoustic emissions, which the cochlea can
also produce, can be detected by placing a
sensitive microphone adjacent to the eardrum

Equilibrium Pathways

The Auditory Pathway

Summary of Structure of the Ear

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

• Cataracts
• Glaucoma
• Deafness
• Meniere’s Disease
• Otitis Media

Development of the Eyes

Development of the Ears