determining design discharge for any hydraulic structure. food damage mitigation Rain fall on a catchment area will make its way t the point of concentration where it will leave the catchment. In a gravity flow situation, this will be the lowest point in the catchment if the discharge is thsough surfuce stream, On the other hand, ifthe eatchment discharge is solely by means of ground water movement, the situation is more complex and the flow can be disturbed over a wide front But in the laboratory the flow is constrained to leave the model catchment at a single point which will not be considered. Catchment Arca: It is defined only once when the point of concentration has been fixed and in this case: stream flow data are needed, the site of a new or pre-existing flow measurement structure is usually chosen. ‘When rain falls on the entehment the time taken for the water to reach the point of concentration will depend on the horizontal distance it has to travel and also velocity. Fig.-1 shows lines of equal flow time for a catchment of simitar proportions to the model in which the flow velocity is everywhere the same. Figure: 6-1 Lines of equal flow time fora catchment, Fig. 2 illustrates a valley catchment in which the flow velocity is assumed to increase once the water has entered the stream channel, Flow outside the stream could be either surface or ground water flow or bot. 40.AMG EEE Figure 6-2; A Valley catchment Steram Time of concentration The time required for water to travel from the most remote portion of the basin to the ‘outlet is called the time of concentration. Hydrograph A hydrograph or a runoff hydrograph is the graphical representation of the discharge flowing in a river/stream at the given location with the passage of time. It is thus a plot between time on (X-axis), and discharge on (Y-axis). Depending upon the units of time, hydrographs are 4(four) types: they are Annual hydrograph Monthly hrydrograph Seasonal hydrograph Flood hydrograph Beye Discharge in the river Time in see! hr. 1. Annual hydrograph : Showing variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows over a year ‘Monthly bydrograph: Showing variations of the daily flow over a month. Seasonal hydrograph: Showing variations of the discharge in a particular season ‘such as the monsoon season or dry season, 4. Flood hydrograph; Hydrographs duc to a storm representing stream flow over & catchment, 4lthese circumstances, the recession curve part of the hydrograph is delayed until the rain stops. Rainfall(T,) Discharge Q (m3/s) Tn Time in hours. Rising limb Figure 6-3: Elements of a Typical hydrograpph resulting from single rain storm During the early stages of the rain storm, so long as no recent rain has fallen, the ground will be able to absorb the water falling on it and add to the ground water already present. When all the voids are filled, the excess must flow over the surface and enter the stream directly as surface flow. When surface flow first reaches the point of concentration it produces a sharp rise in the hydrograph and this hydrograph discontinuity can be used to separate the ground water contribution from the direct runoff as indicated in the figure. The stream flow which is measured during a flood is the result of several watershed functions. Obviously, a major part of the flood is the result of direct runoff. Surface runoff is the stream flow which results when the overland flow arrives at a channel. The overland flow regime appears to follow a laminar or a disturbed laminar type of resistance law. In contrast, the channel flow is alweye turbulent. A flood hydrograph has the following three parts: | 1. Rising limb or Concentration Curve 2. Crest Segment 3, Recession limb 1, Rising limb or Concentration Curve ; The point inflection of the curve on the rising limb just prior to the peak or the concentration curve exists between the point of rise at the beginning of the flood and the peak (if it can be recognized). The shape aof the rising limb is influenced mainly by the character of the storm which caused the rise. 2. Crest Segment: The segment of hydrograph in between the point inflection on the rising side and the point of inflection on the recession side of the peak is called crest segment. 3. Recession limb: The point of inflection on the falling side of the hydrograph is commonly assumed to mark the time at which surface inflow to the channel system ceases. Recession Limb: The recession limb extends from the point of inflection at the end of the erest segment to the commencement of natural ground water flow. It represents the withdrawal of water from storage within the basin, It is a useful too! in hydrology for prediction of flood hydrograph. Barnes used the following equation to define the recession curve: Q=Q Ke =Qe* G1) where, Q,= flow t time units after Qo flow measured { time earlier. recession constant time in between Qo & Q, = napierian base a=-InKe Equation(6-1) will plot as a straight line the semi logarithmic graph paper provided Kew is constant when discharge is plotted on the log scale. The recession constant has three components to take care of three types of storages as Kee = Kee Ku Kew where, K,, = recession constant for surface storages(0,05 to 0.2) Ka = recession constant for interflow (0.5 to 0.85) Ka may be assumed to be unity, if the interflow is insignificant. Kw = recession constant for base flow( 0.85 to 0.99). Base flow separation Base flow may be separated by the following 3 (three) methods: 1, Straight line separation; 2. Fixed base length separation 3. Variable slope method 4Braight line method: In this method the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point on the recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff. In the above figure point-A represents the beginning of the direct runofT and it is usually easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the runoff rate at that point. Point B marking the end of the direct runoff is rather difficult to locate exactly. An empirical equation for the time interval N (days) from the peak to the point B is N=0.83 A’ a4 where, A = drainage area in kn?’ and N is in days. Points A and B are joined by a straight line o demarkate to the base flow and surface runoff. 2. Method II: Fixed base length separation In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of the surface runoff is extended tll it intersects the ordinate drawn at the peak(point C). This point is joined to point B by a straight line. Segment AC and CB demarcate the base flow and surface runoff. This method is most widely used base- flow separation procedure. z o z 1 z BE oon ® *S "Method Il Time 3. Method II: Fieure 6-4: Base flow se aration methods In this method the base flow recession curve after the depletion of the flood water is extended backwards till it intersects the ordinate ate point of inflection (line EF) in the above figure. Points A and F are joined together by an arbitrary smooth curve. This method of base-flow separation is realistic in situation where the ground water contributions are significant and reach the stream quickly. All the three methods described above are arbitrary. The selection of any one of them depends upon the local practice and successfull predictions achieved in the past. The 44surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the base-flow separation is also known asdirect runoff hydrograph (DRH). Unit Hydrograph A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a specified, duration(D-hours). ‘The term unit means a unit depth of rainfall excess which is usually taken as 1 cm. In other words the unit hydrograph is the hydrograph of surface/direct runoff resulting from effective rainfall falling in a unit of time such as 1 hour or 1 day and produced uniformly in space and time over the total catchment arca. The S-curve It is a hydrograph produced by a continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for an infinite period. It is a curve obtained by summation of an infinite series of D-h unt hydrographs spaced D-h apart. S-curve is used to develop a unit hydrograph of duration mD, where, m is a fraction. Instantancous Hydrograph (1UH) A unit hydrograph of zero duration is known as instantaneous unit hydrograph(IUH). Thus (IUH) is a fictitious. conceptual unit hydrograph which represents the surface runoft from the catchment due to an instantancous precipitation of the rainfall excess lem. IUH is indicative of the tvisin storage characteris of Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Unit hydrographs can be derived only if records of rainfall and the resulting flood hhydrograph are available. Since only a relatively small portion of catchments are gagged, some means of deriving unit hydrographs for ungagged catchments is necessary. In order to constructs unit hydrographs for such areas, empirical equations of regional validity which relate the salient hydrograph characteristics to the basin characteristics are needed. Unit hydrograph derived from such relationships are known as synthetic unit hydrographs. PROCEDURE (i) The basic hydrologie system is used for this experiment i) Artificial sand bed in the set up First artificial rainfall is created, (iv) Reading of runoff starts at the beginning of rainfall (¥) Reading is recorded at every 10 second interval. (vi) The rainfall will be stopped after 100 seconds (vii) Reading is continued up to two consecutive readings 45(viii) The total hydrograph is then plotted in a plain graph paper. The recession limb will be plotted on semi log paper A tangent is drawn at the constant value of the recession limb The slope of this tangent gives the recession constant base flow (Ks) The ordinates of the tangent give the value of the base flow. (xiii), Now by subtracting the ordinates of this tangent from the total runoff we get the hydrograph for interflow and surface runoff. (xiv) If interflow is neglected i.e. taking the recession constant for interflow, then the surface runoff is calculated by subtracting the ordinates of base flow from total hydrograph. Surface runoff'= Total runoff base flow Objectives To draw the hydrograph on a semi log paper .To find the recession constant for base flow .To find the recession constant for interflow |. .To find the recession constant for surface flow yen s . To find the volume of surface runoffin em. Example 6-1 The recession portion of a flood hydrograph is given below. The time is indicated from the arrival of peak. Assuming the interflow component to be negligible, calculate the base flow and surtace flow recession coefficients, Time from peak] Discharge (m/s) | Time from _ peak] Discharge (m/s) Solution: 46“The problem will be Rolved by tsing recession Etirve as follows: Recession curve Base flow Kn=0.78 Discharge Q in m''s Slope Ke. ime after peak in days. | ———— Figure 6-4: Storage recession curve -for the above example. The given data are plotted on a semi-log paper with discharge on the log-scale as per the above figure. The straight line AB of the curve indicates base flow. The surface flow terminates at B - 5 days after peak. Since we know, (Q.= Qo Kine : Ke Q Qe ‘ Taking log in both sides, : log Ke! = log (Qi / Qo) tlog Kw = log (Qi / Qu) Jog Ke = 1 log (Qi /Qo) ‘The base flow recession is shown by line ABM, From the figure initial discharge at | day after the peak : from curve Qu 6,60 m/s, 47and time interval of t~ 2 days, i.e 3 days after the peak, the discharge Q, from the curve ~ 4.0 ms . Thus putting the values: we get log Kn = It log(Q./ Qo) Kw = Wt (Qi/ Qo) =% ( 4.0/6.6) = 0.778, say From the storage recession curve PA, The base flow recession ABM is subtracted to get the surface runoff. The above curve shows the surface runoff depletion plot as a straight line. Tine after Peak Values from storage] Values of Base flow] Surface runoff = col recession curve PA | from base flow | 2-col 3 m/sec recession ABM line | m’/sec m/sec | 1 2 3 05 [66.0 34.0 Hence Q, = 26 m/s at time t=1.0 hand the chateap cay Q=2.25 mis.att=3.0 hie. atan time Hence the recession constant for surface storage K, is given by log Ku =% log(2.25/26) K, = 0.29 Ans Ky =0,78; Kn = 0.29