Chapter 1 – Functional anatomy ～白

 Anatomical terminologies
Anatomical position
¤ To prevent confusion, anatomists use a standard anatomical position and a special vocabulary for
relating body parts to one another
¤ a) Stands erect facing the observer 直立地面对着我
b) Head level and eyes facing forward
c) Arms at the sides with the palms turned forward（小指头在大拇指的内侧）
d) Feet are flat on the floor and directed forward
Anatomical planes
Sagittal plane 侧面
Coronal plane 正面 - 可以是任何侧面 Axial plane 水平面
Midsagittal plane Parasagittal plane
 Frontal plane  Median plane  Transverse or
 Horizontal plane
 Passes through the  Para = near
midline of the body or  The sagittal plane does
an organ and divides it not pass through the
into equal right and left midline but instead
sides divides the body or an
organ into unequal
right and left sides

Oblique plane
 Combination of any two planes
 Passes through the body or an organ at an angle between
A) A transverse plane and a sagittal plane
B) A transverse plane and a frontal plane

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Chapter 1 – Functional anatomy ～白

Regional names
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Chapter 1 – Functional anatomy ～白
o Head: skull face
o Neck
o Trunk: chest, abdomen, pelvis
o Upper limbs (extremities): shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, hand
o Lower limbs (extremities): buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, foot
Directional terms
Anterior (ventral) 前面 Posterior (dorsal) 后面
 Toward the front  Toward the back
Medial Lateral 外侧（朝外）
 Toward the midline of the body  Away from the midline of the body
全身（从头到  越靠近中间越 medial  I.e. The thumb is lateral to the little
脚）  I.e. Little finger is medial to the body finger
Superficial (external) 浅层 (靠近身体表面) Deep (internal) 内层 (离身体表面较远)
 Toward or on the surface of the body  Away from the surface of the body
Superior Inferior
 Upper of above  Lower or below
Proximal 近端 Distal 远端
只可以用来形  Nearest to a point of reference  Remote; farther from any point of
容四肢 reference
(extremities)  Upper limbs: 越靠近肩膀，越近端
 Lower limbs: 越靠近脚，越近端

 The nervous system and the endocrine system control the functions of the body
 Nervous system

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 Composed basically of specialized cells, whose function is to receive sensory stimuli and to transmit
them to effector organs, whether muscular or glandular
 The sensory stimuli that arise either outside or inside the body are correlated within the nervous
system, and the efferent impulses are coordinated
 Has the ability to store sensory information received during past experiences. This information,
when appropriate, is integrated with other nervous impulses and channeled into the common
efferent pathway

 Major divisions of the human nervous system:

Central nervous system (CNS) 中枢神经系统
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 周边神经系统

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Autonomic nervous system
¤ Serves as the main “processing center” ¤ All nervous tissue outside the CNS ¤ Concerned with the

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for the entire nervous system ¤ Consisting of bundles of nerve fibers or innervation of
o Correlation and integration of axons that carry information between involuntary structures
nervous information occur here the CNS and other parts of the body (heart, smooth muscles,
¤ Processes different kinds of incoming (the periphery) glands within the body)
sensory information ¤ The nerves are surrounded by fibrous ¤ Is distributed throughout
¤ The source of thoughts, emotions, and sheaths as they run to different parts the CNS and PNS
memories of the body, but they are relatively ¤ May be divided into:
¤ Originate most nerve impulses that unprotected and are commonly sympathetic
stimulate muscles to contract and damaged by trauma - Prepare the body for
glands to secrete A) Afferent system 传入系统 an emergency
¤ Both the brain and spinal cord are  Sensory parasympathetic
covered with meninges (a system of B) Efferent system 传出系统 - Conserving and
membranes), and are suspended in the  Motor restoring energy
cerebrospinal fluid **There are afferent and
¤ Composed of large numbers of efferent nerve fibers in both
excitable nerve cells and their parts
processes  neurons
o Supported by specialized tissue
 neuroglia
o The long processes of a nerve
cell are called axons or nerve
fibers
¤ The interior is organized into:
a) Gray matter
 Consists of nerve cells
embedded in neuroglia
 Gray color
b) White matter
 Consists of nerve fibers
embedded in neuroglia
 White color due to the
presence of lipid material in
myelin sheaths of many of the
nerve fibers

Brain Cranial nerves

- 2% of total body weight - 12 pairs
- The average adult human brain - Transmit motor or sensory
weighs 1.3 ~ 1.4kg messages between the brain or
- 体形越大的动物，脑越大 brain stem and the head and neck
o 来控制较多的肌肉群
o 来处理由皮肤而来的众多
讯息（大型动物皮肤面积
较大）
- 脑的大小和重量与智力无关
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- Protected by the bones of the skull

Spinal cord Spinal nerves

- The pathway for sensory input to
the brain and motor output from
the brain
- Protected by the vertebral column
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves and
branches
- Each spinal nerve consists of
sensory and motor neurons, which
carry message to and from
particular body regions

Cranial and spinal nerves’ associated

ganglia

 Major division of the central and peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
Cranial nerves and their Spinal nerves and their
Brain Spinal cord
associated ganglia associated ganglia
Forebrain Cervical segments 12 pairs that exit the 31 pairs that exit the
i. Cerebrum Thoracic segments skull through the vertebral column
ii. Diencephalon Lumbar segments foramina through the
(between brain) Sacral segments intervertebral foramina
Midbrain Coccygeal segments in the vertebral column
Hindbrain i. 8 Cervical
i. Medulla ii. 12 Thoracic
oblongata iii. 5 Lumbar
ii. Pons iv. 5 Sacral
iii. Cerebellum v. 1 Coccygeal

 Cranial and spinal nerves

¤ Made up of bundles of nerve fibers
supported by connective tissue

 Ganglia
Sensory ganglia of spinal nerves
Sensory ganglia of cranial nerves Autonomic ganglia
(Posterior root ganglia)
 Fusiform swellings situated on  Similar ganglia that are also  Often irregular in shape
the posterior root of each found along the course of  Are situated along the course
spinal nerve just proximal to cranial nerves V, VII, VIII, IX, of efferent nerve fibers of the

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Chapter 1 – Functional anatomy ～白
the root’s junction with a and X autonomic nervous system
corresponding anterior root