Cell Division

Nov 2022
Dr Jason Chu
j.chu@mmu.ac.uk
Teaching Approach (And Why?)
• Lecture – provide you with content
• Interactivity – active learning, engagement, collaboration, opportunity to make mistakes
• Quizzes – via Mentimeter or Vevox, to improve recall
ILOs
• Describe the process of cell division
• Explain the role of cell division
• Evaluate and compare the difference between mitosis and meiosis
• Discuss what happens due to errors of cell division
What do you know about this topic?

https://manmetuni.padlet.org/jasonchu/celldivision
Role of Cell Division
• Reproduction
• New cells allow the body to grow
• Repair damaged tissue and worn out cells

Cell Division
• Cells grow and divide into two daughter cells
• Due to action of chromosomes:
Diploid – pairs of chromosomes
Haploid – single chromosomes
Mitosis
Mitosis
• Genome is duplicated – each daughter cell receives a
complete genome
• Chromosome condensation – reorganisation into
compact structures
Eukaryotic Cell Division
• The genome is duplicated
Each daughter cells receives a complete genome
The Cell Cycle
• Series of events within a cell as it grows and divides
• Two major phases: Interphase & Mitosis (M-Phase)

• Interphase = ~90% of cell cycle

• Cell growth and duplicates its chromosomes
• G1 (1st gap) – cell growth, protein synthesis, no DNA
synthesis
• S (synthesis) – chromosomes are duplicated, DNA
synthesis Cell growth*
• G2 (2nd gap) – cell growth, centrioles duplicated,
preparation for mitosis, chromosomes not clearly
visible at this stage

• M Phase – Nuclear division (PMAT), cell division (cytokinesis)

The Cell Cycle – Nuclear Division (PMAT)
• Prophase – Chromatin condenses into chromosomes (now visible).
Nucleolus disappears and breakdown of nuclear envelope. Spindle
fibres start to form with centrosomes at opposite poles of the cell (Aster).

• Metaphase – Chromosomes arrange along the equator of the spindle.

Prepares the sister chromatids for separation.

• Anaphase – Chromatids are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell

where they will become chromosomes of the daughter cells.

• Telophase & cytokinesis – The chromosome unravels (de-condense)

in each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli of the daughter
cells form. Cytoplasm is divided into two cells.
The Cell Cycle – Nuclear Division (PMAT)
Regulation of Mitosis
Control of The Cell Cycle
• Entry into a new cell cycle is initiated by extracellular
signalling by mitogens.
e.g. cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk) and cyclin
complexes
• G1 Cyclin – bind and activate Cdks that stimulate entry into a
new cycle.
• G1/S Cyclin – involved in the progression through start and
initiates process leading to DNA synthesis.
• S Cyclin – activate Cdks necessary for DNA synthesis.
Remains high during S, G2 and early M phase.
• M Cyclin – activate Cdks necessary for entry of mitosis, peaks
at metaphase.
• APC – Anaphase-promoting complex is required to trigger
transition from metaphase to anaphase
Control of The Cell Cycle
• Essential that daughter cells are exact duplicates of (Open Oregon Press)

parent cells. Mistakes in duplication or distribution of

chromosomes can lead to mutations that are passed on.
• Internal control mechanisms exists to prevent this – • G1 checkpoint - adequate reserves,
three main cell cycle checkpoints which stop the cycle size and no genetic damage
until conditions are favourable. • G2 checkpoint – all chromosomes
replicated and no genetic damage
• Regulator molecules – promote or halt • M checkpoint – Correct copying and
arrangement of chromosomes
Can act individually or influence others
positive regulation = Cdk/cyclin complex
negative regulation = Rb, p53, p21
What happens when mitosis goes wrong?
• Uncontrolled cell growth
• No cell cycle checks
• No apoptosis
• Mutations
• Cancers
Mitosis summary
• Cell division results in the formation of two daughter cells
• Each daughter cells contains the complete genome from a parent cell
(condensed in chromosomes)
• Cell cycle = Interphase (G1, S, G2) and M phase
• Mitosis phase stage = prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
• Cell cycle is highly regulated by complex interplay of regulatory proteins and
protein kinases
• Each stage of the cell cycle is maintained by checkpoints
Meiosis
Meiosis – production of gametes
• Gametes = cell which develops no further until it fuses with
another gamete to form a zygote.
• This produces 4 genetically different cells. Vital for variation in
offspring.
• Gametes contain only 1 pair of chromosomes. Only half the
number of chromosomes (haploid).
• Ensures constant number of chromosomes in each generation
(when two gametes fuse). Inherited from both parents but each
chromosome of the pair is genetically different so daughter cells
will be genetically different.
Meiosis - Chromosomes
Meiosis
• Occurs in a two stage process: meiosis I and meiosis II
• Results in four daughter cells (rather than two in mitosis)

• No synthesis of genetic material

• First division (meiosis I) – homologous pair get separated
• Second division (meiosis II) – separate the chromatid
Meiosis I
• Similar phases of PMAT
• During prophase I, crossing over can occur (chiasmata)
Chromosomes come in contact, small portions can then cross
over. Ensures every cell at the end of meiosis is genetically
different
Meiosis II
• Very similar to mitosis (PMAT)
• Regulation similar to mitosis – via checkpoints and mitogens (Cdk & cyclins)
https://manmetuni.padlet.org/jasonchu/nondisjunction

Nondisjunction & Aneuploidy

• Nondisjunction is failure of homologous chromosomes or sister
chromatids to separate properly during cell division
• At fertilisation these can generate cells (and subsequent embryos)
with one or three chromosomes instead of a pair

What could cause incorrect separation?

Summary
ILOs
• Describe the process of cell division
• Explain the role of cell division
• Evaluate and compare the difference between mitosis and meiosis
• Discuss what happens due to errors of cell division
Summary
• Function of cell division = reproduction, growth & repair
• Eukaryotic cell cycle: Interphase & Mitosis
Interphase – G1, S, G2
M phase – prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase & cytokinesis
Regulated by checkpoints and mitogens e.g. Cdk and cyclin complexes
• Meiosis – production of gametes
Generates four genetically different cells (variation)
Meiosis I = homologous pair gets separated
Meiosis II = chromatid gets separated
Programme Support Tutors (PSTs)
Office: JD E231 HCSPST@mmu.ac.uk

d.akhidime@mmu.ac.uk
Dr Jason Chu
r.parkhouse@mmu.ac.uk j.chu@mmu.ac.uk