Republic of the Philippines

BENGUET STATE UNIVERSITY

La Trinidad Campus
Km 6 La Trinidad, Benguet

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

Module in

AB 124: PROPERTIES OF AB MATERIALS

Benguet State University Vision:

BSU as an International University engendering graduates to walk through the
Intergenerational highways.
Benguet State University Mission:
BSU cares to (a) Challenge Innovation, (b) Advance Technology and Facilities, (c)
Revitalize Administration, (d) Engender Partnership, and (e) Serve to sustain
Intergenerational Roles.

Benguet State University Quality Policy Statement:

Benguet State University is committed to provide quality service for excellent and
innovative research aligned towards sustainable development and client satisfaction.
Course Information:
Course Code : ABE 124
Course Title : Properties of AB Materials
Pre-requisite : Materials and Processes of AB, ES 131
Credit : 3 Units
AY/Semester : 2021-2022/ First Semester
Offered
Number of Hours : 2 hours lecture; 3 hours laboratory
Course Description : Physical characteristics, electrical, mechanical,
thermal and optical properties of AB materials

Study Guide:
1. Read and understand every topic.
2. Be mindful in accomplishing the various activities of the module. Practice
time management.
3. Be reminded that you are the learner so you must do the module on your
own. You can seek help from classmates, but the activities should be done
individually.
4. Learners are encourage to watch related videos available in the YouTube
to further understand the subject matter.
5. You may contact me for any clarifications and questions regarding the topic.

Objectives:
By the end of this module, students are expected to:
1. Understand the thermal properties of AB materials;
2. Define the thermal properties of AB materials.
3. Compute related problems on thermal properties of AB materials.
 Lesson 04: Thermal Properties of AB Materials

Thermal Properties
 Functions of temperature or heat.
 Concerned with the thermal behavior of materials.
 Many stages in the processing and preservation of foods involve heat transfer.
 Thermal properties of engineering materials comprise the following: thermal conductivity;
specific heat capacity; enthalpy; latent heat; thermal expansion; and thermal stress.

Thermal Conductivity
 Measure of its ability to conduct heat.
 W/m-K in the SI system.
 Increases with moisture content.
 Thermal conductivity of food materials varies between that of water and air.
o kwater = 0.614 W/m-oC at 27oC
o kair = 0.026 W/m-oC at 27oC
o kice = 2.24 W/m-oC at 0oC

 According to Choi and Okos (1986), predictive models have been used to estimate the
effective thermal conductivity of foods. Thermal conductivities of pure water, carbohydrate
(CHO), protein, fat, ash, and ice at different temperatures can be empirically expressed
using these mathematical models:
2
o kwater = 0.57109 + 1.7625 × 10-3 T − 6.7036 × 10-6 T
2
o kCHO = 0.20141 + 1.3874 × 10-3 T − 4.3312 × 10-6 T
2
o kprotein = 0.17881 + 1.1958 × 10-3 T − 2.7178 × 10-6 T
2
o kfat = 0.18071 + 2.7604 × 10-3 T − 1.7749 × 10-7 T
2
o kash = 0.32961 + 1.4011 × 10-3 T − 2.9069 × 10-6 T
2
o kice = 2.2196 + 6.2489 × 10-3 T + 1.0154 × 10-4 T
o Where k is the thermal conductivity (W/m-oC) and T is temperature varies between
0oC to 90oC.

 It is also the amount of heat that is conducted through unit thickness of a material per
second at a constant temperature difference across the material.
Qx
k=
A∆T
o Where: k = thermal conductivity, W/m-oC
Q = amount of heat flow, W
x = thickness of material, m
A = area, m2
ΔT = change in temperature, oC

 Thermal conductivity of wheat can be expressed as follows:

k = 0.06 + 0.002m
o Where: k = thermal conductivity, kcal/m-hr-oC
m = moisture content of the grain (dry basis)

Thermal conductivity of sorghum can be expressed as follows:

k = 0.0564 + 0.0858w
o Where: k = thermal conductivity, kcal/m-hr-oC
w = fraction of moisture present in material
  Thermal conductivity probe is used for measurement of thermal conductivity of most of
the food materials.

Specific Heat Capacity

 Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a material by 1 oC.
 It is found using the equation:
Q
Cp =
m (T2 − T1 )
o Where: Cp = specific heat of food at constant pressure, J/kg-oC
Q= heat gained or lost, J (W)
m= mass or mass flow rate, kg (kg/s)
T2 – T1= temperature difference, oC

 Usually quoted at either constant pressure or constant volume.

 Specific heat of foods depends on their composition, especially the moisture content (M,
wet basis)
Cp = 0.837 + 3.348M

 Estimation of specific heat also takes account of the mass fraction (X, kJ/kg-oC) of the
solids contained in the food:
Cp = 4.18Xw + 1.711Xp + 1.928Xf + 1.547Xc + 0.908Xa
o Where: w = water
p = protein
f = fat
c = carbohydrate
a = ash
 The specific heat of pure water, carbohydrate (CHO), protein, fat, ash, and ice at different
temperatures can be expressed empirically in J/kg-oC.
2
o Cpwater = 4081.7 − 5.3062T + 0.99516T (for -40oC to 0oC)
2
o Cpwater = 4176.2 − 0.0909T + 5.4731 × 10 − 3T (for 0oC to 150oC)
2
o CpCHO = 1548.8 + 1.9625T − 5.9399 × 10 − 3T (for -40oC to 150oC)
2
o Cpprotien = 2008.2 + 1.2089T − 1.3129 × 10 − 3T (for -40oC to 150oC)
2
o Cpfat = 1984.2 + 1.4373T − 4.8008 × 10 − 3T (for -40oC to 150oC)
2
o Cpash = 1092.6 + 1.8896T − 3.6817 × 10 − 3T (for -40oC to 150oC)
o Cpice = 2062.3 + 6.0769T (for -40oC to 150oC)

Sample Problem:
1. A 25-gram metal ball is heated 200 °C with 2330 Joules of energy. What is the specific heat
of the metal in J/kgoC?
known:
Q = 2330 J
m = 25g
T = 200 °C
Wanted: specific heat of the metal (Cp)

Solution:
Q
CP =
m∆T
2330 J
CP =
1kg
(25g× )(200℃)
1000g
CP = 466 J/kgoC
2. A 500-gram cube of lead is heated from 25 °C to 75 °C. How much energy was required to
heat the lead? The specific heat of lead is 0.129 J/g°C.
Known:
m = 500g
T1 = 25 °C
T2 = 75 °C
Cp = 0.129 J/g°C
Wanted: Energy to heat the lead (Q)

Solution:
Q = mCp ∆T
Q = (500g)(0.129 J/g℃)(75℃-25℃)
Q = 3225 J

Enthalpy
 Heat content in a system per unit mass.
 Unit is kJ/kg in the SI system.
 It is a thermodynamic property that depends only on the state of the system expressed
as:
H = U + PV (kJ)
h = u + Pv (kJ/kg)
o Where: H = enthalpy, J h = specific enthalpy, J/kg
U = internal energy, J u = specific internal energy, J/kg
P = pressure, Pa v = specific volume m 3/kg
V = volume, m3

Sample Problem:
1. A liquid expands by 5 liters and its energy increased by 2000 J. Assuming the pressure of 1
atm, compute for enthalpy. (Note: 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 14.7 psi).
Known:
V = 5 liters
U = 2000 J
Pa = 1 atm
Wanted: enthalpy (H)

Solution:

H = U + PV

101,325 Pa 1 N/m2 1 m3
H = 2000 J + (1 atm × × ) (5 L × )
1 atm 1 Pa 1000 L
H = 2506.63 J

Latent Heat
 Heat released or absorbed by a substance during a change of state that occurs without a
change in temperature.
 Melting, freezing, vaporization, condensation, sublimation, and deposition are six common
phase changes.
 Latent heat of fusion – is the amount of heat needed to cause a phase change between
solid and liquid. The latent heat of fusion for water at 0°C is approximately 334 kJ/kg.
  Latent heat of vaporization – is the amount of heat needed to cause a phase change
between liquid and gas. The latent heat of vaporization for water at 100°C is about 2257
kJ/kg.
 The heat, Q, required to change the phase of a sample of mass m is: Q = mLf (for
melting/freezing) and Q = mLv (for vaporization/condensation).

Sample Problem:
1. Calculate a) how much energy is needed to melt 1.5 kg of ice at 0°C (freezing point), and b)
how much energy is required to vaporize 2 kg of water at 100°C (boiling point).
known:
m = 1.5kg
Tf = 0°C
Tv = 100°C
Lf = 334 kJ/kg
Lv = 2257 KJ/kg
Wanted: a. energy to melt ice (Q)
b. energy to vaporize (Q)

Solution: For a
Q = mLf
Q = (1.5 kg)(334 kJ/kg)
Q = 501 kJ
Solution: For b
Q = mLv
Q = (2 kg)(2257 kJ/kg)
Q = 4514 k
Thermal Expansion
 It refers to a fractional change in size of a material in response to a change in temperature.
 There can be a change in the area, volume and shape of the material.

Linear Expansion

∆L = L1 α∆T
 Where: ∆L = change in length
L1 = original length
α = linear coefficient of thermal expansion
∆T = change in temperature

Sample Problem:
1. At 25oC, the length of the glass is 50 cm. After heated, the final length of the glass is 50.09
cm. The coefficient of linear expansion is 9 x 10-6/oC. Find its final temperature.

Known:
L1= 50 cm
L2 = 50.09 cm
ΔL = 50.9 cm – 50 cm = 0.09 cm
α = 9x10-6/oC
T1 = 25oC
 Wanted: The final temperature (T2)

∆L = L1 α∆T
0.09cm = (50cm)(9×10-6 /oC)(T2 -25oC)
T2 = 225oC

2. A steel is 40 cm long at 20oC. The coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 12 x 10-6/oC. The
increase in length and the final length when it is at 70 oC will be _____.

Known:
The change in temperature (ΔT) = 70 oC – 20oC = 50oC
The original length (L1) = 40 cm
Coefficient of linear expansion for steel (α) = 12 x 10 -6/oC

Wanted: The change in length (ΔL) and the final length (L2)
Solution:
∆L = L1 α∆T
∆L = (40cm)(12×10-6 / ℃)(50℃)
∆L = 0.024 cm

L2 = L1 + ∆L
L2 = 40cm + 0.024cm
L2 = 40.02

Thermal Stress
 Stress experienced by a body due to either thermal expansion or contraction.
 Stress caused due to the change in temperature.
 Crack is a result of thermal stress.

Rheological Properties of AB Materials

Rheology
 Branch of physics that deals with deformation of solid materials and flow of liquid materials.
 Required in product quality evaluation, engineering calculations and process, as well as
machine designs.
 Necessary to determine the size of the pump and pipe as well as the energy requirements.
 Rheology can be classified into different groups.
 Figure 1. Classification of rheological properties based on material states (solid, liquid).

Rheology of Solids
 called elastic behavior.
 Pure elastic behavior – when a force is applied to a material and immediately produces
a deformation that is finite and proportional to the magnitude of the force being applied
and the material regaining its initial form (size and shape) on removal of the force, the test
material.
 Hookean solids – materials with pure elastic behavior.
 Stress – force per unit area.
Force
Stress (σ) =
Area
Force applied perpendicular to the plane
Normal Stress (σ) =
Area
Force applied parallel to the plane
Shear Stress (𝜏) =
Area

 Strain – deformation due to the force, divided by the original length of the material.
Deformation
Strain (ε) =
Original Length

Three types of moduli may be calculated for a Hookean solid:

 Modulus of elasticity (E) is calculated by applying a force perpendicular to the area
defined by the stress.
Normal stress
Modulus of elasticity (E) =
Strain
 Shear modulus [modulus of rigidity (G)] is calculated by applying a force parallel to the
area defined by the stress.
Shear stress
Shear Modulus (G) =
Strain

 Bulk modulus (K) is the case where the force is applied from all directions (isotropically).
Stress from all directions
Bulk Modulus (K) =
Strain

Rheology of Liquids
 Flow properties are determined for a number of reasons, such as quality control,
understanding the structure, process engineering applications, and correlations with
sensory evaluation.
 Viscosity – defined as the resistance of a fluid to flow.
 SI unit for dynamic viscosity is Pascal seconds (Pa-s) and poise (P or g/cm-s) in the CGS
system.
 1 Pa-s = 10 P
 Viscosity of most of the liquids decreases with increasing temperature.
 Fluid foods can generally be categorized into three groups based on their rheological
behaviors: viscous; plastic; and time dependent rheological properties.
 Viscous materials can further be categorized as newtonian or non-newtonian fluids.

Viscous: Newtonian Fluids

 Newtonian Fluids – fluids that follow Newton’s law of viscosity. Oils, water, and most
liquids that contain more than 90% water such as tea, coffee, beer, wine, carbonated
beverages, runny fruit juices, and milk show Newtonian behavior.
 Figure 2. A shear diagram for a Newtonian fluid
 Whose viscosity remains constant as the force applied changes.
 High viscosity: slow moving
 Low viscosity: fast moving

Viscous: Non-Newtonian Fluids

 Not all non-Newtonian Fluids behave in the same way when stress is applied – some
become more solid, others more fluid. Some non-Newtonian fluids react as a result of the
amount of stress applied, while others react as a result of the length of time that stress is
applied.
 Do not follow Newton’s law of viscosity.
 Have viscosities that can change as the force applied to them changes.
 The table below summarizes four types of non-Newtonian fluids:

Table 1. Four types of non-Newtonian fluids.

Plastic fluids
 Bingham plastic fluids – those remaining rigid when the magnitude of shear stress is
smaller than a specific value called yield stress but flows like a Newtonian fluid when the
yield stress is exceeded (e.g. mayonnaise, tomato paste, and ketchup).
 Non-Bingham plastic fluids – also require a minimum shear stress (yield stress) before
flow begins. It results to either shear-thinning or shear-thickening when the yield stress is
exceeded.

Time-Dependent Rheological Properties: Thixotropic vs Rheopectic Pastes

 Some fluids subjected to a constant shear rate becomes thinner (or thicker) with time.
 Thixotropic fluids – shear thinning with time (e.g. gelatin, egg white, and some varieties
of honey).
 Rheopectic fluids – shear thickening with time. Bentonite – clay suspensions show this
type of flow behavior. Other examples are printer ink and lubricants.
 Starch–milk–sugar pastes reported that the behavior depends on the processing
conditions (Abu-Jdayil & Mohameed, 2004). For instance, processing temperature played
an important role. At 85 oC and 95oC, starch-milk-sugar pastes exhibited a thixotropic
behavior, while pastes processed at 75oC behaved like a rheopectic fluid.

Figure 3. Shear diagram of viscous and plastic fluids.