Lecture 7

Sustainable Energy
Technology
-Thermal (Geo, Solar,
Ocean-
KQK7012
Dr. Muhammad Khairi Faiz
 Renewable Energy Sources
• There are two fundamental sources of renewable energy:

> The sun --“looking outward” → Examples: solar (PV and

thermal) and wind
> The earth --“looking inward” → Examples: OTEC, tidal, wave,
geothermal

• Currently, we are ‘looking outward’ for clean energy

technologies → e.g. solar PV, solar thermal / CSP, wind

• ‘Looking inward’ energy sources requires technology advancements

and understanding of subsurface environments.
Geothermal Energy
 Discussion Topics Under ‘Geothermal Energy’

1) Geothermal systems for electricity generation:

• Dry steam power plant
• Binary cycle (ORC) power plant
• Single-flash power plant
• Double-flash power plant

2) Geothermal heat pumps (GHP) for thermal energy applications

(space heating and domestic hot water):
• Ground coupled (closed-loop) GHP
• Ground coupled (open-loop) GHP
• Vertical, horizontal, and hybrid GHP
Desirable Characteristics of Sustainable Energy Supply Systems
•Renewable: non-depletable.

•Accessible and well distributed: available close to demand .

•Emissions free: no NOx, SOx, CO2, particulate matter (PM), etc.

•Dispatchable: for base load, peak demand shaving, and distributed needs.

•Robust :
- Scalable: from < 1 MW to 1000 MW ( thermal or electric).
- Flexible: generation of electricity, heat, and cogeneration.

•Reliable and safe to operate.

•Cost competitive with conventional fossil fuels.

On a relative scale,
geothermal would be the
cleanest technology.
‘Looking Inward’ for Geothermal Energy

km

The average temperature

gradient is ≈ 30oC/km

4000 oC

• The temperature in the interior of the earth in

its core is around 4000oC
• Heat is generated by the radioactive decay of
isotopes of heavy nuclei. Granite would be a
good example as it contains radioactive
isotopes.

Major heat-producing isotopes

 Three Methods for Geothermal Energy Capture
(Heat Mining)

1)Hydrothermal

2)Deep geothermal systems → hot dry rocks (HDR)

3)Geothermal heat pumps (GHP)

3
 Geothermal Heat Pump
(Vertical Closed Loop)

• The geothermal heat pump (GHP) is

used for extracting heat from warm
shallow groundwater.

• In the winter, heat is removed from the

earth and delivered to the surface via
the heat pump.

• The GHP can deliver  three times

Circulating a heat transfer fluid (HTF) like
glycol
more energy* (in the form of heat)
than the energy consumed (in the form
of electricity) in pumping the water.
* Coefficient of performance (COP) = output energy / input energy
Hot Dry Rocks [HDR]

Key Factors:

• Resource quality
• Reservoir properties
(diameter, depth, stability, etc)
• Energy conversion for end use
• Economics
 Geothermal Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF)
• The most commonly used fluid is a 20%
solution of Propylene Glycol
– Circulating pumps must be designed to
accommodate increasing viscosity at low temp.

• 70% Ethanol solution provides the same

freeze protection without increasing viscosity
at low temperature
→More expensive to buy and to install than glycol.
 Moving heat between cold & hot conditions: which of the
following six cases are not Feasible? Which case represents a
heat pump?

• Heat plus work is conserved (from the First

Law) → conservation of energy.
• Heat can’t be converted to work with 100%
T hot T cold efficiency (from the Second Law).

→T is the driving force for Q

Electric heaters take electricity (coming from mechanical work) to put heat in a colder place.

Example: internal combustion engine (ICE).

Heat Pumps
Air conditioning
 Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Combined heat and power are
often produced together to
maximize the use of otherwise
wasted heat.

Topping cycles produce

electricity from high –Temperature
Need to combine
heat, and use the waste heat for “Topping and
other process needs. Bottoming” cycles to
achieve the highest
Bottoming cycles use medium- possible efficiency.
Temperature heat to generate
electricity.
An aquifer is a layer
of porous rock
trapped between
layers of
impermeable rocks.
Critical Elements for Heat Mining
The Three “Laws” Geothermal Economics
 Unique Geothermal Heat Mining Tradeoffs

Impact

Reduce drilling cost

Impact
Current Limitations of Drilling Technology

• Well cost scales exponentially with depth.

• Maximum depth capability to 42,000 ft ( 12 km).

• Borehole stability

• Lost circulation mud is still a big problem in some

formations.

• Drill bits have been improved to increase penetration rates

but the entire system is still prone to bits wear and crushing
as the primary failure mechanisms.
Twin Borehole System for Heat Extraction from an Aquifer

@ T0
Cold water is injected at the
Bores separation inlet borehole x = 0 and hot
distance (L)
water is extracted at the
outlet borehole x = L

Assume that the aquifer is

initially at temperature T1
and the cold water at inlet is
at temperature To.
@ T1

One dimensional flow model

The heat available per unit volume from the rock = r .cr .(T1 −To )

Power output of the system = P = w .cw .Q.(T1 −To )

Where Q is the volumetric flow rate
Twin Borehole System for Heat Extraction from an Aquifer
Darcy's law → Fluid flow rate in permeable medium
is directly proportional to the drop in vertical
elevation between two places in the medium and
indirectly proportional to the distance between them.

In order to obtain a given volume flow rate Q, it is necessary

to apply a pressure drop P between the boreholes.

Q.L
P =
k.A . . . . . (1)

By Darcy’s law, the volume flow rate Q through a slab of porous rock of cross-sectional
area A and length L, is given By:
P
Q = k.A. . . . . . (2)
L
Where k is the permeability. Rearranging equation (2), the pressure drop required for a
given volume flow rate Q is given by:
P =
Q.L . . . . . (3)
k.A
Example
A sandstone aquifer at T1 = 70oC is 20 m thick and 100 m wide. The density, specific heat, porosity and permeability
are 2.3E3 kg/m3, 1000 J/kg-oC, 0.02, 2E-9 s-m3/kg, respectively. Estimate the volume flow rate (Q) needed to
generate a power output P of 1 MW and the pressure drop required for a borehole separation at L = 1 km in length.
Assume the water at inlet is at To = 10oC, water density w = 103 kg/m3 and Cw = 4000 J/kg-oC

Solution

P 106 watts −3
Q= =  4x10 m 3
/s
 w .cw.(Tr − Tw) (103 ).(4x103 ).(70 −10)

Q.L (4x10 −3 m 3 / s)x(103 m)

P = = −9
= 10 6 N / m 2 = 1MPa = 10 bar
k.A (2x10 m − s / kg).(2x10 m )
3 3 2

Note that the Newton (N) is a force = mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2)
Schematic Cross-Section Showing the Three Essential Characteristics of a
Geothermal Site: an aquifer, an impermeable cap rock to seal the aquifer
(e.g., clay or shales) and a heat source (e.g., granite).
 Geothermal District
Heating System

HX

Hot Water

Cold
Water

Sandstone aquifer containing

hot brine @70oC
Four Main Types of Geothermal Electrical Energy Production
 Solar Thermal Energy

Also referred as CSP → Concentrated solar power

Introduction to Heat Transfer

 Heat Transfer in a Solar Collector

 Heat Transfer Modes
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Heat Transfer Processes in a Solar Collector
Heat transfer modes
Three heat transfer modes in a solar collector:
 Radiation
➢ 𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 : solar irradiation
➢ 𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 : emitted radiant energy from the panel
 Convection
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑎𝑖𝑟 : heat loss due to wind
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 : heat transfer to the flow medium throughout tube wall
 Conduction
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 : heat transfer inside the metal panel
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 : heat loss to the insulator from the panel
Conduction
Definition:
The transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic particles (atoms or
molecules ) of a substance due to interactions between the particles without bulk motion.

റ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝐴റ
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞"

heat flux area

gradient

Fourier’s Law: 𝑞"

റ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝛻𝑇

thermal conductivity
Convection
Definition:
Heat transfer between a fluid in motion and a boundary surface

Knowledge of convective heat transfer needs to know both fluid mechanics and heat transfer
Convection
Convection
Newton’s cooling/heating law:

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝐴 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

ℎ : convective heat transfer coefficient

ℎ = ℎ(𝑅𝑒, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

(Thermal) Radiation
Definition:
Energy is emitted by matter via electromagnetic waves with the wavelengths ranging
between the long-wave fringe ultraviolet (UV, ≈10-1μm) and far infrared (IR, ≈103μm).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: for a blackbody (ideal case)

𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞"𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝐴 = (𝜎𝑇 4 )𝐴
T: absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant

For real case:

𝑞"𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 ,0 < 𝜀 ≤ 1
emissivity
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
 How to use solar thermal energy
 Types of solar collectors
 Solar water heater
 Solar thermal power
 Solar thermal cooling
How to Use Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Energy

Working fluid
Solar Radiation Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collector

thermal energy

working fluid
Example of Solar Thermal Energy

The first three units of Solnova in the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
foreground, with the two towers of the (377MW)
PS10 and PS20 solar power stations
in the background. (150MW)
 Types of Solar Collectors
Solar Thermal Energy

 
Collectors and working temperature

Low temperature

Medium
temperature

High temperature
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not

require tracking of the sun, and are low-maintenance,
inexpensive and mechanically simple.
 Evacuated tube collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 A collector consists of a row of parallel glass tubes.

 A vacuum inside every single tube extremely reduces conduction losses
and eliminates convection losses.
Evacuated tube collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Heat pipe  Sydney tube

 Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

Various designs of flat-plate collector assembly. Color codes: light blue - glass cover,
dark blue - fluid channels, black - absorber material, gray - insulation. Some
constructions (b, c) include fluid channels in the absorber plate structure to maximize
thermal conductance between the components. Other modifications (a, d) include
tubes and channels soldered or cemented to the plate.
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Glazed collector  Unglazed collector

Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Heat transfer process

Weiss, Werner, and Matthias Rommel. Process Heat Collectors. Vol. 33, 2008.
 Energy Balance in Flat-Plate Collectors

In steady state, the useful energy output of the collector is the difference
between the absorbed solar radiation and the total thermal losses from the
collector
Useful energy = Absorbed solar energy - Thermal losses
Let us define the thermal efficiency (η) first, as it will be the
focus and final destination of this chapter.

Qu is the useful energy output from a collector, GT is the incident solar radiation
flux (irradience), and Ac is the collector area. GT is the parameter characterizing
the external conditions, and it is usually known from practical measurements
(with a pyranometer) or assumptions for a specific location. The collector area
is a set technical characteristic

So the main question here is how to estimate the Qu - the useful energy.
Energy Balance in Flat-Plate Collectors

The energy balance can also be expressed via the following key equation

where S is the absorbed solar radiation, UL is the total losses, Tplate is the
temperature of the absorbing plate, and Tambient is the temperature of the
air, and Ac again is the area of the collector surface.
In a general case, when measurements of incident solar radiation (IT) are
available, the convenient approximation for the absorbed energy is given by:

where (τα)av is the product of transmittance of the collector cover and

absorptance of the plate averaged over different types of radiation. In fact,
(τα)av ≈ 0.96(τα)beam based on practical estimattions.
Energy Balance in Flat-Plate Collectors

The collector loses heat from the top, the bottom and
the sides,
𝑄𝑙 = 𝑄𝑡 + 𝑄 𝑏 + 𝑄𝑠 , kW where,
Qt = rate of heat loss from the top, kW,
Qb = rate of heat loss from the bottom, kW
Qs = rate of heat loss from the sides, kW
Absorptivity, α
 The absorptivity represents the fraction of solar energy incident upon the surface,
that is absorbed.
 A good black surface can have an absorption of greater than 0.98, however, as
surfaces degrade, this value can decrease.
 For most real surfaces, the absorption varies as a function of the wavelength of the
incident energy.
 For solar collectors, the rate of absorptivity (power) from solar radiation on
absorber/receiver will be the solar irradiance resource, given by:

P=IxA
Where;
P = Solar irradiance resource or power absorbed by collector (W)
I = solar irradiance entering collector or direct beam (W/m2)
A = Area of the collector (m2)
 Emissivity, ε: Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Effectiveness of a surface material in emitting energy as thermal radiation.

Heat rate =
Thermal energy
transfer per unit
time = Power
Thermal Losses in Solar Flat Plate Collector

The performance of solar collector can be improved by enhancing the useful

energy gain from incident solar radiation with minimum losses. Thermal losses
have three components:-
❑ Conductive loss is reduced by providing insulation on the rear and sides of the
absorber plate.
❑ Convective loss is minimized by keeping an air gap of about 2 cm between the
cover and the plate.
❑ Radiative losses from the absorber plate are lowered by applying a spectrally
selective absorber coating.
During normal steady-state operation, useful heat delivered by a solar collector is
equal to the heat gained by the liquid flowing through the tubes welded on to the
underside of the absorber plate minus the losses.
Collector efficiency
Collector efficiency
Solar Thermal Energy

http://polarsolar.com/blog/?p=171
CSP - Parabolic trough collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Consist of parallel rows of

mirrors (reflectors) curved in
one dimension to focus the
sun’s rays.

 All parabolic trough plants

currently in commercial
operation rely on synthetic oil
as the fluid that transfers heat
from collector pipes to heat
exchangers.
CSP - Linear Fresnel reflector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Approximate the parabolic

trough systems but by using
long rows of flat or slightly
curved mirrors to reflect the
sun’s rays onto a downward-
facing linear, fixed receiver.
 Simple design of flexibly bent
mirrors and fixed receivers
requires lower investment costs
and facilitates direct steam
generation.
CSP - Parabolic dish reflector
Solar Thermal Energy

 Concentrate the sun’s rays at a

focal point propped above the
centre of the dish. The entire
apparatus tracks the sun, with
the dish and receiver moving
in tandem.
 Most dishes have an
independent engine/generator
(such as a Stirling machine or
a micro-turbine) at the focal
point.
CSP - Heliostat field collector
Solar Thermal Energy

 A heliostat is a device that

includes a plane mirror
which turns so as to keep
reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target.

 Heliostat field use hundreds

or thousands of small
reflectors to concentrate the
sun’s rays on a central
receiver placed atop a fixed
tower.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

 Conversion of sunlight into electricity

 Direct means : photovoltaics (PV),
 Indirect means : concentrated solar power (CSP).

Solar thermal power

 High temperature applications

(by means of sun-tracking, concentrated solar collectors)
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

 Electrical power is generated when the concentrated

light is converted to heat and, then, drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) which is connected
to an electrical power generator.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

 Types of solar thermal power plant

Technology roadmap concentrating solar power, IEA, 2010.

Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

 Combination of storage and hybridisation in a solar thermal plant

Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

PS10 and PS20 solar power tower (HFC)

(Seville, Spain). 2007 and 2009
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Kimberlina solar thermal energy plant (LFR)

(Bakersfield, CA), 2008.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Calasparra solar power plant (LFR)

(Murcia, Spain) 2009.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy

Puertollano solar power station (PTC)

(Ciudad real, Spain), 2009

Andasol solar power station (PTC)

(Granada, Spain), 2009
Solar Thermal Applications
Solar Thermal Energy
Facade integration (roof)
Roof integrated flat-plate collectors on
house in Denmark (Source: VELUX)
Facade integration (balcony)
 Contribution of solar thermal to EU heat
demand by sector
Solar Thermal Energy

Reduction of -40%

Summary, Executive, Werner Weiss, and Peter Biermayr. Potential of Solar Thermal in Europe - Executive Summary, 2009.
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
 Geographical aspects
 Financial aspects
Geographical Aspects
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy

 Low energy density

 Solar radiation has a low energy density relative to other
common energy sources

 Unstable energy supply

 Solar Energy supply is restricted by time and
geographical location
 Easily influenced by weather condition
Financial Aspects
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy

 Higher cost compared with traditional energy

 The capital cost in utilization of solar energy is generally
higher than that of traditional ones, especially for PV.

 Solar water heater

 Most economically competitive technology by now
 The need of SWH is inversely proportional to local
insulation
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

OTEC is a means of converting into useful energy the temperature difference

between surface water of the oceans in tropical and sub-tropical areas, and water at
a depth of approximately 1000m.
 → Carnot cycle
Open Cycle

Similar to Heat Engine !

Closed Cycle

→Rankine cycle