Reviewer in Modern Biology

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY:

a. Molecular Biology and Biochemistry

 Study of biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions
among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as their regulation.

b. Microbiology

 Study of microorganisms, focusing on the structure and function of single-celled

organisms.

c. Neurobiology

 Study of the biology of the nervous system, investigating different functions of the
nervous system using molecular, cellular, developmental, medical, and computational
approaches.

d. Paleontology

 Use of fossils to study the history of life.

e. Zoology and Botany

 Study of animals and plants.

FORENSIC SCIENCE:

 Application of science to answer questions related to the law.

 Involves biologists, chemists, and biochemists as forensic scientists.
 Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for use in courts, examining trace materials
associated with crimes.
 Tasks include analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids, processing
DNA, and analyzing other biological evidence left at crime scenes.

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY:

 Best approach to understanding the natural world and predicting natural phenomena.
 Coexists with faith, intuition, and dreams, but these cannot be accepted directly as
scientifically valid.

METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY:

1. Experiments and Hypotheses

 o Carefully organized procedures in which the scientist intervenes in a system to
change something and observes the result of the change.
2. Forming a Hypothesis
o Suggested explanation that is testable and falsifiable.
o Must be possible to test and prove the hypothesis true or false.
3. Experimental Design
o Plan for testing the hypothesis and finding the answer to the question or problem.
o Should include a description or information about each of the following:
4. Experimental Variables
o Identified to ensure accurate results and reproducibility.
o Three types of variables:
 Manipulated
 Responding
 Controlled
5. Interpreting Results
o Gather data and record observations.
o Quantitative data: Observations and facts that can be easily measured.
o Qualitative data: Observations that cannot be easily measured.
o Interpret data by answering the question and responding to the hypothesis,
drawing conclusions or inferences based on the experiment.

METHODS OF LOGICAL THINKING:

1. Inductive Reasoning
o Form of logical thinking that analyzes trends or relationships in data to arrive at a
general conclusion.
o Generalizations are derived from careful observation and the analysis of a large
amount of individual data points.
o Generalizations arrived at are not always correct.
2. Deductive Reasoning
o Begins with a general principle or law and applies it to a specific circumstance to
predict specific results.
o Starts with broad declarations like principles or laws and applies these
generalizations to make decisions about specific cases.
o Results are definitely correct.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: 8 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:

1. Adaptation through Evolution

o All forms of life evolve and adapt to the external environment.
o Changes in heritable traits prepare future generations for more efficient life
processes.
2. Cellular Organization
o Life exhibits a cellular organization, ranging from cells to tissues, organs, and
organisms.
 o Cellular organization is seen in simple organisms like fungi and extends to
complex organisms like mammals.
3. Growth and Development
o Living things grow and reproduce with immature and small copies of themselves.
o Organisms gather their own resources to grow, enlarge, mature, age, and
reproduce.
4. Heredity
o Transfer of characteristics to offspring through DNA and RNA.
o Genetic material holds information such as eye color, skin color, and hair type.
5. Homeostasis
o Maintenance of a stable internal environment.
o Organisms, including humans, must maintain a stable internal environment.
6. Metabolism
o Chemical reactions inside cells, tissues, organs, and living beings that perform
various actions to keep the organism alive.
o Processes involve breaking down food, sending nutrients to cells, removing waste
products, transforming energy, and synthesizing new chemicals.
7. Reproduction
o Reproduction can be asexual or sexual.
o Asexual reproduction involves a single parent organism, while sexual
reproduction requires two parents.
8. Response to Stimuli
o Living organisms respond to changes in their environment.
o They show "irritability" by responding to stimuli such as heat, light, touch, or
chemicals.

Bacteria, Viruses, and Fungi

 Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, including bacteria, viruses, archaea,

fungi, and protozoa.
 This review focuses on bacteria and viruses, two common types of microorganisms.

Section 1: Bacteria

 Bacteria are single-cell organisms with diverse characteristics.

 Some bacteria require oxygen, while others do not.
 Bacteria have different temperature preferences.
 Examples of well-known bacteria include salmonella and staphylococcus bacteria.

Section 2: Types of Bacteria

1. Spherical Bacteria (Cocci)

o Streptococcus group causes strep throat.
2. Rod-shaped Bacteria (Bacilli)
o Some rod-shaped bacteria are curved and known as vibrio.
o Example: Bacillus anthracis (anthrax).
 3. Spiral Bacteria (Spirilla)
o Spirochetes have a tight coil.
o Bacteria causing leptospirosis, Lyme disease, and syphilis.

Section 3: Bacteria Structure

 Pilus
 Capsule
 Cell wall
 Nucleoid(dna)
 Plasma membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Flagellum

 Bacteria feed in different ways.

 Heterotrophic bacteria consume organic carbon.
 Autotrophic bacteria make their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
o Photoautotrophs use photosynthesis and some produce oxygen.
o Chemoautotrophs use chemosynthesis and are often found in ocean vents and
legume roots.

Section 4: Bacterial Reproduction

 Bacteria reproduce through binary fission.

 The bacterium divides into two identical daughter cells.
 Reproduction rate is influenced by factors like temperature and nutrient availability.

Section 5: Bacterial Diseases in Humans

 Airborne Bacterial Diseases (Upper Respiratory Tract):

o Streptococcal Diseases: symptoms include sore throat, fever, and swollen lymph
nodes.
o Diphtheria: symptoms include sore throat and low-grade fever.
o Pertussis (Whooping Cough): symptoms include severe cough and fever.
o Bacterial Meningitis: symptoms include headache, neck stiffness, and sensitivity
to light.
 Airborne Bacterial Diseases (Lower Respiratory Tract):
o Tuberculosis (TB): symptoms include chronic cough, chest pain, and high fever.
o "Typical" Bacterial Pneumonia: symptoms include chest pain, cough, and rust-
colored sputum.
o "Atypical" Bacterial Pneumonia: symptoms include fever, dry cough, and
diarrhea.
 Foodborne and Waterborne Bacterial Diseases:
o Botulism: symptoms include blurred vision, difficulty swallowing, and breathing.
o Salmonella Typhi: symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, and rose spots.
o Vibrio Cholerae: symptoms include watery diarrhea and vomiting.
 o E. coli: various forms of gastroenteritis with diarrhea and complications.
o Helicobacter Pylori: responsible for most gastric ulcers.
 Soilborne and Arthropodborne Bacterial Diseases:
o Anthrax: symptoms vary depending on contact with spores.
o Clostridium Tetani: symptoms include muscle stiffness and convulsive
contractions.
o Leptospirosis: symptoms include flu-like symptoms, systemic infection possible.
 Sexually Transmitted, Contact, and Miscellaneous Bacterial Diseases:
o Syphilis: primary, secondary, and tertiary stages with various symptoms.
o Gonorrhea: symptoms vary in males and females, can be transmitted to
newborns.

Viruses:

 Studying viruses became easier in the 1940s with the advent of the electron microscope
and innovative cultivation methods.
 All viruses contain nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein capsid.
 Viruses can have helical, icosahedral, or complex symmetry.
 Viral replication involves the virus entering a cell, releasing its genetic code, converting
the code to proteins, assembling viral parts, and replicating. Remdesivir can block viral
replication.

Viral Infections of the Upper Respiratory Tract:

1. Influenza: Caused by different orthomyxoviruses (types A, B, and C). Influenza can be

prevented with yearly vaccination and treated with antiviral drugs.
2. SARS: An emerging viral disease caused by a coronavirus, spread through person-to-
person contact. Symptoms include fever, headache, cough, and difficulty breathing.
3. Herpes Simplex: Common viral diseases causing cold sores (HSV-1) and genital herpes
(HSV-2). Antiviral drugs are available for treatment.
4. Varicella-Zoster: Causes chickenpox (highly contagious) and shingles. Acyclovir is used
to alleviate symptoms.
5. Measles: Symptoms include cough, sneezing, fever, and rash. Koplik spots are common.
6. Mumps: Causes swollen salivary glands, and complications can include testicular
swelling (orchitis).
7. Polio: Affects the nervous tissue, leading to paralysis and muscle atrophy. Polio vaccine
has eradicated the disease in most parts of the world.

Fungi:

 Fungi can be single-celled or complex multicellular organisms and are commonly found
in soil or on plant material.
 Types of fungi include multicellular filamentous molds, macroscopic filamentous fungi
(mushrooms), and single-celled microscopic yeasts.

Fungal Diseases in Humans:

 1. Fungal Nail Infections (onychomycosis): Common infections affecting fingernails or
toenails, causing discoloration, thickening, and fragility.
2. Ringworm (tinea): Causes a circular rash, itching, and red, scaly, cracked skin. It can
affect various parts of the body.
3. Candidiasis: Infections caused by Candida yeast. Vaginal candidiasis causes itching,
pain, and abnormal discharge. Candidiasis can also affect the mouth, throat (thrush), and
esophagus.

DEFENSE MECHANISM

I. Host Defense Mechanism:

 The body's protective measures against pathogens.

 Consists of three lines of defense.

II. Nonspecific Host Defense Mechanisms:

 General defense mechanisms that protect against various harmful substances.

 Includes innate resistance observed in certain species and individuals.

III. First Line of Defense:

A. Skin and Mucous Membranes:

- Physical barriers that prevent pathogen entry.

- Skin has epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis layers.

- Mucous membranes serve as a mechanical barrier.

- Sticky mucus produced by goblet cells traps pathogens.

B. Chemical Defenses:

- Chemical mediators inhibit microbial invaders.

- Found in body fluids and tissues.

- Examples: sebum, oleic acid, saliva, urine acidity, lactate, cerumen.

C. Microbial Antagonism:

- Resident microbes prevent colonization by new pathogens.

- Factors: competition for sites and nutrients, production of bactericidal substances.

IV. Second Line of Defense:

A. Transferin: Sequesters iron, depriving pathogens of this essential nutrient.

B. Interferons: Antiviral proteins that inhibit viral replication in surrounding cells.

C. Fever: Systemic increase in body temperature that inhibits bacterial growth.

D. Complement System:

- Biochemical cascade that clears pathogens from the body.

- Composed of plasma proteins.

E. Cytokines: Chemical messengers within the immune system and other body systems.

F. Phagocytes: Neutrophils and macrophages eliminate microbes.

G. Inflammation:

- Localized tissue response to injury or pathogens.

- Recruits cellular defenses and initiates repair mechanisms.

- Acute inflammation and chronic inflammation.

V. Specific Defense Mechanism:

 Study of the immune system and immune responses (immunology).

 Adaptive immunity targets specific pathogens and has memory.
 Involves B cells and T cells.

VI. Two Major Arms of the Immune System:

1. Humoral Immunity:
o Involves B cells and antibody production.
o Leads to immunity against specific pathogens.
2. Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI):
o Targets and destroys intracellular pathogens.
o Involves various cell types, including macrophages, T cells, and natural killer
cells.

VII. Antigens:

 Foreign molecules that stimulate antibody production.

 Belong to various molecular classes.
  More complex molecules are more effective antigens.

VIII. Antibodies:

 Produced by plasma cells in response to antigens.

 Glycoproteins present in blood and tissue fluids.

IX. Immunity:

 Resistance or protection against infectious diseases.

X. Classifications of Adaptive Immunity:

1. Active Immunity:
o Antibodies produced within the body.
o Natural or artificial acquisition.
2. Passive Immunity:
o Antibodies received from another person or animal.
o Natural or artificial acquisition.

VACCINATION

Vaccination is a crucial method of preventing infectious diseases. It has evolved over time,
starting with variolation in the tenth century and later the development of vaccination by Edward
Jenner.

A. Variolation and Vaccination

- Variolation: Deliberate inoculation with smallpox scabs or pustules.

- Edward Jenner: Developed modern vaccination using cowpox.

B. Classes of Vaccines

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines

- Goal: Establish subclinical infection for adaptive immune response.

- Examples: Chickenpox, measles, tuberculosis.

- Advantages: Cellular and humoral immunity, long-lasting immunity.

- Disadvantages: Difficult to store/transport, risk for immunocompromised.

2. Inactivated Vaccines
- Pathogens killed/inactivated with heat, chemicals, or radiation.

- Examples: Cholera, influenza, rabies.

- Advantages: Ease of storage/transport, no risk of severe active infection.

- Disadvantages: Weaker immunity (humoral only), more doses/boosters.

3. Subunit Vaccines

- Expose patients to key antigens, not whole cells/viruses.

- Examples: Hepatitis B, influenza, meningitis.

- Advantages: Lower risk of side effects.

- Disadvantages: Multiple doses required, no protection against antigenic variation.

4. Toxoid Vaccines

- Contain inactivated bacterial toxins (toxoids).

- Examples: Diphtheria, tetanus.

- Advantages: Humoral immunity to neutralized toxin.

- Disadvantages: Does not prevent infection.

5. Conjugate Vaccines

- Consist of protein conjugated to polysaccharide capsule.

- Examples: Meningitis.

- Advantages: T-dependent response, better response in young children.

- Disadvantages: Costly to produce, no protection against antigenic variation.

6. DNA Vaccines

- Use genes to instruct cells to produce antigens.

- Potential for more effective treatments against pathogens.

 BIOCHEMISTRY

BIOMOLECULES:

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Nucleic Acids

MONOMER – Building blocks:

 Large substances made up of smaller units called monomers.

CARBOHYDRATES – HYDRATES OF CARBON:

 Stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule.

 The term "carbohydrate" originates from "carbon" ("carbo") and the components of water
("hydrate").
 Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules in nature.
 They are now defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

THREE CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES:

1. MONOSACCHARIDES:
o Monomers of carbohydrates.
o Monosaccharides are the base units of all carbohydrate molecules.
o They are white, crystalline solids that contain a single aldehyde or ketone
functional group.
o Subdivided into aldoses and ketoses based on whether they are aldehydes or
ketones.
o Also known as "simple sugars."
o Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix "-ose."
o Aldoses have an aldehyde group (R-CHO) while ketoses have a ketone group
(RC(=O)R').

CHARACTERISTICS:

o Soluble in water.
o Classified as triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, or heptose based on the number of
carbon atoms. 3-7

Examples:

o Glucose: Important monosaccharide and a major source of calories. Can cross the
blood-brain barrier to nourish the brain.
o Galactose: Known as milk sugar.
 o Fructose: Fruit sugar is commonly found in honey, fruits, and vegetables.

ISOMERS AND EPIMERS:

oIsomers: Compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures.
oExamples: Fructose, Glucose, Mannose, Galactose.
oEpimers: Carbohydrate isomers that differ in configuration around only one
specific carbon atom (chiral center).
o Examples: Glucose and galactose (C-4 epimer), Glucose and mannose (C-2
epimer).
2. DISACCHARIDES:
o Consist of two monosaccharides joined together.
o Formed when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction.

CHARACTERISTICS:

o
Soluble in water.
o
A glycosidic bond forms between any hydroxyl group on the monosaccharide.
o
Examples:
 Sucrose: Glucose + fructose (table sugar).
 Lactose: Galactose + glucose (found in milk of mammals).
 Maltose: Glucose + glucose (malt sugar).
3. POLYSACCHARIDES:
o Sugar polymers containing more than 20 monosaccharide units.
o Some have hundreds or thousands of units.
o Most abundant carbohydrates in food.
o Long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds.
o Classified as homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.

STARCHES:

 Stored form of sugars in plants.

 Made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin.
 Important source of calories found in foods like rice, potatoes, wheat, and maize.
 Sugar molecules that human intestinal enzymes can break down.
 Not sweet (don't activate taste buds like simple sugars).

a. AMYLOSE:

o Starch formed by unbranched chains of glucose monomers (𝛼 1-4 linkages).

o Poorly soluble in water and slowly digestible.

b. AMYLOPECTIN:

o Branched polysaccharide (𝛼 1-4 linkages and 𝛼 1-6 linkages at the branch points).
o More soluble in water and more easily digestible than amylose.
DIETARY FIBERS:

 Carbohydrates that intestinal enzymes cannot break down.

 Non-digestible.
 Have molecules that resist human enzymes.
 Critical for slowing down absorption of simple sugars and helping regulate blood glucose
levels.

GLYCOGEN:

 Storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates.

 Made up of glucose monomers.
 Glycogen is broken down into glucose through glycogenolysis when blood glucose levels
decrease.
 Stored in the liver and muscle cells.

CELLULOSE:

 Most abundant natural biopolymer.

 Cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose, providing structural support.
 Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
 Made up of glucose monomers linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds.

Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body:

 Provide energy through cellular respiration and the production of ATP.

 Store energy for future use.
 Promote good digestive health and reduce the risk of digestive tract diseases.

Functions of Carbohydrates in Animals:

 Insects have an exoskeleton made of chitin, a type of polysaccharide.

LIPIDS:

General Characteristics:

 Essential components of all living organisms.

 Water-insoluble organic compounds.
 Hydrophobic or amphipathic (containing both nonpolar and polar regions).

Functions:

 Cells store long-term energy in the form of fats.

 Provide insulation for plants and animals.
 Act as building blocks for hormones and cellular membranes.
Variety of Forms/Structures and Functions:

1. Fats and Oils:

 Consist of glycerol and fatty acids.

 Fatty acids have hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group.
 Saturated fats have no double bonds, while unsaturated fats have one or more double
bonds.
 Trans fatty acids have a negative impact on cholesterol levels.

2. Waxes:

 Cover feathers of aquatic birds and leaf surfaces of some plants.

 Prevent water from sticking to surfaces due to their hydrophobic nature.

3. Triglycerides:

 Simplest lipids made from fatty acids.

 Non-polar, hydrophobic molecules.
 Provide stored energy and insulation.

4. Phospholipids:

 Major constituents of cell membranes.

 Composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone.
 Form micelles that shield hydrophobic regions.

5. Steroids:

 Lipids with a C skeleton consisting of fused rings.

 Hydrophobic and insoluble in water.

6. Pigments:

 Lipids with conjugated double bonds that absorb visible light.

 Act as light-capturing pigments in vision and photosynthesis.

Protein:

Characteristics and Functions:

 Polymers of amino acids.

 Versatile macromolecules with crucial functions in biological processes.
 Act as catalysts, transporters, structural components, hormones, and more.

Common Types of Proteins:

  Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical reactions.
 Hormones: Regulate physiological processes.

AMINO ACIDS:

 Building blocks of proteins

 Consist of a central carbon atom (α carbon) bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl
group (COOH), and a hydrogen atom
 The identity of an amino acid is determined by its R group, which is bonded to the central
atom
 Amino acids can exist as zwitterions, molecules with both negative and positive charges
 Amino acids exhibit optical activity due to their chiral center, except for glycine which is
achiral
 Amino acids are amphoteric (can act as both acids and bases)
 There are 20 known amino acids, which naturally occur in the L form

20 AMINO ACIDS:

AMINO ACID | THREE-LETTER ABBREVIATION |

ONE-LETTER ABBREVIATION

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS:

 10 amino acids that are not synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet
 Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp, and Val
 All can be found in dairy products

NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS:

  Amino acids that can be synthesized in the body and are not essential in the diet

PEPTIDE BOND:

 Formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction (condensation reaction)

 Covalent bond between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another amino acid
 Formation of a peptide bond releases a molecule of water
 Linked amino acids form peptides

NAMING PEPTIDES:

 Peptides are named using the names of all amino acids in the peptide, with an "-yl"
ending for the name
 The full amino acid name is used for the amino acid at the terminal C
 Peptides can also be named using three-letter code abbreviations or one-letter code
abbreviations
 Longer peptides, such as proteins, can be named using the one-letter code

LEVELS OF STRUCTURE IN PROTEINS:

1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE:

 Describes the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

 Includes peptide bonds and any disulfide bonds

2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE:

 Folding of the polypeptide backbone into periodic structures

 Stabilized by hydrogen bonding
 Two types of folding: alpha (α) helix and beta (β) pleated sheets
o Alpha helix: coiled structure with hydrogen bonds between N-H and C=O groups
o Beta pleated sheet: folded structure with hydrogen bonds between amide groups

3. TERTIARY STRUCTURE:

 Overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide

 Stabilized by interactions between R groups (hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonding,
hydrogen bonding, disulfide linkages)

4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE:

 Interactions of subunits in an oligomeric protein

 Stabilized by covalent and non-covalent bonds (interchain)
 Various interactions include hydrogen bonding, disulfide bridges, and salt bridges
SHAPES OF PROTEINS:

1. FIBROUS PROTEINS:

 Long, rod-like proteins forming fibers

 Insoluble in water
 Examples: alpha-keratin, collagen, elastin, silk fibroin

2. GLOBULAR PROTEINS:

 Spherical proteins
 Soluble in water
 Functions include enzymes, hormones, membrane transporters and receptors,
immunoglobulins, and storage proteins

3. MYOGLOBIN:

 Found in high concentration in skeletal and cardiac muscles

 Responsible for the red color in muscles
 Functions as an oxygen reservoir in muscle cells

NUCLEIC ACIDS

DISCOVERIES:

 Frederic Miesher in 1869 isolated an acidic compound from the nuclear material of
salmon sperms, named it nuclein (now nucleic acid).
 In 1953, J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick proposed the double helical structure of DNA
and the central dogma of molecular genetics.
 Oswald T. Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty provided evidence that DNA
carries genetic information in 1944.

NUCLEIC ACID:

 Molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction.

 Two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 DNA carries genetic information, RNA is involved in protein synthesis.
 DNA remains in the nucleus, while RNA leaves the nucleus.

NUCLEOTIDES:

 Monomers of DNA and RNA.

 Composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
 Nitrogenous bases: purines (adenine, guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine,
uracil).
 Nucleoside: nitrogenous base + ribose or deoxyribose sugar.
  Nucleotide: nucleoside + phosphate group.

PENTOSE SUGARS:

 Ribonucleic acid (RNA) contains ribose.

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains deoxyribose.
 Sugars numbered with primes to distinguish them from nitrogen bases.

PHOSPHATE GROUPS:

 Additional phosphate groups can be added to nucleoside monophosphates to form

diphosphates and triphosphates.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a major energy source for cellular activity.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE:

 Nucleotide sequence is the primary structure of nucleic acids.

 Nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds.
 Phosphate residue attached to the 5' carbon of one sugar and the 3' carbon of the next
nucleotide.

SECONDARY STRUCTURE: DNA DOUBLE HELIX:

 DNA is an antiparallel double helix with a sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside and
nitrogenous bases on the inside.
 Base pairs (A-T, G-C) held together by hydrogen bonds.
 DNA strands run in opposite directions.

MAJOR TYPES OF RNA

1. messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries the message from DNA, which controls all of the
cellular activities in a cell.
2. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – major constituent of ribosomes on which the mRNA binds.

3. transfer RNA (tRNA) - carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis.
4. microRNA (miRNA) – interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages.

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA):

 More abundant than DNA.

 Involved in protein synthesis.
 Single-stranded and composed of ribonucleotides.
 Types: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
microRNA (miRNA).

MESSENGER RNA (mRNA):

  Carries genetic information from DNA to direct cellular activities.
 Complementary to DNA coding sequence.
 Interacts with ribosomes to synthesize proteins.
 Read in sets of three bases (codons) that code for amino acids.

RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA):

 Ensures proper alignment of mRNA and ribosomes.

 Catalyzes peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:

 Nucleic acids aid in gut repair, cellular growth, immune system strengthening, muscle
growth, neutralization of toxins, and regular cellular metabolism.
 They also assist antioxidants in reducing damage from oxidative stress.