LECTURE 1

OVERVIEW & GROSS ANATOMY

CELLS, EMBRYOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT,
& THE BASIC BODY PLAN

OTR 512 – Human Anatomy

Julie Werner, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

An Overview of Anatomy (1 of 3)
Anatomy
• The study of the structure of the human body
Physiology
• The study of body function

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

An Overview of Anatomy (2 of 3)
Subdisciplines of anatomy
• Gross anatomy
• Regional anatomy
• Systemic anatomy
• Surface anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy (histology)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

An Overview of Anatomy (3 of 3)
Other branches of anatomy
• Developmental anatomy
• Embryology
• Pathological anatomy (pathology)
• Radiographic anatomy
• Functional morphology

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Hierarchy of Structural Organization (1 of 2)
Chemical level
• Atoms form
molecules
Cellular level
• Cells and their
functional subunits
Tissue level
• A group of cells
performing a
common function

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Hierarchy of Structural Organization (2 of 2)
Organ level
• A discrete structure
made up of more
than one tissue
Organ system level
• Organs working
together for a
common purpose
Organismal level
• The result of all
simpler levels
working in unison

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Body’s Organ Systems and Their Major Functions

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Integumentary System Hair

Skin Nails
Forms external body covering
Protects deeper tissues from injury
Synthesizes vitamin D
Site of cutaneous receptors
• (Pain, pressure, etc.) and
sweat and oil glands

Integumentary System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs
Provides a framework for muscles
Blood cells formed within bones
Stores minerals Bones

Joint

Skeletal System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Skeletal
muscles

Muscular System
Allows manipulation of environment
Locomotion
Facial expression
Maintains posture
Produces heat

Muscular System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Brain
Nervous System
Fast-acting control system
Responds to internal and external changes
Activates muscles and glands

Nerves
Spinal
cord

Nervous System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Pineal gland

Endocrine System Pituitary

Thyroid gland
gland
Glands secrete hormones that regulate: Thymus
• Growth
Adrenal
• Reproduction gland
• Nutrient use Pancreas

Testis

Ovary

Endocrine System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Cardiovascular System
Heart
Blood vessels transport blood
• Blood carries oxygen and carbon
dioxide
• It also carries nutrients and
wastes
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels

Blood
vessels

Cardiovascular System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Red bone
marrow
Lymphatic System/Immunity Thymus

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels Lymphatic

vessels
Returns fluid to blood Thoracic
duct
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic
system
Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) Spleen

Mounts attack against foreign substances

in the body
Lymph
nodes

Lymphatic System/Immunity

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Nasal
cavity
Respiratory System Pharynx

Larynx Bronchus
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Trachea
Removes carbon dioxide
Lung
Gas exchange occurs through walls of
air sacs in the lungs

Respiratory System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Oral cavity

Digestive System Esophagus

Breaks down food into absorbable units

Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus

Digestive System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Kidney
Regulates water, electrolyte, and
Ureter
acid-base balance of the blood

Urinary
bladder
Urethra

Urinary System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Overall function is to produce
offspring Mammary
Testes produce sperm and male glands (in
breasts)
sex hormones
Male ducts and glands aid in Prostate
gland
delivery of sperm to the female
reproductive tract Ovary
Penis
Ovaries produce eggs and female
Ductus
sex hormones Testis
deferens
Uterine
Scrotum Uterus
Female structures serve as sites tube
Vagina
for fertilization and development
of the fetus
Mammary glands produce milk Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Units of Measurement
System of measurement in anatomy is the metric system

Length: Volume: Mass:

• Meter • Liter • Kilogram
• Most adults are 1.5 to 2 • About 2.2 pounds
meters in height • Milliliter
• Centimeter • 1 thousandth of a liter • Gram
• 1 hundredth of a meter, • 1 thousandth of a
measurement of organs kilogram
• Micrometer
• 1 millionth of a meter,
measurement of cells

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Anatomical Axial region

Terminology Cephalic (head)

Frontal
Orbital
Cephalic
Otic
Occipital (back
Nasal of head)
Oral Upper limb Upper limb
Mental Acromial Acromial Cervical

Based on ancient Cervical (neck)

Thoracic
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Antebrachial Back (dorsal)
Greek or Latin
Antebrachial
Sternal (forearm) (forearm) Scapular
Axillary
Carpal (wrist)
Mammary Vertebral
Appendicular
Provides standard Abdominal
Umbilical
region Lumbar
Manus (hand) Manus (hand)
nomenclature Pelvic
Inguinal
Pollex
Palmar
Metacarpal
Digital
Sacral

worldwide (groin) Gluteal

Digital
Perineal
Lower limb (between anus
and external
Coxal (hip) genitalia)
Lower limb
Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural (leg)
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal
Fibular or peroneal
Thorax
Pedal (foot) Pedal (foot) Abdomen
Thorax
Tarsal (ankle) Calcaneal Back (Dorsum)
Abdomen Metatarsal Plantar
Back (Dorsum) Digital
Hallux

Posterior/Dorsal
Anterior/Ventral

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Gross Anatomy—An Introduction (1 of 2)
Regional and directional terms
• Anatomical position—a common
visual reference point
• Person stands erect with feet
together and eyes forward
• Palms face anteriorly with the
thumbs pointed away from the
body

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Gross Anatomy—An Introduction (2 of 2)
Regional terms
• Axial region
• Axis of body—head,
neck, and trunk
• Appendicular region
• Appendages
Standard directional terms
• Are used by professionals Axial region Appendicular
to describe location of one Thorax
region

body part in relation to Abdomen

Back (Dorsum)
another
Anterior/Ventral Posterior/Dorsal

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Regional and Directional Terms
Directional terms are used to explain precise location of body structure in relation to
another body structure

Terms are paired with opposite

• Superior/inferior
• Anterior (ventral)/posterior (dorsal)
• Medial/lateral
• Superficial/deep

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Orientation and
Directional
Terms
(1 of 2)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Orientation and
Directional
Terms (2 of 2)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Body Planes and Sections (1 of 2)
(a) Sagittal planes
• Extend vertically
• Divide the body into right and left parts
• Median (midsagittal) plane
• Sagittal plane that runs along the midline
• Parasagittal planes
• A sagittal plane offset from the midline
(b) Frontal (coronal) planes
• Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and posterior parts
(c) Transverse planes
• Runs horizontally and divides body into superior and inferior parts

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Body Planes and Sections (2 of 2)

Median (midsagittal) plane Frontal (coronal) plane Transverse plane

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Human Spinal
cord
Notochord Muscle segments
(myotomes)
Brain

Body Plan Brain

Pharynx
Muscle

Tube-within-a-tube Pharyngeal
pouches
Heart
Digestive tube segments
(muscles
between

Bilateral symmetry Generalized vertebrate ribs)

Spinal
cord
Lung
Dorsal hollow nerve cord Pharyngeal
pouches
bud
Spinal
Heart
Vertebrae
cord
Notochord and vertebrae Notochord Disc
between
vertebrae
Segmentation Muscle Digestive
tube
segments

Pharyngeal pouches (myotomes)

Brain Heart Digestive tube

Adult human
Human embryo; 5 weeks post-conception Inner tube
Dorsal hollow nerve tube
Segmented outer tube
Notochord

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Dorsal body cavity

Body Cavities and Cranial

Ventral body cavity

Membranes (1 of 5) cavity
(contains
brain)

Dorsal body cavity Dorsal

body
• Cranial cavity cavity

• Vertebral cavity
Vertebral
cavity
(contains
spinal
cord)

Lateral view

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Body Cavities and
Membranes (2 of 5) Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity

Ventral body cavity

• Thoracic cavity—divided Thoracic
cavity
Superior
mediastinum
Thoracic
cavity

into three parts (contains

heart and
Pleural
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs) Pericardial lungs)
• Two lateral parts, cavity within
the mediastinum

each containing a Diaphragm Diaphragm

lung surrounded by
a pleural cavity
• Mediastinum—contains
the heart surrounded by Anterior view Lateral view

the pericardial cavity

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Body Cavities and Dorsal body cavity

Membranes (3 of 5) Ventral body cavity

Ventral body cavity

Abdominopelvic cavity—
divided into two parts
• Abdominal cavity—
contains the liver,
Diaphragm Diaphragm
stomach, kidneys, and Abdomino- Abdominal cavity
Abdominal cavity
other organs (contains digestive pelvic
cavity
(contains digestive
viscera) viscera)
• Pelvic cavity—contains Pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary (contains urinary
the bladder, some bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
reproductive organs, and Anterior view Lateral view

rectum

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Body Cavities and Lung Lung Ribs

Parietal pleura
Heart
Ribs Heart

Membranes (4 of 5)
Parietal pleura Parietal
pericardium
Pleural cavity Pericardial
Pleural cavity
with serous fluid cavity with
with serous fluid
serous fluid
Visceral pleura
Visceral pleura Visceral
Serous cavities—a slitlike space Diaphragm
Diaphragm
pericardium

lined by a serous membrane Serosae associated with the heart:

Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura
Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura
pericardium Serosae associated
o Pleura, pericardium, and pericardium

peritoneum
• Parietal serosa Anterior Visceral
peritoneum
Anterior Visceral
peritoneum
• Outer wall of the Liver Peritoneal Outer balloon wall
cavity (with Peritoneal(comparable to parietal serosa Outer ba
cavity
Liver
serous fluid) cavity (with (compar
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
serous fluid)
Stomach
Air (com
• Visceral serosa
Parietal Stomach Inner balloon wall
peritoneum Parietal Kidney (comparable to visceral serosa)Inner ba
peritoneum (retroperitoneal) Kidney (compar
• Covers the visceral Posterior
Wall of
body trunk
(retroperitoneal)
Wall of
Posterior
organs Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera:
peritoneum
Model of the
body serous membranes and
trunk
serous cavity
Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera: Model of the serous
peritoneum serous cavity

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Body Cavities and Membranes (5 of 5)
Serous membranes
• Reduce friction so that viscera move
freely
Outer balloon wall
Serous fluid (comparable to parietal serosa

• Produced by both layers of the Air (comparable to serous cavity)

serous membranes Inner balloon wall

(comparable to visceral serosa)

Model of the serous membranes and serous cavity

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Abdominal Quadrants
Abdominal quadrants
divide the abdomen
into four quadrants
• Right upper and left
upper quadrants Liver Diaphragm
Spleen

• Right lower and left Right upper Left upper

Gallbladder Stomach

Transverse colon
lower quadrants quadrant quadrant Ascending colon
of large intestine of large intestine
(RUQ) (LUQ)
Small intestine Descending colon
of large intestine
Right lower Left lower Cecum Initial part of
quadrant quadrant sigmoid colon
(RLQ) (LLQ) Appendix
Urinary bladder

The four abdominopelvic quadrants Anterior view of the four quadrants showing the
superficial organs

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Overview of Cells (1 of 4)
Several important scientists made discoveries about cells
• Robert Hooke
• First observed plant cells with a crude microscope (1600s)
• Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
• Asserted that all living things are made of cells (1830s)
• Rudolf Virchow
• Cells arise only from other cells (1855)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Overview of Cells (2 of 4)
Cells are the smallest living units in the body
• Obtain nutrients
• Make molecules needed to survive
• Dispose of wastes
• Maintain their shape
• Replicate itself

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Overview of Cells
(3 of 4) Chromatin Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Organelles Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic
• Subunits of cells reticulum membrane

with specific Cytosol

functions Mitochondrion
Lysosome
• Most cells contain Centrioles Rough
the same basic Centrosome
endoplasmic
reticulum
organelles matrix
Ribosomes
o Not all cells Golgi apparatus
have all Cytoskeletal Secretion being
organelles in elements released from
the same Microtubule cell by exocytosis

abundance Intermediate
filaments Peroxisome

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Overview of Cells
(4 of 4) Chromatin Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Cells have three main Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic
components Cytoplasm reticulum membrane
(contains cytosol
• Plasma membrane— fluid & organelles)
Mitochondrion
the outer boundary Lysosome
Centrioles Rough
• Cytoplasm—contains Centrosome
endoplasmic
reticulum
most organelles matrix
Ribosomes
• Nucleus—controls Golgi apparatus
cellular activities Cytoskeletal Secretion being
elements released from
Microtubule cell by exocytosis
Intermediate
filaments Peroxisome

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Developmental Aspects of Cells
Specialized functions Erythrocytes

of cells relate to: Fibroblasts

• Shape of cell
Skeletal
muscle Smooth
cell muscle cells

• Arrangement of Epithelial cells

Cells that connect body parts, Cells that move organs and body parts
organelles form linings, or transport gases

Macrophage
Fat cell

Cell that stores nutrients

Cell that fights disease

Nerve cell

Sperm
Cell that gathers information Cell of reproduction
and controls body functions

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Cellular Diversity (1 of 5)
Cells that connect body parts or cover organs
• Fibroblast—makes and secretes
protein component of fibers Erythrocytes

• Epithelial cell—the shape allows Fibroblasts

maximum number of epithelial cells to

pack together
• Erythrocyte—concave shape provides Epithelial cells

surface area for uptake of the

Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport
respiratory gases gases

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Cellular Diversity (2 of 5)
Cells that move organs and body parts
• Skeletal and smooth muscle cells
• Elongated and filled with actin and myosin
• Shorten forcefully

Skeletal
muscle
Smooth
cell
muscle cells

Cells that move organs and body parts

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Cellular Diversity (3 of 5)
Cells that store nutrients Cells that fight disease
• Fat cell—shape is produced by • Macrophage—moves through
large fat droplet in its cytoplasm tissue to reach infection sites

Macrophage
Fat cell

Cell that stores nutrients

Cell that fights disease

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Cellular Diversity (4 of 5)
Cells that gather information
• Neuron—has long processes for receiving and transmitting messages

Nerve cell

Cell that gathers information

and controls body functions

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Cellular Diversity (5 of 5)
Cells of reproduction
• Sperm (male)—possesses long tail for swimming to the egg for fertilization

Sperm

Cell of reproduction

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Aging
Aging—a complex process caused by a variety of factors
• Free radical theory
• Damage from by-products of cellular metabolism
• Radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells
• Mitochondrial theory
• A decrease in production of energy by mitochondria weakens and ages our
cells
• Genetic theory proposes that aging is programmed by genes
• Telomeres—structures that limit the maximum number of times cells can
divide
• Telomerase—prevents telomeres from degrading

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Stages of Prenatal Development
Embryology—study of the origin and development of a single
individual
Prenatal period
• Embryonic period—first 8 weeks
• Fetal period—remaining 30 weeks
Embryo
Fertilization

1-week 3-week 5-week embryo

conceptus embryo (10 mm) 8-week embryo
(3 mm) (22 mm)
12-week fetus
Embryonic period (90 mm)
Fetal period 38
Duration: First 8 weeks postfertilization weeks
Duration: Weeks 9-38 (or birth)
Major events: Organs form from three primary germ layers. Major events: Organs grow in size and complexity.
The basic body plan emerges.

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Basic Body Plan
• Skin—dermis and
epidermis
• Outer body wall—
trunk muscles, ribs,
Ectoderm

Skin Mesoderm

vertebrae
Dorsal Spinal
Epidermis cord Endoderm
Dermis

• Body cavity and View

Inner tube
Vertebral
column
digestive tube (inner Lining of
digestive Kidney
Skin

tube) tube
Rib
Bone

Muscle
Muscle of
• Kidneys and digestive
tube Limb
gonads—deep to Visceral
serosa
Outer body wall
Trunk muscles
body wall Peritoneal
cavity
Trunk
Parietal serosa

• Limbs

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 The Embryonic Period (1 of 2)
Day 1: Zygote Day 2: Day 3: Morula Day 4: Early blastocyst
(fertilized egg) 4-cell stage (a solid ball of cells) (morula hollows out

Week 1—from zygote to blastocyst

and fills with fluid)

Day 7:

• Fertilization—in lateral third of uterine

Implanting blastocyst
(consists of a sphere of tropho-
Sperm Blastocyst blast cells and an eccentric

tube Uterine cavity cell cluster called the

tube inner cell mass)

• Zygote (fertilized oocyte) moves

Fertilization
(sperm
meets and

toward the uterus Oocyte

enters egg) Ovary

(egg)

• Cleavage—daughter cells formed Uterus

Trophoblast
Blastocyst

from zygote Ovulation

Endometrium
cavity
Inner cell
mass

• Morula—solid cluster of 12–16 cells Cavity of

uterus

• Blastocyst—fluid-filled structure of
~60 cells
• Inner cell mass—forms embryo
• Trophoblast—helps form placenta

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Embryonic Period (2 of 2)
Stages of first week Day 1: Zygote
(fertilized egg)
Day 2:
4-cell stage
Day 3: Morula
(a solid ball of cells)
Day 4: Early blastocyst
(morula hollows out
and fills with fluid)

• Zygote Day 7:
Implanting blastocyst

• Four-cell
(consists of a sphere of tropho-
Sperm Blastocyst blast cells and an eccentric
Uterine cavity cell cluster called the
tube inner cell mass)

• Morula Fertilization
(sperm

• Early blastocyst
meets and
Ovary
enters egg)
Oocyte

• Late blastocyst (implants at

(egg)
Trophoblast
Uterus
this stage)
Blastocyst
Ovulation cavity
Endometrium Inner cell
mass
Cavity of
uterus

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 2—The Two-Layered Embryo
Bilaminar embryonic disc—inner cell mass divided into two sheets
• Epiblast and the hypoblast
• Together they make up the bilaminar embryonic disc
Amniotic sac—formed by an extension of epiblast
• Outer membrane forms the amnion
• Inner membrane forms the amniotic sac cavity
• Filled with amniotic fluid
Yolk sac—formed by an extension of hypoblast
• Digestive tube forms from yolk sac
• Not a major source of nutrients for embryo
• Tissues around yolk sac
• Give rise to earliest blood cells and blood vessels

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Implantation of the Blastocyst During Week 2 of Development
(1 of 3)

Cavity of uterus
Wall
of Day 5: Blastocyst
uterus floats in uterine
cavity.

Day 6: Blastocyst
adheres to uterine
wall.
Trophoblast

Inner cell mass

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Implantation of the Blastocyst During Week 2 of Development
(2 of 3)

Trophoblast
Day 7: Implantation
begins as trophoblast
Inner cell mass invades into uterine
wall.

Trophoblast

Amniotic sac cavity Day 9: Implantation

continues; inner
cell mass forms
Epiblast
bilaminar disc.

Hypoblast

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Implantation of the Blastocyst During Week 2 of Development
(3 of 3)

Layers from trophoblast

Bilaminar
embryonic disc

Amnion Day 11: Implantation

complete; amniotic
sac and yolk sac
Amniotic sac cavity form.

Epiblast
Hypoblast
Yolk sac

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 3—The Three-Layered Embryo (1 of 2)
Primitive streak—raised groove on Amnion
Bilayered

the dorsal surface of the epiblast embryonic disc Head end of bilayered
embryonic disc

Gastrulation—a process of Yolk sac

invagination of epiblast cells Embryo Frontal
section
3-D
view
Section view in (e)

Primitive streak

• Begins at the primitive

Head end

Epiblast
streak
Cut edge Yolk sac
of amnion (cut edge)

Endoderm Hypoblast

• Forms the three primary Left

Primitive
Right Days 14–15: Migrating epiblast cells
displace the hypoblast and form endoderm.

germ layers node Ectoderm

Primitive
streak

Tail end Mesoderm Endoderm

Bilayered embryonic disc, superior view Day 16: Ingressing epiblast cells form
mesoderm between the endoderm and
overlying epiblast. Surface epiblast cells
form ectoderm.

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 3—The Three-Layered Embryo (2 of 2)
Three Germ Layers* Amnion
Bilayered

1. Endoderm—formed from migrating

embryonic disc Head end of bilayered
embryonic disc

cells that replace the hypoblast

Yolk sac

2. Mesoderm—formed between Embryo Frontal

section
3-D
view
Section view in (e)

Primitive streak
epiblast and endoderm Head end

Cut edge Yolk sac Epiblast

3. Ectoderm—formed from epiblast of amnion (cut edge)

Hypoblast
cells that stay on dorsal surface
Endoderm
Left Right Days 14–15: Migrating epiblast cells
displace the hypoblast and form endoderm.
Primitive
node Ectoderm

Primitive
streak

*All layers derive from Tail end Mesoderm Endoderm

Day 16: Ingressing epiblast cells form
epiblast cells Bilayered embryonic disc, superior view
mesoderm between the endoderm and
overlying epiblast. Surface epiblast cells
form ectoderm.

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Amniotic sac Primitive Epiblast cells that migrate through the

The Notochord Plane of section primitive node form the notochord.

Tail Head node
Notochord
Yolk
sac Amnion
Primitive node—a swelling at one Tail
Primitive streak
Head

end of primitive streak Epiblast cells that

migrate through
Ectoderm
Mesoderm Embryonic
primitive streak Endoderm disc
Notochord—defines body axis form the mesoderm
layer.
Yolk sac
• Is formed from
mesodermal cells and a
few endodermal cells
Sections
• Is the site of the future (b) and (c)
Amnion
vertebral column Ectoderm
Notochord
Invaginating
• Appears on day 16 and mesodermal
cells
Mesoderm

reaches head region by Endoderm

Yolk sac

day 18 Section through primitive streak Section anterior to primitive streak

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Neurulation (1 of 3)
Neurulation—ectoderm starts forming brain and spinal cord
• Neural plate—ectoderm in the dorsal midline thickens
• Neural groove—ectoderm folds inward

Amnion
Head
Amniotic cavity
Neural plate
Day 17
Ectoderm Neurulation. The flat
Left Right three-layered embryo has
Mesoderm completed gastrulation.
Cut Primitive
Notochord The ectoderm overlying
edge of streak
the notochord thickens,
amnion forming the neural plate.
Tail Endoderm

Yolk sac

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Neurulation (2 of 3)
Neurulation
• Neural tube—a hollow tube pinches off into the body
• Cranial part of the neural tube becomes the brain
o Maternal folic acid deficiency causes neural tube defects
Day 20
Neurulation. The neural
Neural groove folds form by folding of
Neural Somite the neural plate and then
fold Neural
Neural fold Intermediate deepen, producing the
crest mesoderm neural groove. Neural fold
Neural
groove cells migrate to form the
neural crest.

Mesoderm differentiation.
Lateral plate
Three mesodermal
mesoderm
Somite aggregates form on each side
Somatic of the notochord (somite,
(covered by Primitive mesoderm
ectoderm) intermediate mesoderm, and
streak Coelom
Splanchnic lateral plate mesoderm).
mesoderm Lateral plate mesoderm
splits. Coelom forms between
the two layers.

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Neurulation (3 of 3)
Neural crest
• Cells originate from ectodermal cells
• Forms sensory nerve cells
Induction
• Ability of one group of cells to influence developmental direction of other cells
Day 20
Neurulation. The neural
Neural groove folds form by folding of
Neural Somite
Neural the neural plate and then
fold Neural fold Intermediate
deepen, producing the
Neural crest mesoderm
groove neural groove. Neural fold
cells migrate to form the
neural crest.
Lateral plate
mesoderm
Somite Somatic
(covered by Primitive mesoderm
ectoderm) streak Coelom Splanchnic
mesoderm

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Mesoderm Begins to Differentiate (1 of 2)
Somites
• Mesoderm closest to notochord begins as paraxial mesoderm
• Paraxial mesoderm divides into 40 pairs of blocks called somites
Intermediate mesoderm—begins as a continuous strip of tissue just lateral to the paraxial
mesoderm
• Each segment attached to a somite
Neural groove
Neural Somite
fold Neural Mesoderm differentiation.
Neural fold Intermediate
Three mesodermal
Neural crest mesoderm
groove aggregates form on each side
of the notochord (somite,
Lateral plate intermediate mesoderm, and
mesoderm lateral plate mesoderm).
Somite Somatic Lateral plate mesoderm
(covered by Primitive mesoderm splits. Coelom forms between
ectoderm) streak Coelom the two layers.
Splanchnic
mesoderm

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Mesoderm Begins to Differentiate (2 of 2)
Lateral plate
• The most lateral part of mesoderm
• Remains unsegmented
• Splits into two layers
• Coelom—space between the two sheets
• Two divisions of lateral plate mesoderm
• Somatic mesoderm—next to the ectoderm
• Splanchnic mesoderm—next to the endoderm

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

 Tail Head
Amnion

Week 4—The Body Takes Shape (1 of 5) Yolk sac

Ectoderm
Tail Head Mesoderm Trilaminar
Amnion Endoderm embryonic

The sides of the embryo fold medially

Yolk sac
disc

and the head and tail fold under Ectoderm

Mesoderm
Endoderm
Trilaminar
embryonic Lateral
Future gut
(digestive
tube)
disc fold

• Embryonic disc bulges; growing Future gut Lateral folds

faster than yolk sac
(digestive
Lateral
fold tube)
Somites
Tail (seen

• “Tadpole shape” by day 24 after

Lateral folds
Somites
fold through
ectoderm)
Head

conception
Tail
fold
(seen
through
ectoderm)
fold
Cut edge
of amnion
Head

• Primitive gut—encloses tubular part fold

Cut edge
of amnion
Yolk sac
Cranial and caudal folds

of the yolk sac

Yolk sac Neural
Cranial and caudal folds tube
Somites Notochord
Neural
Lateral Primitive
• Site of future
tube body
Notochord gut
Primitive wall Hindgut Yolk Foregut
Head

digestive tube
gut Heart sac Cut edge
Hindgut Yolk Foregut
Tail of amnion
sac Cut edge Yolk sac 24-day embryo, sagittal section. Note primitive gut lined
and respiratory structures
of amnion
24-day embryo, sagittal section. Note primitive gut lined 23-day embryo, lateral view (20´). Lateral folding with endoderm, notochord, and dorsal hollow nerve cord.
with endoderm, notochord, and dorsal hollow nerve cord. nearing completion

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 4—The Body Takes Shape (2 of 5)
Derivatives of the germ layers
• Ectoderm forms:
• Brain, spinal cord, and epidermis
– Neural crest cells form melanocytes and bones of the face
• Endoderm forms:
• Inner epithelial lining of the gut tube
• Respiratory tubes, digestive organs, and urinary bladder

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 4—The Body Takes Shape (3 of 5)
Mesoderm
• Mesoderm differentiates further and is more complex than the other two layers
• Notochord—gives rise to nucleus pulposus of intervertebral discs

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Week 4—The Body Takes Shape (4 of 5)
Segmented mesoderm
• Somites divide into
• Sclerotome “hard piece”: vertebrae & ribs
• Dermatome “skin piece”
• Myotome “muscle piece”
• Intermediate mesoderm forms
• Kidneys
• Gonads
OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT
Unsegmented mesoderm
• Splanchnic mesoderm forms:
• Musculature, connective
tissues, and serosa of the
digestive and respiratory
structures
• Heart and most blood vessels
• Somatic mesoderm forms:
• Dermis of skin
• Bones
• Ligaments
 Tail Ectoderm
Head

Week 4— Mesoderm
Endoderm
Neural tube

The Body
Dermatome
Somite Myotome (ectoderm)
Sclerotome
Epidermis
Kidney and gonads (ectoderm)

Takes Shape
Somatic
(intermediate Gut lining
Somite mesoderm
mesoderm) (endoderm)
Intermediate Coelom
mesoderm Future gut Splanchnic Somatic
(5 of 5) (digestive mesoderm mesoderm
Limb bud
Notochord tube) Visceral serosa
Lateral fold Smooth muscle Parietal
of gut serosa
Peritoneal cavity Dermis
Yolk Splanchnic
mesoderm (coelom)
sac
Embryo, day 24 Embryo, end of week 4

Skin Spinal
Epidermis cord
Dermis
Vertebral
Inner tube column
Lining of
digestive Kidney
tube Rib
Muscle of
digestive tube
Visceral serosa Outer body wall
Trunk muscles
Peritoneal cavity Trunk
Parietal serosa
Adult

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Major Derivatives of Embryonic Germ Layer
Epiblast

ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM

Notochord Somite Intermediate Lateral plate mesoderm

mesoderm

Somatic mesoderm Splanchnic mesoderm

• Epidermis, hair, nails, Nucleus • Sclerotome: • Kidneys • Parietal serosa • Wall of digestive Epithelial lining
glands of skin pulposus of vertebrae and and respiratory and glands of
intervertebral ribs • Gonads tracts (except digestive and
• Brain and spinal cord discs epithelial lining) respiratory tracts
• Dermatome:
• Neural crest and dermis of dorsal • Visceral serosa
derivatives (e.g., body region
cranial, spinal, and • Heart
sympathetic ganglia • Myotome:
and associated • Blood vessels
trunk and limb
nerves; chromaffin musculature
cells of the adrenal
medulla; pigment
cells of the skin)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Weeks 5–8—The Second Month of Embryonic Development
Limb buds form
Embryo first looks Ear
Pharyngeal
recognizably human (week 8) arches
Eye
Head is disproportionately Heart

Upper limb bud

large Tail
All major organs are in place Lower
limb bud
Somites (soon
to give rise to
myotomes)

A 29-day embryo

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

The Fetal Period
A time of maturation and rapid growth
Cells are differentiating during the first half of the fetal period
Normal births occur 38 weeks after conception
Premature birth is one that occurs before 38 weeks

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Developmental Events of the Fetal Period (1 of 3)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Developmental Events of the Fetal Period (2 of 3)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT

Developmental Events of the Fetal Period (3 of 3)

OTR 512 – JULIE WERNER, PhD, OTR/L, CHT