Outline Five items that constitutes a construction drawing

Construction drawings are essential documents used in the construction industry to provide a detailed
representation of a building or structure that is being constructed. They are typically created by
architects, engineers, and other professionals and include all necessary information for the construction
process. The following are five items that constitute a construction drawing:

Floor Plan: A floor plan is a scale drawing that shows the layout of a building, including walls, doors,
windows, and other features. It is typically viewed from above and is used to understand the spatial
relationships of rooms and other areas.

Elevations: Elevations are drawings that show the exterior view of a building from all sides. These
drawings typically include information about the materials used, the height of the building, and other
details that are important for construction.

Sections: Sections are drawings that show a vertical slice through a building, providing detailed
information about the structural elements and how they fit together. These drawings are important for
understanding the building's internal construction and how different parts of the building connect.

Details: Details are drawings that show specific components or connections within the building, such as
window details, roof connections, and structural elements. These drawings are important for ensuring
that all parts of the building are properly constructed and connected.

Schedules: Schedules are drawings that provide information about specific building components, such
as doors, windows, and fixtures. They typically include information such as sizes, materials, and
installation instructions and are used to ensure that all components are installed correctly.

Define cofferdams and explain FOUR types of caissons foundation

Cofferdams are temporary structures that are constructed in bodies of water or in areas that need to be
kept dry for construction or repair work. They are typically made of steel sheet piling, concrete, or other
materials and are designed to withstand the water pressure and prevent the entry of water into the
construction site.

There are four types of caissons foundation:

Open Caissons: Also known as the "well caissons," they are cylindrical or rectangular structures that are
open at the bottom and sunk to the desired depth by excavating the soil or rock beneath it. Once the
caisson reaches the desired depth, the bottom is closed by placing a layer of concrete, which forms the
foundation.
Box Caissons: These are also known as the "rectangular caissons" and are similar to open caissons, but
they have a closed bottom. They are commonly used in the construction of piers, docks, and other
structures in shallow water.

Pneumatic Caissons: These are closed caissons that are sunk into the ground using compressed air. The
air pressure inside the caisson keeps the water and soil out, allowing workers to excavate the soil or rock
beneath it and place the foundation.

Floating Caissons: These are hollow, watertight structures that are floated into position and then sunk
to the desired depth. They are often used in areas where the soil or rock is too deep to excavate with
traditional methods.

Outline TWO main functions of railway steel rails

The two main functions of railway steel rails are:

Support: Railway steel rails are responsible for supporting the weight of the train and the cargo it
carries. They must be strong enough to withstand the weight of the train and distribute it evenly to
prevent any deformation or damage to the tracks. The rails provide a stable foundation for the train to
travel on, ensuring a smooth and safe ride.

Guiding: The second function of railway steel rails is to guide the train in the right direction. The rails act
as a guide, keeping the train on the track and preventing it from derailing. The rails are designed with a
specific curvature to help the train turn smoothly and safely, allowing it to maintain a consistent speed
and direction of travel. The rails also provide a visual cue to the driver, indicating the direction of travel
and any upcoming obstacles.

Discuss the main railway track components

The main railway track components include the following:

Rails: These are the primary component of railway tracks. They are long, steel bars that are laid end-to-
end along the track bed. Rails provide a smooth and sturdy surface for the wheels of the train to run on.

Sleepers (also known as ties): These are wooden, concrete, or steel beams that are placed horizontally
between the rails to support them. Sleepers provide stability to the track and help to distribute the
weight of the train.

Ballast: This is the layer of crushed rock or gravel that is placed between the sleepers to provide support
and stability to the track. It also helps to distribute the weight of the train and provides drainage for
rainwater.

Fastenings: These are the various bolts, clips, and other mechanisms used to secure the rails to the
sleepers. Fastenings are designed to withstand the forces generated by the passing train and to prevent
the rails from moving or becoming misaligned.
Switches and Crossings: These are components that allow trains to move from one track to another.
They consist of a series of movable rails that can be adjusted to guide the train onto the desired track.

Signaling and Communication Systems: These are the various lights, flags, and other signaling devices
used to communicate with train drivers and ensure the safe operation of trains on the track.

Discuss the implosion methods of building demolition

Building implosion is a controlled demolition technique used to bring down large buildings or structures
by strategically placing explosives within the structure. The process of implosion demolition requires a
great deal of planning and expertise to ensure the safety of people and nearby structures.

There are two main implosion methods used in building demolition:

Controlled Demolition Method: This is the most commonly used implosion method. The process
involves placing explosives in key structural points of the building, such as columns, beams, and walls.
The explosives are then detonated in a specific sequence, causing the building to collapse in on itself.
The aim of this technique is to minimize the amount of debris and dust created during the demolition.

Non-Explosive Implosion Method: This method involves the use of hydraulic or mechanical equipment
to weaken the building's structural integrity. The equipment is used to pull or push the building in a
specific direction, causing it to collapse inward. This method is typically used for smaller structures or
buildings located in areas where the use of explosives is not permitted.

Regardless of the method used, implosion demolition requires careful planning and coordination to
ensure the safety of people and surrounding buildings. Expert demolition teams work closely with
structural engineers and explosives experts to design and execute the demolition process. Safety
precautions are taken to control dust and debris, protect nearby buildings, and evacuate people from
the area before the demolition begins.

Give FIVE basic rules of operating drainage systems

Regular Maintenance: Regular maintenance of the drainage system is essential to ensure that it
operates effectively. This includes cleaning the drains and gutters to remove any debris or blockages
that may hinder the flow of water. It is recommended that this maintenance is carried out at least once
a year.

Proper Installation: Drainage systems must be installed correctly to ensure that they function
effectively. This includes ensuring that the correct materials and equipment are used, and that the
system is installed to the required standards and regulations.

Adequate Capacity: The drainage system must have adequate capacity to handle the volume of water
that it is designed to deal with. If the capacity is insufficient, then the system may become
overwhelmed, leading to flooding and damage.
Proper Disposal: The water that is collected by the drainage system must be disposed of correctly. This
may involve directing it to a sewer system, a treatment plant, or a natural watercourse. It is important to
ensure that the disposal method is appropriate for the type and volume of water being collected.

Monitoring: The drainage system should be monitored regularly to ensure that it is functioning
correctly. This may involve checking for signs of blockages or damage, or using sensors to monitor the
flow of water. Regular monitoring can help to identify problems early and prevent more significant
issues from occurring.

Explain the following terms used in retaining wall

1. Heel

2. Footing key

3. Surcharge
Heel in a retaining wall refers to the portion of the wall that is located at the back of the wall, opposite
the face of the wall that is holding back soil or other materials. The heel helps to distribute the weight of
the wall and the material it is retaining evenly across the foundation and into the ground.

Footing key in a retaining wall is a section of the wall's foundation that extends beyond the face of the
wall and into the soil being retained. This section provides additional stability and resistance to sliding
forces by increasing the frictional resistance between the wall and the soil. The footing key also helps to
prevent the wall from overturning or sliding outward.

Surcharge in retaining wall design refers to any additional load or pressure that is applied to the soil
being retained, beyond the weight of the soil itself. For example, a building or roadway located near a
retaining wall can create a surcharge on the soil, which can increase the lateral pressure on the wall and
reduce its stability. Surcharge loads need to be carefully considered and factored into the design of the
retaining wall to ensure it can withstand the additional pressure and remain stable over time

Describe any THREE types of retaining wall

Retaining walls are structures that are designed to hold back soil and prevent erosion in areas with
significant changes in elevation. Here are three types of retaining walls:

Gravity retaining walls: These walls rely on their own weight and the weight of the soil that they hold
back to remain stable. Gravity retaining walls are often made from heavy materials, such as concrete or
stone, and are typically designed with a broad base and a tapered top to distribute the weight evenly.
These walls are ideal for small to medium heights and can be built quickly and cost-effectively.

Cantilever retaining walls: Cantilever retaining walls are made from reinforced concrete and consist of a
horizontal base slab and a vertical stem. The base slab acts as a lever arm to resist the pressure of the
soil, while the stem provides stability. Cantilever walls are suitable for a range of heights, depending on
the soil conditions and the design of the wall. They are often used in areas where space is limited, as
they require less material than gravity walls.

Sheet pile retaining walls: Sheet pile retaining walls are constructed using interlocking steel, wood or
vinyl sheets that are driven into the ground. The sheets are usually made of steel, wood or vinyl and are
typically between 0.6 and 2.5 meters in width. Sheet pile walls are suitable for situations where the soil
is soft or loose, as they can be driven deeper into the ground to provide greater stability. They are also a
good option where space is limited, as they have a small footprint and can be installed quickly.

Discuss any THREE parties involved in construction team

There are several parties involved in a construction project, each playing a unique role in the
construction team. Here are three of the main parties involved in a typical construction project:

Owner/Client: The owner or client is the entity or individual who initiates the construction project and
pays for it. They hire the construction team and may also hire an architect, engineer, or other
consultants to design the project. The owner is responsible for defining the project's goals, setting the
budget, and making decisions on the design and construction process.

Contractor: The contractor is responsible for the actual construction of the project. They are typically
hired by the owner and are responsible for ensuring that the project is built to the owner's
specifications, on time, and within budget. The contractor is responsible for coordinating the work of
subcontractors, managing the construction schedule, and ensuring that the construction site is safe.

Architect/Designer: The architect or designer is responsible for creating the plans and designs for the
project. They work with the owner to develop a design that meets the owner's needs and requirements
while complying with building codes and other regulations. The architect is responsible for creating
detailed plans and specifications that the contractor will use to build the project. They also help the
owner obtain necessary permits and approvals.

State any TWO factors to consider in design and choice of a particular

foundation

Soil conditions: The type and condition of the soil at the building site is a crucial factor to consider when
designing and choosing a foundation. The foundation must be designed to distribute the weight of the
building evenly over the soil, and to prevent differential settlement or movement of the soil underneath
the foundation. The soil's bearing capacity, depth, and drainage characteristics will determine the type
of foundation that is appropriate for the site.

Building type and load: The type of building and the loads it will bear are important factors in choosing
the appropriate foundation. A larger, heavier building will require a foundation with a higher load-
bearing capacity than a smaller, lighter building. Additionally, the shape and design of the building, as
well as any additional loads, such as wind or seismic loads, will need to be considered when selecting
the appropriate foundation type.

State THREE situations that necessitate the use of pile

Building foundations: Piles are often used to support buildings on soft or weak soils that are unable to
bear the weight of the structure. The piles transfer the load of the building to stronger, more stable soil
or rock layers below.

Bridge construction: Bridges are often built over water, which means that the foundation has to be sunk
deep into the riverbed to provide stability. Piles can be driven into the riverbed to support the bridge
foundation and provide stability.

Retaining walls: Piles can also be used to construct retaining walls, which are used to stabilize slopes
and prevent landslides. The piles are driven into the ground and then connected to a wall structure,
which can then support the weight of the soil and prevent it from sliding down the slope.

State FOUR stability requirements of a retaining wall

A retaining wall is a structure designed to hold back soil or other materials and prevent them from
sliding or eroding. Stability is a critical requirement for retaining walls to ensure they can perform their
intended function safely and effectively. Here are four stability requirements of a retaining wall:

Structural strength: The wall must have sufficient structural strength to resist the lateral forces exerted
by the soil or other materials it is retaining. This involves ensuring that the wall is made of appropriate
materials, such as reinforced concrete, and that it is designed with adequate thickness, reinforcement,
and anchorage to withstand the expected loads.

Proper drainage: Adequate drainage behind the wall is essential to prevent water buildup, which can
increase the pressure on the wall and cause it to fail. The wall must be designed with proper drainage
features, such as weep holes, drainage pipes, or gravel layers, to allow water to flow away from the
backfill.

Proper footing: The wall must have a solid footing or foundation that can support the weight of the wall
and resist the forces exerted by the soil. The foundation must be placed on stable, level ground and
extend below the frost line to prevent frost heave.

Appropriate backfill material: The backfill material used behind the wall must be suitable for the
specific site conditions and must be compacted to the appropriate density. This ensures that the soil
exerts a uniform pressure on the wall and minimizes the risk of settlement or erosion. The backfill
material should also have good drainage properties to prevent water buildup.

Discuss any FOUR pre-drainage methods in site dewatering

Site dewatering is a process used to remove excess water from construction sites, mining operations, or
any other area where water is not wanted. Pre-drainage is one of the methods used in site dewatering,
and it involves removing water from the ground before excavation or construction begins. Here are four
pre-drainage methods used in site dewatering:

Gravity Drainage: This method relies on the natural slope of the site to remove water from the ground.
A series of trenches or drainage channels are dug on the site, and water flows into them by gravity. The
trenches are then connected to a pump, which removes the water from the site.

Wellpoints: This method involves drilling a series of small-diameter wells around the site, typically at a
depth of 1-2 meters. A series of wellpoint filters are installed in the wells, and then a vacuum pump is
connected to the wellpoints to remove water from the surrounding soil.

Horizontal Drainage: In this method, horizontal drains are installed in the soil beneath the site. These
drains are usually made of porous materials, such as geotextile fabrics, and they allow water to flow
through them. A pump is then used to remove the water from the site.

Electro-osmosis: This method involves the use of electrodes installed in the ground, which generate an
electric field. This field causes water to move towards the electrodes, where it can be removed from the
site. Electro-osmosis is typically used in clay soils, which have a low permeability and are difficult to
drain using other methods.

These four pre-drainage methods are commonly used in site dewatering, and the choice of method will
depend on the site conditions, soil types, and the amount of water that needs to be removed.

Define DEWATERING, and additionally, with the aid of sketch diagram, describe
the method of carrying out the following dewatering methods

1. Open excavation by ditch and sump

2. Well points

3. Deep well with submersible pumps

Dewatering is the process of removing groundwater or surface water from a construction site or
underground structure to allow for excavation, construction, or maintenance work to be carried out.

Open excavation by ditch and sump:

This method involves digging a trench or ditch around the perimeter of the excavation site, which is then
filled with gravel or other porous materials. A sump is created at the lowest point of the excavation,
which collects the water and pumps it out using a submersible pump. A sketch diagram for this method
is shown below:
Open excavation by ditch and sump diagram

Well points:

In this method, a series of small-diameter wells are drilled around the perimeter of the excavation site.
These wells are connected to a header pipe that runs the length of the excavation and is connected to a
vacuum pump. The vacuum pump draws water from the surrounding soil, lowering the groundwater
table and allowing for excavation work to proceed. A sketch diagram for this method is shown below:

Well points diagram

Deep well with submersible pumps:

This method involves drilling one or more large-diameter wells into the ground, which are then lined
with a filter fabric and filled with gravel or other porous materials. Submersible pumps are installed at
the bottom of the well, which pump the water to the surface and into a collection tank. A sketch
diagram for this method is shown below:

Deep well with submersible pumps

What is a water front structure and briefly explain 3 types of water front
structure
A waterfront structure is a building or facility constructed at the edge of a body of water, such as a river,
lake, or ocean. These structures serve various purposes, from commercial and industrial use to
recreational and residential use.

Here are three types of waterfront structures:

Wharf: A wharf is a structure that is built along the water's edge and extends out into the water. It is
usually used for loading and unloading ships, as well as for docking boats. Wharfs are typically
constructed of wood or concrete and can be found in both commercial and residential areas.

Pier: A pier is similar to a wharf but is usually smaller and used more for recreation than for commercial
purposes. Piers are often built for fishing or pleasure boating and are usually constructed of wood.
Seawall: A seawall is a structure built along the coastline to protect against erosion caused by waves and
tides. Seawalls are typically made of concrete or stone and are designed to absorb the energy of
incoming waves, reducing their impact on the shoreline. They also help prevent flooding during storms
and high tides

Briefly describe the common materials used for holding walls

The common materials used for holding walls (also known as retaining walls) include:

Concrete: Concrete is a strong and durable material that is often used for holding walls. It can be poured
into different shapes and sizes to suit the needs of the project.

Stone: Natural stone is another popular material for holding walls. It is aesthetically pleasing and can be
laid in various patterns to create a unique look.

Brick: Bricks are a common choice for holding walls due to their strength and durability. They can also
be used to create decorative patterns.

Wood: Wood is a popular material for smaller, decorative holding walls. It can be treated to resist decay
and insects, but is not as durable as other materials.

Gabion: Gabions are wire cages filled with rocks or other materials. They are often used for holding walls
as they are quick and easy to install.

Steel: Steel holding walls are strong and durable, but can be expensive. They are often used for
commercial or industrial projects.

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Building codes requirements for foundation

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Building codes requirements for foundations vary depending on the location, climate, and other factors.
However, some general requirements are:

The foundation should be designed to support the weight of the building and any anticipated loads. This
means that the foundation should be deep and wide enough to distribute the weight of the building
evenly across the soil.

The foundation should be made of durable and stable materials, such as concrete, masonry, or treated
wood.

The foundation should be built on solid ground that can support the weight of the building without
settling or shifting. The soil should be tested to ensure that it has the necessary bearing capacity.

The foundation should be protected from moisture, which can cause damage over time. This can be
done by installing drainage systems and moisture barriers.

The foundation should be built to resist lateral forces, such as wind and earthquakes. This can be
achieved through proper anchoring and bracing.

The foundation should meet any local building codes and regulations, including those related to safety
and environmental concerns.