MODULE 2

PROTOZOA
 

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

Describe each protozoa or group of protozoa of medical importance as to

morphology, life cycle, pathology, laboratory diagnosis, epidemiology, and
prevention and control.

Unit 1: General Characteristics of Protozoa

Unit 2: Phylum Sarcomastigophora: Subphylum Sarcodina
Unit 3: Phylum Sarcomastigophora: Subphylum Mastigophora -
Intestinal and Atrial Flagellates
Unit 4: Phylum Sarcomastigophora: Subphylum Mastigophora -
Blood and Tissue Flagellates
Unit 5: Phylum Ciliophora
Unit 6: Phylum Apicomplexa: Plasmodium species
Unit 7: Phylum Apicomplexa: Intestinal and Tissue Coccidia

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 MODULE 2
PROTOZOA

Unit 1:
General characteristics of Protozoa

Unit Learning Outcomes:

State the general characteristics of protozoa as to:
1. morphology
2. life cycle
3. reproduction
4. transmission, pathology, and diagnosis

Engage

Protozoa is one of the three major groups of parasites that are of medical importance
to man.

Recall the discussion in Module 1, Unit 1 and characterize the protozoa as to:
Kingdom (based on 5-kingdom classification) ________________________________
Cell type ( eukaryotic or prokaryotic) ________________________________
Cell organization (unicellular or multicellular) ________________________________
Nutritional type (autotroph or heterotroph) ________________________________

Explore

The single cell unit that protozoa consists of performs all the functions of life, i.e.,
reproduction, respiration, excretion, etc., that in higher organisms are carried on by
specialized cells. They have remarkable range in size and form, some visible to the
naked eye, while others require magnification up to a thousand fold before they can
be seen. Some are spherical or ovoidal, while others have bizarre contours. Protozoa
are found in all moist habitats. They are common in sea, in soil and in fresh water.

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Protozoa, from the Greek ‘protos’ and ‘zoon’ meaning “first animal”, were historically
regarded as "one-celled animals" because they often possess  animal-like behaviors,
such as motility at some stage of their life cycle.

Most of the protozoa are nonpathogenic but few may cause major diseases. The
succeeding units of this module will describe the three phyla of protozoa of medical
interest in humans.
• Phylum Sarcomastigophora which includes subphylum Sarcodina, and,
subphylum Mastigophora.
• Phylum Ciliophora
• Phylum Apicomplexa

Although, protozoa exhibit marked diversity in size, shape, and other characteristics,
there are fundamental characteristics common to the entire group.

Explain

A. General Morphology of Protozoa

The structure of a protozoan cell is composed

of (1) cytoplasmic body, and (2) a nucleus.
The various life functions are carried out by
specialized intracellular structures known as
organelles.

1. Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of a thin outer

Schematic diagram of a protozoan cell with a vesicular
ectoplasm and a voluminous inner nucleus.
endoplasm that the electron ect, ectoplasm; end, endoplasm; inc, inclusion; kar,
microscope has demonstrated to be karyosome; ln, linin network; nuc, nucleus; nm, nuclear
membrane; pc, peripheral chromatin; pm, plasma membrane.
very complex.

a. Ectoplasm

The ectoplasm, under the light microscope, appears more

transparent, less granular, and more homogeneous. It is covered
with plasma membrane that is like those found in all cells. It
functions in movement, respiration, procurement of food, discharge
of metabolic wastes, and protection.

The locomotory organelles of protozoa arise from the ectoplasm.

• Pseudopodia are temporary extensions of the ectoplasm
and are found in amoebas under the subphylum
Sarcodina.
• Flagella are long, slender, whiplike structures seen in
subphylum Mastigophora, thus collectively called the

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 flagellates. They may have one or more than one
flagellum, and these may be inserted into the cell at
different angles.
• Cilia, which are structurally similar to flagella but shorter
and covering the entire surface of the body, are seen in
phylum Ciliophora (ciliates).
• Undulating membrane is a lateral expansion of the
plasma membrane with a flagellar rim extending out like
a fin along the outer edge of the body of certain
flagellates.

Pseudopodia

Flagella

Cilia Undulating membrane

Note:
The parasites are NOT drawn to scale.

Protozoa in phylum Apicomplexa do not exhibit an obvious mode of mobility but can glide
nonetheless.

Food may be taken in at any place

Cytostome
in the cytoplasm or ingested at a
particular point.
• Pseudopodia in amoebas
function for feeding by
phagocytosis. Balantidium coli,
Cytopyge
• I n s o m e s p e c i e s , l i k e trophozoite.
Balantidium coli - a ciliate,
food passes directly into a specialized "cell mouth"
structure called cytostome which is located near the
anterior end of the body.

Similarly, excretion of undigested particles are discharged at the

general surface or through a specialized " cell anus", the cytopyge.

Certain protozoa at times enter an inactive cystic state, in which

they secrete a membranous cyst wall. It is necessary for the
protection and survival outside the body and against the acidic
digestive juices of the gastrointestinal tract.

b. Endoplasm

The endoplasm consists of a moderately dense granular

protoplasm that immediately surrounds the nucleus. It is principally

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 concerned with metabolism and nutrition, and storage of food.

The endoplasm contains the organelles mitochondria, Golgi

apparatus, microbodies, and endoplasmic reticulum.

It may also contain contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles, food

reserves, and foreign bodies.

• In some species, contractile

vacuoles act as
osmoregulators. Contractile
vacuoles
Freshwater protozoa are
hypertonic to their
Balantidium coli,
environment, so they imbibe trophozoite.
water continuously by
osmosis. Contractile vacuole collects excess water in
their cytoplasm and pumps them out of the cell.

• Some species maintain a reserve food supply such as

glycogen vacuole and chromatoidal bodies found in
some immature amoebic cysts.

Glycogen vacuole represents the main

storage form of glucose. In wet mount
preparation, they are demonstrated
by staining a brown color with iodine
solution.

Source: WHO Bench aids for the diagnosis

of intestinal parasites, second edition.

Chromatoidal bodies (or bars) are

dense structures which are made up of
crystalline RNA and RNA-binding
proteins.
Cyst of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar in an
unstained concentrated wet mount of stool.
Notice the chromatoid bodies with blunt,
rounded ends (arrow).
Source: CDC DPDx

• Endoplasm of some protozoa may

show food vacuoles or inclusions such
such as red blood cells , bacteria, or
other ingested materials.
Trophozoite of Entamoeba histolytica with
ingested erythrocytes (arrow), under
differential interference contrast (DIC)
microscopy.
Source: CDC DPDx

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 2. Nucleus

The nucleus contains the chromosomes that are essential for life,
reproduction, and genetic composition of the organism. It is bounded
externally by a well-defined nuclear membrane similar to that of most
eukaryotic cells.

There are two types of nucleus among the protozoa.

a. Vesicular nucleus is found in most

protozoa. It is characterized by an
irregular distribution of chromatin
materials that clear areas are apparent
in the nucleoplasm. The chromatin
granules may line the inner side of the
nuclear membrane forming the Tr o p h o z o i t e s o f E n t a m o e b a
histolytica with ingested erythrocytes
peripheral chromatin, or form a linin stained with trichrome. The ingested
network of fibrils radiating towards the erythrocytes appear as dark
inclusions.The parasites above show
periphery of the nucleus. Inside the nuclei that have the typical small,
nucleus is a single mass or aggregate of centrally located karyosome, and
dense chromatin, called the karyosome thin, uniform peripheral chromatin.
The space between the karyosome
(AKA endosome), which may be and the nuclear membrane is
located centrally or eccentrically, and traversed by a fine thread of linin
network having a "spokes wheel"
may be surrounded by chromatin arrangement
particles that appear to be arranged in Source: CDC DPDx.
an achromatic network.

b. Compact nucleus is found in a few

protozoa only, primarily in ciliates. The
chromatin granules are dense so that Macronucleus
Micronucleus
there are no clear areas of nucleoplasm Balantidium coli,
observed in light microscopy, although trophozoite.
present.

B. General Life Cycle of Protozoa

Although the life cycles of protozoa can vary a great deal, there are two
developmental stages commonly encountered in protozoa: (1) trophozoite, and
(2) cyst.

1. Trophozoites are the motile forms. They are the vegetative stage, i.e,
they have reproductive powers, and the feeding stage, some feeding
on host cells, thus are responsible for the pathogenic effects in the
host. However, they are delicate and do not survive long outside the
host.

2. Cysts are the resting, nonmotile stage of protozoa. They are bounded
by tough cell wall so they show considerable resistance in unfavorable
environment. Thus, the cyst is closely associated with transfer from host
to host and constitutes the infective stage of most of the protozoa.

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 In apicomplexans, the cystic form is an oocyst.

ENCYSTATION

Entamoeba histolytica Entamoeba

histolytica

Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia

EXCYSTATION

ENCYSTATION. The protozoa possess the property of being transformed from the
active trophozoite stage to an inactive cyst stage, losing its power of motility,
growth and reproduction, and enclosing itself in a tough wall.

Conditions favoring encystment, in most cases, involve some adverse

environmental events such as:
• nutritional deficiency
• desiccation
• pH or temperature changes
• increased tonicity
• decreased oxygen concentration
• overpopulation

EXCYSTATION. When the condition becomes favorable again, the organism

leaves the cyst stage and continues its life cycle in the trophozoite stage.

Mechanisms for excystation may include:

• absorption of water with consequent swelling of the cyst
• secretion of lytic enzymes by the protozoan
• action of host digestive enzymes on the cyst wall

Note, however, that both processes, encystation and excystation, occur only
within the host.
Trophozoites that are passed in feces during diarrhea, in unfavorable condition
outside the host, do NOT encyst but disintegrate, thus must be examined or
preserved within a short time after passage.
Cysts are passed in semi-formed or formed stool. Transference to another
susceptible host is required so that they can continue their life cycle and grow as
trophozoite stage.

B. Reproduction of Protozoa

Protozoan reproduction may be either asexual or sexual, or alternate the two

types in their life cycles.

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 1. Asexual reproduction

a. Binary fission

Most often asexual reproduction is by binary fission, in which one

individual divides into two of more or less equal parts. The plane of
fission is random in amoebas, longitudinal in flagellates, or
transverse in ciliates. Before division, all structures are duplicated.

b. Multiple fission

Multiple fission occurs in Apicomplexa, as in the malaria parasite in

the genus Plasmodium. In this type of division, the nucleus and
other essential organelles divide repeatedly followed by cytokinesis
(cytoplasmic division). Thus, a large number of daughter cells are
produced almost simultaneously.

A type of multiple fission is schizogony. Cells undergoing schizogony

are called schizonts or meronts. When the multiplication is
completed, the schizont ruptures and liberates daughter cells
called merozoites, to initiate another phase of merogony
(schizogony producing more asexually reproducing merozoites) or
to begin gametogony (gametocyte formation).

Alternation of generations in the life cycle of Apicomplexa

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 Another type of multiple fission often recognized is sporogony,
which is meiosis immediately after the union of gametes, The
products of sporogony, however, are sporozoites in resistant
oocysts.

2. Sexual reproduction

a. Syngamy

In this process, sexually differentiated cells, called gametes (female

macrogamete, and male microgamete) unite permanently and a
complete fusion of the nuclear material takes place. The resulting
product is then known as the zygote.

Cells that produce macrogametes and microgametes are the

gametocytes or gamonts formed by gametogony.

b. Conjugation

Conjugation, in which only the nuclei unite, is found only among

ciliates. A temporary union of two organisms occurs during which
time interchange of nuclear material takes place. Later on, the two
organisms separate, each being rejuvenated during the process,
although probably not essential for perpetuation of the species.

Elaborate

There are two major methods of transmission of protozoal infection: through ingestion of
the infective stage of the protozoa or via an arthropod vector. A few are transmitted by
sexual contact. The mode of transmission is specific for each species.

Protozoa, in contrast to worms, multiply in their hosts, so disease can result from infection
initiated by only a few organisms.

Pathologic changes are due to invasion and destruction of cells or tissues by the
parasite itself or its products. Tissue damage secondary to immune response, or
immunopathology, may occur. Generalized systemic symptoms, e.g., fever, and signs
like splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy are common. The early stage of infection
may be subclinical, or it may be severe, leading to death or into a chronic latent stage,
with relapses at times before eventual recovery.

The diagnosis of some diseases, e.g., malaria or leishmaniasis, may be strongly

suspected on clinical grounds from characteristic signs and symptoms. But clinical
impressions should always be confirmed by laboratory diagnosis that identified the
parasite in the specimen.

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 ✅ Evaluate

MLS 315: Exercise 2.1.

Name: _____________________________________________ Class Code No. ________________

Instructions: Match Column A to Column B. Write the letter of your answer on the space
before each number.

Column A Column B

______ 1. Transformation of a trophozoite stage into A. Conjugation

a cyst stage B. Gametogony
______ 2. In which one individual divides into two C. Syngamy
of more or less equal parts D. Sporogony
______ 3. Liberates daughter cells that are called E. Schizogony
merozoites F. Binary fission
______ 4. Permanent and complete fusion of male G. Multiple fission
and female gametes H. Zygote
______ 5. Interchange of nuclear material that takes I. Encystation
place among ciliates J. Excystation

✅ Evaluate

MLS 315L: Ex. No. 6a

Name: _____________________________________________ Class Code No. ________________

Instructions: Match Column A to Column B. Write the letter of your answer on the space
before each number.

Column A Column B

_____ 1. Extension of the ectoplasm that aid A. Flagella

amoeba in motility B. Pseudopodia
_____ 2. Lateral expansion of the plasma membrane C. Undulating membrane
associated with flagellum D. Peripheral chromatin
_____ 3. Specialized cell mouth found among the E. Karyosome
ciliates F. Glycogen vacuole
_____ 4. Dense cytoplasmic inclusions made up of G. Chromatoidal bodies
crystalline RNA and RNA-binding proteins H. Cytopyge
_____ 5. A mass of chromatin located within the I. Cytostome
nucleus of certain protozoa J. Cyst wall

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