Organisation of

Blood
Dr. Mark Tharao
Bsc. Anat (Hons), MBChB, MMed (Surg)
Consultant General Surgeon and Endoscopist
Part Time Lecturer, Dept. of Human Anatomy
Kenyatta University
Objectives
• Understand the structural and functional features of formed
elements of blood
• Relate the structure of formed elements to their function
• Familiarise with some of the conditions that may cause
abnormalities of the formed elements of blood
Introduction
• Specialised connective tissue composed of cells and a fluid
matrix
• Closed circulation system and flows in unidirectional regular
manner
• Has formed elements (cells), fibres and ground substance
• Liquid component of blood (Serum) lacks fibrinogen and
clotting factors
Functions of blood
• Transport
• Nutrients and oxygen to cells, CO2 and waste materilas away from
cells.
• Transports hormones and antibodies
• Protective
• Clotting mechanism prevents fluid loss
• White cells “fight out” foreign organisms and transformed cells
• Regulatory
• Regulates body pH via buffers dissolved in blood and amino acids
• Regulates water and salts with the kidney
• Regulates body temperature
Composition of Blood
• Formed elements
• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Plasma
• Water
• Proteins
• Other solutes
Erythrocytes
• Structural characteristics
• Have no nuclei and are biconcave discs, diameter of 7.8mm
• Are elastic and readily deform when passing through small
vessels
• Stain uniformly
• Under electron microscope, they show
• Devoid of organelles lost during maturation
• Interior consists of dense finely granular material
• Plasma membrane is enzyme rich and semi-permiable
• Has haemoglobin essential for gaseous exchange
• Significance of morphology and constitution
• Lack of nucleus means more space for haemoglobin but also
makes them unable to synthesis any material thus a limited
lifespan of 120 days.
• No mitochondria i.e. depend on anaerobic glycolysis and PPP
for energy
• Biconcave shape increases SA:Vol ratio for gaseous diffusion

• Functions
• Transport oxygen to cells and CO2 from cells
Clinical Disorders
• RBCs with diameter of >10mm (macrocytes) are found in
states of vitamin B12 and/or folate deficiency
• Diameters <6mm (microcytes) found in iron deficiency
anaemia. Abnormal variations are called anisocytosis.
• RBCs with less Hb than normal are hypochromic while those
with more are hyperchromic
• Iron deficiency causes microcytic hypochromic anaemia
• Howell-Jolly bodies – granules representing nuclear
fragments that remain after extrusion of the nucleus in some
disease states (damaged or absent spleen)
Leukocytes
• Classification
1. Based on cytoplasmic granules
• Granulocytes – Irregularly shaped nuclei and specific granules
in their cytoplasm. Three types:
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophiles
• Basophils
• Agranulocytes – Have a regular nuclei and lack granules
• Monocytes
• Lymphocytes
2. Based on nuclear morphology
• Polymorphonuclear
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Mononuclear
• Monocytes
• Lymphocytes
3. Based on their origin
• Myeloid – from bone marrow
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Lymphoid – from lymphoid organs
• Lymphocytes
Neutrophils
• Most abundant (60-70% of leucocytes)
• Develop in bone marrow

• Structural characteristics
• Presence of granules in cytoplasm
• Nucleus has 2-5 lobes connected by chromatin strands.
• Presence of microfilaments and microtubules
• Granules are membrane bound, of 2 types
• Azurophilic granules – Appear at promyelocyte stage and decrease
with maturation. Contain lysosomal enzymes and peroxidases
• Specific granules- Appear at myelocyte stage. Small, irregularly
shaped and contain alkaline phosphatase and bactericidal
phagocytins
• Functional characteristics
• Limited capacity for protein synthesis due to few RER and
ribosomes
• Mobility is related to microfilaments and microtubules
• Expansion and formation of filopodia on contact with solid
surface
• Phagocytic activity and intracellular digestion
• Few synthetic organelles
• Capable of both aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis thus can survive
in necrotic tissue

• Functions
• First line of defense especially against bacteria
• Phagocytose and enzymatically lyse the foreigners
• Disorders
• Increase in number (Neutrophilia) during acute bacterial infections
• Reduce in number (neutropenia) during marrow suppressive states
• Neutrophils with 5 lobes are hypersegmented, seen in anaemia
 Eosinophils
• Have large refractile granules that stain with eosin
• Slightly smaller than neutrophils. Few in number (1-4%)

• Structural characteristics
• Bilobed nucleus
• Numerous large eosinophilic granules
• Sparse membranous granules
• Granules are lysosomes with acid phosphatase , ribonucleus etc

• Functional characteristics
• Motility
• Reduced lifespan
• Reduced phagocytic activity for Ab-Ag complex.
• Contain fibrinolysin hence may play a role in preventing clotting
• Release lytic materials ontu parasite surfaces and sites of allergy
(histaminase), can neutrolise avtivity of histamin
• Functions
• Phagocytose antibody-antigen complexes
• Destroy parasites
• Prevent blood clotting

• Disorders
• Increased number (eosinophilia) seen in allergic reactions and
parasitic infestations
• Corticosteroids cause a rapid fall in number of circulating
eosinophils but no effect on marrow eosinophils
 Basophils
• Least in number of the WBCs (0-1%)
• Large granules stain with basic dyes
• Nucleus is irregular, S-shaped and obscured by many granules.
Nucleus is heterochromatic in periphery and euchromatic in the
centre
• Organelles are poorly disposed
• Granules contain heparin, histamines and SRS-A (slow reacting
substance of anaphylaxis)
• Related but not identical to mast cells

• Functions
• Major cell type in inflammatory site (cutaneous basophil
hypersensitivity)
• Disorders
• Basophilia, increase in basophil count. Seen in allergic reactions or
leukemia
Lymphocytes
• Functional units of the immune system
• There are small, medium and large lymphocytes.
Structural characteristics
• Small lymphocytes exhibit the following
• Intensely staining heterochromatic indented spherical nucleus
• Thin rim of cytoplasm
• Free ribosomes and few mitochondria
• Small dense lysosomes corresponding to azurophilic granules
• Sparse organelles
• Large and medium lymphocytes exhibit the following
• More abundant cytoplasm
• Lateral but less heterochromatic nucleus
• More developed golgi
• More mitochondria
• More polysomes
Functional Characteristics
• T-lymphocytes: thymic derived with a longer lifespan and involved
in cell mediated immunity
• B-lymphocytes: Variable life spans and involved in production of
antibodies
• B and T cells are indistinguishable morphologically
• In humans 70-80% are mature T cells and 10-15% are mature B cells
• About 5% are null lymphocytes believed to be stem cells
• Majority found in blood and lymph and can recognise and respond to
specific antigens
• There are 4 type of T lymphocytes
• Cytotoxic T cells or killer cells – Recognise cells with antigens e.g.
virus infected cells and kill them by lysis
• T-Helper cells – assist other T cells and B cells in their response and in
their immune reaction
• T-Suppressor cells – Suppress the activity of B cells. May play a role in
dampening response to foreign Ag and suppressing self-destruction
• T-Delayed hypersensitivity cells - found in lymphoid organs
Monocytes
• Largest of the WBCs
• Nucleus is horse-shoe shaped with 1-2 nucleoli
• Cytoplasmic features
• Numerous dense granules
• Well developed golgi apparatus and centrioles
• Smooth and rough ER
• Small mitochondria
• Many microvilli and pinocytic vessicles on the cell surface
• Microfilaments and microtubules near the indentation of the
nucleus
• Functional characteristics
• Precursors of the MPS, they’re rerouted from marrow to
tissues and differentiate in to various phagocytes
• They remain in blood for only 3 days

• Functions
• During inflammation, the leave vessels, transform to
macrophages and participate in phagocytosis
• Concentrate antigens and present to lymphocytes
 Platelets
• Enucleated disc like fragments originating from the budding of
megakaryocytes in bone marrow

Structural characteristics
• Appear in clumps
• Has a peripheral light zone (hyalomere) and a central dense zone
called granulomere
• Have a system of tubules and vessicles derived from invagination
of cell membrane
• Actin like microfilaments in hyalomere function to elaborate
filopodia during movt.
• Granulomere has a variety of membrane bound granules and
sparse mitochondria and glycogen. Two types of granules:
• Lysosomal
• Dense granules containing serotonin and ADP
Functional Correlates
• Following a rapture of a blood vessel
• Platelets release serotonin from the dense granules
• Serotonin causes vasoconstriction
• Platelets adhere to collagen exposed and with damaged
endothelial cells, release thromboplastin
• Thromboplastin converts prothrombin to thrombin
• Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
• Fibrin polymerises into a fibrillar matrix that traps other cells to
form a hemostatic plug
• Platelets release thrombosthenin, a contractile protein that
causes clot retraction and present to lyphocytes
Disorders
• Thrombocytopenia, a low platelet count. Associated with
excessive bleeding. Occurs in marrow suppressive states
• Thrombocytosis, too high a platelet count and may occur in
leukaemia
Summary
Questions???